Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

FUEL CELLS
Introduction:
In 1839, Sir William Grove discovered that when one side ends of two platinum electrodes are
immersed in sulphuric acid and other two ends in sealed containers of oxygen and hydrogen
would cause flow of current.
In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel
cell. During 1955-58, W. Thomas Grubb and Leonard Niedrach (General Electric Company)
further modified the original fuel cell design by
using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange
membrane as the electrolyte. A platinum rode onto
the membrane served as catalyst for the necessary
hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction
reactions. This became known as the "GrubbNiedrach fuel cell.
In 1959, Harry Ihrig and his coworkers built a
15 kW fuel cell tractor in which they used
Potassium hydroxide (KOH) as the electrolyte and
compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants.
Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues
demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt powering
unit for a welding machine. In 1960, Pratt and Whitney prepared fuel cell for the U.S. space
program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available
from the spacecraft tanks).
In 1960, the U.S. space programme chose fuel
cell over risky nuclear and; expensive-Bulky
solar cells. This generated serious interest in the
fuel cells.NASA used fuel cells for Apollo
mission and Space shuttle programme to supply
electricity and drinking water. Since When
NASA used fuel cells to generate power for

probes, satellites and space capsules, people

all over the world started using fuel cells in
many other applications for primary or back
power for commercial, industrial and
residential buildings and in remote areas, fuelcell vehicles, forklifts, automobiles, buses,
boats, motorcycles and submarines.
In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings. During these
years various scientists discovered new and better electrodes, electrolytes and reactants.
Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

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Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity through a
chemical reaction with oxygen or another oxidizing agent. Fuel cells require both hydrogen as
the fuel and oxygen (to complete the chemical conversion) from the atmosphere to operate.
Hydrogen produced from the steam, methane from the natural gas, alcohols like methanol are
used as fuel. A fuel cell requires continuous source of the fuel and oxygen (air) to sustain the
chemical reaction; because, chemicals react with each other to generate an electromotive force
(EMF) and hence, the fuel cell produce electricity continuously for as long as these inputs are
supplied.
All fuel cells consist of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte that allows charges to move
between two sides of the fuel cell. Electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through
an external circuit, producing direct current electricity.
An individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells
are "stacked", or placed in series, to increase the voltage and meet an application's
requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water, heat and, depending on the
fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. The energy efficiency
of a fuel cell is generally between 4060%, or up to 85% efficient in cogeneration if waste heat
is captured for use.
Basic structure and working function of a fuel cell:
The three basic segments of a fuel cell is anode,
electrolyte and cathode. Two chemical reactions occur
at the interfaces of three different segments. When
fuel is consumed and water or carbon dioxide is
created; and electricity generated is used to power
electrical devices referred to as the load.
At the anode, the catalyst oxidizes the fuel (Hydrogen)
it is turned into H + ion and an electron. Only positive
ions can pass through electrolyte and reach to the
cathode, while electrons can no t pass through it. The
freed electrons pass through a conducting wire
creating the electric current. The positive ions, on reaching cathode, reunited with the
electrons, react with oxygen and create water or carbon dioxide there.
The most important design features in a fuel cell are:
Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

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Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

The electrolyte substance: It usually defines the type of fuel cell.

The fuel: The most common fuel is hydrogen.
The anode catalyst: It breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst
is usually made up of very fine platinum powder.
The cathode catalyst: It turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon
dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a
nanomaterial-based catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load.
The power produced by a fuel cell depends on several factors, including the fuel cell type, size,
temperature at which it operates, and pressure at which gases are supplied. In a fuel cell,
Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors like Activation loss,Ohmic loss
(voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections) and Mass
transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of
voltage).
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel
circuits to yield higher voltage and parallel-channel of configurations allow a higher current to
be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. A single fuel cell produces hardly enough
voltage for even the smallest applications. To increase the voltage, individual fuel cells are
combined in series to form a stack. Depending on the application, a fuel cell stack may contain
only a few or as many as hundreds of individual cells layered together. The cell surface area
can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be
distributed uniformly over all of the cells to maximize the power output.
Important Terms used for Fuel Cells:
Anode: The electrode at which oxidation (a loss of electrons) takes place. For fuel cells
and other galvanic cells, the anode is the negative terminal; for electrolytic cells (where
electrolysis occurs), the anode is the positive terminal.
Catalyst: A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being
consumed; after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture
and is chemically unchanged. It lowers the activation energy required, allowing the
reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature. In a fuel cell, the catalyst is
usually platinum powder coated carbon paper or cloth which facilitates the reaction of
oxygen and hydrogen. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area
of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of
the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell.

Cathode: The electrode at which reduction (a gain of electrons) occurs. For fuel cells
and other galvanic cells, the cathode is the positive terminal; for electrolytic cells
(where electrolysis occurs), the cathode is the negative terminal.

Electrolyte: A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in
a fuel cell, battery, or electrolyzer.

Fuel Cell Stack: Individual fuel cells connected in a series. Fuel cells are stacked to
increase voltage.

Membrane: The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte (an ionexchanger) as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode
compartments of the fuel cell.

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 3 of 12

Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

How Do Fuel Cells Work?

A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte sandwiched between two electrodes, an anode and a
cathode. Bipolar plates on either side of the cell help distribute gases and serve as current
collectors. In a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cell, which is widely regarded as
the most promising for light-duty transportation, hydrogen gas flows through channels to the
anode, where a catalyst causes the hydrogen molecules to separate into protons and electrons.
The membrane allows only the protons to pass through it. While the protons are conducted
through the membrane to the other side of the cell, the stream of negatively-charged electrons
follows an external circuit to the cathode. This flow of electrons is electricity that can be used
to do work, such as power a motor.
On the other side of the cell, air flows through channels to the cathode. When the electrons
return from doing work, they react with oxygen in the air and the hydrogen protons (which
have moved through the membrane) at the cathode to form water. This union is an exothermic
reaction, generating heat that can be used outside the fuel cell.
Fuel cells directly convert the chemical energy in hydrogen to electricity, with pure water and
potentially useful heat as the only byproducts. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells are not only
pollution-free, but also can have more than two times the efficiency of traditional combustion
technologies.
Different Types of Fuel Cells:
There are several different types of fuel cells, each using different chemistry and mechanism.
Fuel cells are usually classified by their operating temperature and the type of electrolyte they
use. The main types of fuel cells include:
Polymer Electrolyte membrane (ProtonExchange Membrane) Fuel Cells (PEMFC):

Polymer electrolyte membrane full cell or Proton exchange membrane fuel cell incorporates a
water-based, acidic solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte. It has a platinum-based
Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 4 of 12

Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

catalyst on both electrodes. Protons (H+) are

transported from the anode to the cathode. The
PEMFC has a high power density. PEMFC
doesnt take long warm up time to generate
electricity because its operating temperature
range is low (60100 C).They are ideal for
vehicles. Their efficiency is about 40 50 %
above 175 .The cell output is about 50 to 250
kW.

Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC):

In the Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC), the electrolyte is
a solid, nonporous metal oxide or ceramic, typically
zirconium oxide (ZrO2) treated with Y2O3. Here,
O2ions are transported from the cathode to the anode.
In SOFCs precious metal catalyst is not necessary. It
can be run on hydrocarbon fuels such as methane. Any
CO in the reformate gas is oxidized to CO2 at the
anode. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are operated at
very high Temperatures (typically 8001,000 C).
(The steam produced by the fuel cell can be channeled
into turbines to generate more electricity.)However,
solid oxide fuel cells are very stable and they have the
longest operating life in continuous use. These fuel
cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power
generators that could provide electricity for factories
or towns. At nearly 1800 temperature, its efficiency
is about 60%. The cell output is about 100 kW.

Alkaline fuel cell (AFC):

in the alkaline fuel cell, the electrolyte is the alkaline
solution such as KOH dissolved in water. It is fuelled
with pure hydrogen and oxygen. Nickel is used as
catalyst. Its operating temperature is, generally, 70-80
.
Alkaline fuel cell offers high electrical efficiency.
Theseare the oldest type fuel cells were used by the
United States space program since the 1960s. The AFC
is very susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure
hydrogen and oxygen. However they produce electricity
and pure water. It is also very expensive, so this type of
fuel cell is unlikely to be commercialized.Its efficiency is
about 70%.
The cell output is about 300 W to 5 kW.

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 5 of 12

Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC):

A Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC) contains
an electrolyte of molten carbonate salt
suspended in a porous ceramic matrix.Itcan be
run on hydrocarbon fuels such as methane.
Carbonate ions (CO32) are transported from the
cathode to the anode. Here, a precious metal
catalyst is not necessary. Its Operating
temperature is typically high (650 C) so they
can generate steam that can be used to generate
more power. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells is
less expensive and best suited for large
stationary power generators.It has 60 80 %
efficiency above 1200. The cell output is
about 200 MW.
Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC):
In Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), the electrolyte
consists of concentrated phosphoric (H3PO4) acid in a
bonded carbide matrix. It contains a finely dispersed
platinum catalyst on carbon. Here, protons (H+) are
transported from the anode to the cathode. The operating
temperature range for PAFC is generally 160220 C; so,
they require longer warm up time. They are not suitable for
use in vehicles. Its Electrical efficiency is relatively low,
but overall efficiency can be over 80% if the heat is used.
PAFCs are useful for small stationary power-generation
systems(100 kW to 400 kW). It has 40 80 % efficiency
above 300 400 .
The cell output is about 200 kW.

Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC):

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 6 of 12

Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

In the direct methanol fuel cell, the electrolyte is a polymer membrane. It contains platinum-
ruthenium catalyst on the anode and a platinum catalyst on the cathode. It is operated at the
temperature range of 60 to 130 . This catalyst can draw hydrogen atoms from liquid
methanol, which is used as fuel instead of hydrogen, giving the cell its name. During the
electrochemical process, methanol is split into protons, electrons, and carbon dioxide at the
anode and then combines these protons and electrons with oxygen at the cathode to produce
water.DMFCs are convenient for portable power applications with outputs generally less than
250 W

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

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Engineering Physics

Fuel Cells

(G.T.U.Edition)

Comparison of different types of fuel cells. ( Only for information):

Fuel cell name

Electrolyte

Metal hydride fuel

cell
Electro-galvanic
fuel cell
Direct formic acid
fuel cell (DFAFC)
Zinc-air battery

Aqueousalkaline
solution
Aqueous alkaline
solution
Polymer membrane
(Ionomer)
Aqueous alkaline
solution
Polymer membrane

Microbial fuel cell

Up flow microbial
fuel cell (UMFC)
Regenerative fuel
cell
Direct borohydride
fuel cell
Alkaline fuel cell
Direct methanol
fuel cell
Reformed
methanol fuel cell
Direct-ethanol fuel
cell
Proton exchange
membrane fuel cell
RFC Redox

Phosphoric acid
fuel cell
Solid acid fuel cell

Qualified
power (W)

< 50 W

Efficiency
(cell)

Molten carbonate
fuel cell
Tubular solid oxide
fuel cell (TSOFC)
Protonic ceramic
fuel cell
Direct carbon fuel
cell
Planar Solid oxide O2--conducting ceramic
oxide
fuel cell
Any that will not
Enzymatic Biofuel
denature the enzyme
Cells
Salt water
Magnesium-Air
Fuel Cell

< 100 MW

Status

< 40

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Mass
production
Research

< 40

Research

< 50

Commercial /
Research
Commercial

< 40
< 40

Polymer membrane
(Ionomer)
Aqueous alkaline
solution
Aqueous alkaline
10 100 kW
solution
Polymer membrane
100 mW 1
(Ionomer)
kW
Polymer membrane
5 W 100 kW
(Ionomer)
Polymer membrane
< 140 mW/cm
(Ionomer)
Polymer membrane
100 W 500
(Ionomer)
kW
Liquid electrolytes with 1 kW 10 MW
redox shuttle and
polymer membrane
(Ionomer)
Molten phosphoric acid
< 10 MW
(H3PO4)
H+-conducting oxyanion 10 W - 1 kW
salt (solid acid)
Molten alkaline
100 MW
carbonate
O2--conducting ceramic
< 100 MW
oxide
H+-conducting ceramic
oxide
Several different

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

Working
temperature (C)
>20
(50% Peak @ 0 C)
< 40

70
< 80

6070%

90120

2030%
5060%

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Research

125250
> 25
90120
50220

5070%

Commercial /
Research
Research

150-200

55%

200-300

55-60%

600650

55%

8501100

6065%

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Research

700
700850

80%

5001100

6065%

< 40
20 to 55

90%

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research
Research
Commercial /
Research

Page 8 of 12

Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

Fuel Cells

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 9 of 12

Engineering Physics

Fuel Cells

(G.T.U.Edition)

What is the Advantages of a fuel cell over a battery cell:

A battery has two electrodes separated by an acid (some use a base), called an
electrolyte. This acid reacts with the electrode material spontaneously. Electrons are
released from the atoms at Electrode 1. When we hook up the light bulb to Electrode 2, the
electrons get pulled through the wire. The electrons do work for us.
The fuel cell won't run down as long as fuel (oxygen and hydrogen) is supplied; and the cell
will generate a voltage. The total amount of energy generated is determined by the amount of
oxygen and hydrogen you're carrying - not the size of the fuel cell. It wont need re-charging; it
can supply energy continuously. And finally, for NASA: the oxygen and hydrogen needed for
the fuel cell is already carried as rocket fuel...PLUS the by-product of the fuel cell reaction is
drinkable water!!
The comparison of a fuel cell and a battery:
A fuel cell is like a battery in that it generates electricity from an electrochemical reaction.
Both batteries and fuel cells convert chemical energy into electrical energy and also, as a byproduct of this process, into heat.
Battery

Fuel Cell

A battery is a closed storage of energy within it

and once when it is depleted it should be
discarded or recharged by external electrical
energy.

A fuel cell is not a closed storage of energy within

it. It will continue to produce power as long as it
has a constant supply of fuel and oxygen.

A battery is an internal supply of chemical energy

and cannot run indefinitely; it works till the
electrodes dissolved.

A fuel cell uses an external supply of chemical

energy and can run indefinitely, as long as it is
supplied with a source of hydrogen and a source
of oxygen (air).

A battery may go dead or needs re-charging.

A fuel cell never "goes dead" and never needs

recharging

The electrodes dissolve in the chemical

reaction. When theyre gone, the battery is dead.

The electrodes are not consumed: As long as fuel

is supplied, the cell will generate a voltage. It
wont run down.

The amount of energy the battery supplies is

determined by the amount of chemicals in the
battery

The amount of energy is determined by the

amount of gas reactants.

In some cases (re-chargeable batteries), the

chemicals can be restored by reversing the current
and restoring the original chemicals.

It can supply energy continuously.

Applications of Fuel Cells:

The fuel cells operate quietly, have fewer moving parts,
and are well suited to a variety of applications. A fuel cell
Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

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Engineering Physics

(G.T.U.Edition)

Fuel Cells

provides a DC (direct current) voltage that can be used to power motors, lights or any number
of electrical appliances.
Stationary fuel cells can be used for backup
power, power for remote locations,
distributed power generation, and
cogeneration (in which excess heat released
during electricity generation is used for
other applications).Fuel cells can power
almost any portable application that
typically uses batteries, from hand-held
devices to portable generators. Fuel cells
can also power our transportation, including
personal vehicles, trucks, buses, marine
vessels, and other specialty vehicles such as
lift trucks and ground support equipment, as well as provide auxiliary power to traditional
transportation technologies. Hydrogen can play a particularly important role in the future by replacing the imported petroleum we currently
use in our cars and trucks.

Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and

residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells
are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as
spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks,
communications centers, rural locations including research
stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell
system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight,
and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no
Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 11 of 12

Engineering Physics

Fuel Cells

(G.T.U.Edition)

moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to
99.9999% reliability.
Fuel cell stack is used to provide power to the submarine.
Fuel cells are used in vehicles and
automobiles. Recently, fuel cell
powered bike, fuel cell bus and fuel cell
car-hydrogen car are very much
admired and accepted in many
countries. A fuel cell forklift (lift truck)
is also launched. Introductory model of
fuel cell powered airplanes and boats
are prepared.

Fuel cell staked portable power generator systems are used in household, industrial,
entertainment and military sectors.

The Common Chemical reactionfor all fuel cells :

The common chemical reaction in, generally all, fuel cells is...
Hydrogen energy + Oxygen energy

Fuel Cell

Electricity + Heat + Water.

Exercise:
1) Define Fuel Cells.
2) Differentiate Fuel cells and Battery.
3) Mention the chemical reaction occur the fuel cells.
4) What is fuel cell? Discuss about fuel cells in detail.
5) Explain the basic structure and working of a fuel cell in general?
6) Name different types of fuel cells.
7) Write the function of Anode, Cathode, Catalyst, Membrane and Electrolyte in a fuel
cell.
8) What is fuel cell stake? How do they useful?
9) Compare the important parameters of different types of fuel cells.
10) Write a short note on the applications of fuel cells.
11) What are the advantages of fuel cell over battery?

Alkeshkumar Gandhi

B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc.(Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics )

Page 12 of 12