LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/lwt

Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded

whole grain sorghum breakfast cereals
Nyambe L. Mkandawire a, b, Steven A. Weier c, Curtis L. Weller a, d, David S. Jackson a, e,
Devin J. Rose a, *
a

Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
The Food Processing Center, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
d
Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
e
Agricultural Research Division, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
b
c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 25 August 2014
Received in revised form
15 December 2014
Accepted 24 December 2014
Available online xxx

Two sorghum genotypes (red, tannin; white, non-tannin), were evaluated for their potential use in
breakfast cereals. Two levels of whole grain sorghum our (550 g/kg dry mix or 700 g/kg dry mix) were
processed per genotype using a pilot-scale, twin screw extruder. A whole grain oat-based cereal was used
as a reference. White sorghum cereals (WSC) had signicantly (p < 0.05) higher starch, brightness (L*),
and yellowness (b*) than red sorghum cereals (RSC). RSC had higher protein and bulk density than the
WSC. Cereals made with 700 g sorghum our/kg were smaller and denser with lower water solubility
and absorption indices than those made with 550 g/kg. In vitro protein digestibility of the RSC (43e58%)
was signicantly reduced compared with the WSC (69e73%) and the reference sample (72%). WSC with
700 g sorghum our/kg contained signicantly more resistant starch than the RSC cereals and the oat
reference (208 g/kg starch versus 81e147 g/kg starch, respectively). Overall acceptability and texture of
sorghum cereals did not differ signicantly from the oat reference, although appearance and aroma
liking were signicantly reduced. Therefore, non-tannin sorghum has potential to be used in the
breakfast cereal industry with minimal impact on nutritional prole and sensory properties.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Tannins
Extrusion
Protein
Resistant starch

1. Introduction
When used as human food, sorghum has traditionally been
consumed as porridge, atbread, couscous, and alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages (Murty & Kumar, 1995). Sorghum has not been
widely used in the production of ready-to-eat (RTE) breakfast cereals, despite a similar chemical composition to grains that are
typically used for RTE cereals, such as maize, oats, rice, and wheat
(Serna-Saldivar & Rooney, 1995; Welch, 2011).
Part of the lack of acceptance of sorghum-based foods in the
industry is that they are perceived as a nutritionally inferior crop.
For instance, sorghum has long been recognized as having poor
protein digestibility. Kurien, Narayanarao, Swaminathan, and
Subrahmanyan (1960) compared digestibility of sorghum and rice

* Corresponding author. 143 Food Industry Complex, Lincoln, NE 68583 USA.

Tel.: 1 402 472 2802.
E-mail address: drose3@unl.edu (D.J. Rose).

proteins in boys (10e11 y) in India. They found that sorghum

proteins were only 55% digestible compared with 75% for rice
proteins. The tannin-containing varieties have shown even poorer
protein digestibility (Arbab & El Tinay, 1997). However, digestibility
of sorghum proteins varies widely among genotypes (Kaufman,
Herald, Bean, Wilson, & Tuinstra, 2013; Mertz et al., 1984; Moraes
et al., 2012) and is probably a function of many factors including
physical structure of the grain, protein body architecture, protein
cross-linking, and phenolic content and composition of the grain
(Lemilioglu-Austin, 2014). Many have also reported reduced starch
digestibility in sorghum grains (Rooney & Pugfelder, 1986; Zhang
& Hamaker, 1998), which may be attributed to physical limitations
related to protein cross linking or tannin binding to starchdegrading enzymes (Taylor & Emmambux, 2010).
While reduced digestibility is usually viewed as a negative
attribute, in countries where obesity is a health concern poor digestibility could be an attractive property due to lower caloric recovery from foods made from sorghum (Awika & Rooney, 2004).
Moreover, reduced starch digestibility could lead to attenuation of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051
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Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051

N.L. Mkandawire et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

the glycemic response, which is associated with reduced risk of

metabolic disease (Zhang & Hamaker, 2009). If digestibility of
starch is further limited, some of the starch may become resistant
starch (RS), which is a type of dietary ber that may be associated
with prevention or control of colon cancer, diabetes, and obesity
(Birt et al., 2013).
Sorghum may also be attractive for use in gluten-free foods,
which is an important food trend given the concerns with increases
in Celiac disease and non-Celiac gluten sensitivity (LemiliogluAustin, 2014). Some genotypes also contain tannins, which are
bioactive compounds that could attract consumers interested in
functional foods (Dlamini, Taylor, & Rooney, 2007).
Unfortunately, food products made with sorghum can be of
inferior sensory quality in comparison with products made with
other grains (Khan, Yousif, Johnson, & Gamlath, 2014; Rose,
Williams, Mkandawire, Weller, & Jackson, 2014). Additionally, sorghum genotypes that contain tannins have been reported as bitter
and astringent (Kobue-Lekalake, Taylor, & de Kock, 2007).
However, a few research trials have reported sensory properties
of RTE cereals produced from sorghum and found them to be well
liked by consumers. For example, Shin (1986) produced a whole
grain sorghum-based aked cereal containing (per kg): 920 g sorghum our, 70 g sucrose, and 10 g sodium chloride. They compared
these akes with wheat bran akes (Kellogg's, Battle Creek, MI
USA) and found that the avor liking of the two types of akes were
not signicantly different, but the sorghum akes had signicantly
better texture than the wheat bran akes. Celis, Rooney, and
McDonough (1996) created a granola-type sorghum cereal containing (per kg): 399 g aked sorghum, 310 g sorghum molasses,
63 g water, 63 g vegetable oil, 40 g sesame seeds, 40 g sunower
seeds, 40 g raisins, 32 g wheat bran, and 32 g fructose. This was
compared with a granola made with rolled oats instead of aked
sorghum. Panelists liked the granola made from whole grain waxy
sorghum better than rolled oats. Devi, Shobha, Tang, Shaur, and
Alavi (2013) created extruded sorghum/corn cereals containing
added protein. They reported that adding whey protein isolate and
defatted soy our to a sorghum/corn our base improved sensory
properties of the extruded cereal.
Other studies have reported the physicochemical properties of
sorghum-containing extrudates. Dlamini et al. (2007) produced
extruded sorghum cereals from tannin-containing and non-tannin
sorghum. The cereals produced from tannin-containing sorghum

rzano, Carvalho,
possessed high antioxidant activity. Vargas-Solo
Takeiti, Ascheri, and Queiroz (2014) reported that pericarp color
(white, red, and brown) affect the die pressure during extrusion, as
well as sectional expansion index and water absorption index
(WAI) of the extrudates.
Previous studies have not reported compositional, in vitro digestibility, and sensory properties on an extruded RTE cereal containing whole grain tannin and non-tannin sorghums. Thus, the
objective of this study was to produce extruded breakfast cereals
from tannin-containing and non-tannin, whole grain sorghum
our and determine how percent of sorghum our and type affect
chemical and physical composition, in vitro digestibility of starch
and protein, and sensory acceptability. This could increase utilization of sorghum in the human food industry.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Sorghum samples
Two sorghum genotypes were used in this study: Macia (white,
non-tannin) and SC1351C (red, tannin-containing). These samples
were kindly donated by the Nebraska Foundation Seed Division
(University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE USA). The kernels were

cleaned and separated by sieving in a vibratory energy separator

(Model LS18S3333P3, Sweco Vibro-Energy Separator, Florence, KY
USA). The separator was installed with US mesh sizes 5 (4.0 mm
opening), 6 (3.4 mm opening) and 10 (2.0 mm opening). Grain
passing though screen number 5 but not screen number 6
(>3.4 mm and <4.0 mm) was retained for analysis and milling.
Screening was accomplished to remove debris and broken kernels.
Cleaned grain was milled by passing sorghum four times through a
hammer mill (Model 20SSHMBD, C.S. Bell Co., Tifn, OH USA)
equipped with a 0.7 mm screen. Total starch (approved method 7613), ash (08-01), crude lipid (30-10), protein (46-30), moisture (4419) and dietary ber (32-25) were determined on the whole grain
our using standard methods (American Association of Cereal
Chemists, 2000). To determine free glucose and sucrose, 50 mg of
sample was weighed into a tube and 1 mL of water was added
followed by extraction for 1 h at 80  C with occasional vortex
mixing. The sample was then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 10 min
and free glucose and sucrose were determined in the aqueous
extract using an assay kit (K-SUCGL, Megazyme, Bray, Ireland).
Tannins were quantied using the vanillin/HCl method (Price, Van
Soyoc, & Butler, 1978). Color was measured using a colorimeter
(Model CR-300, Minolta, Ramsey, NJ USA).
2.2. RTE cereal production
Extruded, ring-shaped, RTE cereals containing whole grain
sorghum were produced in The Food Processing Center's extrusion
pilot plant located at the University of Nebraska (Lincoln, NE USA).
Dry mixes contained whole grain sorghum our at two levels. The
rst, designated lower (L) sorghum, contained (per kg): 550 g
whole grain sorghum our, 360 g degerminated yellow corn our
(Agricor, Marion, IN USA), 80 g sucrose, and 10 g sodium chloride.
The second, designated higher (H) sorghum, contained (per kg):
700 g whole grain sorghum our, 210 g degerminated yellow corn
our, 80 g sucrose, and 10 g sodium chloride. Cereal samples made
from white sorghum our were designated white sorghum cereal
(WSC) and cereals made from red sorghum our were designated
red sorghum cereal (RSC), followed by the L or H designation. Thus,
cereals were WSC_L, WSC_H, RSC_L, RSC_H depending on the type
of sorghum our and level of sorghum our used in the
formulation.
Ingredients were mixed thoroughly for 5 min in a ribbon
blender (Model 61001-000, Wenger, Sabetha, KS USA). Seventy kg/
h dry mix was then delivered through a gravimetric feeder to a TX57 (57 mm diameter screw, 13.5 L/D ratio) co-rotating twin screw
pilot scale extruder (Wenger) equipped with a preconditioner. The
preconditioner section of the extrusion system was only used to
convey the ingredient blend to the extruder inlet; the preconditioner shaft speed was 265 rpm with an ambient discharge temperature (ca. 24  C). The extruder shaft speed was 301 rpm and the
water ow to the extruder was 6.2 kg/h; the jacketed extruder
heads (sections) were set at 50  C (rst head), 90  C (second head),
and 110  C (third head). The die conguration consisted of a twohole insert holder die with an O-ring style insert centered over
each shaft. The O-ring inserts consisted of a ring orice with a
4.8 mm hole (outside diameter) and 1.5 mm pin (inside diameter).
The extrudate, immediately upon exiting the die, was cut to desired
length using a shaft mounted high speed rotating knife assembly.
The speed of the knife was modied as needed for each formulation
to maintain a desirable ring shaped cereal piece. Following extrusion, the cereal pieces were pneumatically conveyed to a gas red
belt conveyor dryer (Model 41357-011, Wenger). Sample pieces
were conveyed to the dryer only after visual inspection of the
expanded pieces off the extruder die yielded a uniform product.
The single zone, two pass dryer temperature was 100  C and the

Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051

N.L. Mkandawire et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

retention time was 3 min for each pass (total dryer retention time of
6 min). Dry cereal pieces at about 30 g water per kg cereal (wet
basis) exiting the dryer were conveyed through a 4 m cooling
conveyor (ca. 1 min) to cool the cereal to ambient temperature
before packaging. Samples were packaged in polyethylene bags and
stored at room temperature.
All cereals were compared against a commercially-available
whole grain oat-based RTE cereal (Cheerios, General Mills, Minneapolis, MN USA), designated oat reference (OAT_R). Although the
production techniques were different for this commercial sample
compared to those used for the sorghum cereal, it was included as a
familiar reference sample to what is an established and successful
whole grain RTE breakfast cereal available on the market.
2.3. Analysis of cereals
Bulk density was calculated by weighing the quantity of cereal
pieces required to ll a level quart cup (Seedburo, Chicago, IL USA).
Cereal ring dimensions were measured using digital calipers
(Model CD-600 CSX, Mitutoyo, Tokyo, Japan). Twenty pieces of cereal
were randomly selected from each treatment set. Two outerdiameter measurements were taken perpendicular to each other
and designated as major and minor axes depending on length
(Miller, Jeong, & Maningat, 2011). To determine elongation, the
ratio of the major axis to the minor axis was calculated.
Samples of the cereals from each treatment were milled through
a cyclone mill equipped with a 1 mm screen (Model 4425, UDY, Fort
Collins, CO, USA) for additional analyses. Moisture, ash, lipids,
starch, sucrose, free glucose, dietary ber, protein, tannins, and
color, were determined using the methods described for the our
(Section 2.1). Water solubility index (WSI) and WAI were determined as described by Peplinski and Pfeifer (1970) with modications. A ground sample (2.5 g) was extracted with 30 mL of distilled
water for 30 min at 30  C with intermittent stirring. The samples
were then centrifuged at 5000 g for 10 min. Water soluble solids
were determined by carefully decanting the supernatant liquid into
a pre-weighed evaporating dish and drying at 103  C for 12 h. The
WSI was expressed as the weight of soluble solids recovered by
evaporating the supernatant liquid divided by the total weight of
supernatant liquid. The remaining gel was weighed and WAI was
expressed as kg gel/kg dry sample.
2.4. In vitro protein and starch digestibility
Milled cereals were analyzed for in vitro protein and starch digestibility. In vitro protein digestibility was determined using the
pepsin digestibility assay developed by Mertz et al. (1984) with
some modications. Briey, 400 mg of sample was suspended in
70 mL of a solution of pepsin (P-6887, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO
USA; 1.5 mg/mL) dissolved in 0.1 mol/L sodium phosphate buffer
(pH 2.0) and incubated with magnetic stirring at 37  C for 2 h. After
incubation, the mixture was neutralized with the addition of 3 mL
of 2 mol/L NaOH and then centrifuged (4200 g for 10 min). The
supernatant was discarded and the residue was washed and
centrifuged with 20 mL of 0.1 mol/L sodium phosphate buffer (pH
7.0). The washed residue was then dried overnight at 50  C and
analyzed for nitrogen content using combustion (FP528 nitrogen/
protein determinator, LECO, St. Joseph, MI USA). The percent protein digestibility was calculated using the following equation: %
digestibility [(initial N in sample e residual N)/initial N in
sample]  100%.
In vitro starch digestion was assayed as described (Mkandawire
et al., 2013). Starch digestion was divided into 3 fractions: rapidly
digestible starch (RDS), which was converted to glucose in the rst
20 min; slowly digestible starch (SDS), which was converted to

glucose between 20 and 120 min of digestion; and resistant starch

(RS), which was the fraction of starch that was not converted to
glucose after 2 h of digestion. Results were expressed as a percentage of the total starch in the sample.
2.5. Sensory evaluation
A pilot consumer panel consisting of 50 people (52% male 48%
female) from University of Nebraska-Lincoln and surrounding areas
participated in this sensory test. Panelists responded to email invitations that were sent out and iers that were posted on campus.
Consumers were asked to evaluate overall acceptability, appearance, aroma, avor, and aftertaste of each of the breakfast cereals.
Samples were served dry (without milk) in plastic 59 mL serving
cups monoadiacally in separate evaluation booths in one session.
Sensory attributes were evaluated using a 9-point hedonic rating
scale (1 dislike extremely, and 9 like extremely). Panelists gave
responses on touch screens and data were collected using
SIMMS2000 software (Morristown, NJ USA). This panel was
approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of
Nebraska-Lincoln (approval number: 20110711857 EP), and written
informed consent was obtained from all subjects.
2.6. Data analysis
Data were analyzed using statistical software (SAS version 9.2,
SAS Institute, Cary, NC) with a general linear model analysis of
variance (PROC GLM). For the compositional and digestibility data,
a one-way ANOVA model was used. For the sensory data a two-way
ANOVA model with sample and panelist as the factors was used.
Fisher's least signicance difference (LSD) test was used to make
pairwise comparisons of means within factors shown to have signicant differences. Differences were dened as signicant when
p < 0.05.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Raw materials
The characteristics of the sorghum were typical of those reported previously (Table 1; Serna-Saldivar & Rooney, 1995). Whole
grain white sorghum our had signicantly less ash, protein and
lipids and more sucrose and free glucose than whole grain red
sorghum our. The red sorghum our had condensed tannins while
the white variety had no detectable condensed tannins.

Table 1
Composition of whole grain sorghum our used in extruded ready-to-eat cereal
formulations.
Component

Macia (white)

SC1351C (red)

Ash (g/kg, db)

Lipids (g/kg, db)
Starch (g/kg, db)
Sucrose (g/kg, db)
Free glucose (g/kg, db)
Dietary ber (g/kg, db)
Protein (g/kg, db)
Condensed tannins (g/kg, db)
Lightness/darkness (L*)
Redness/greenness (a*)
Yellowness/blueness (b*)

19 0b
34 2a
644 3
6.2 0.2a
0.8 0.0a
163 9
103 1b
nd
84.8 01a
0.4 0.0b
10.8 0.1a

23
41
601
2.8
0.4
149
115
15.7
82.2
6.3
3.8

0a
1b
2
0.1b
0.0b
1
1a
1.1
0.2b
0.0a
0.1b

Results are presented as mean SD (n  2); means in the same row followed by a
different superscript letter are signicantly different (p < 0.05); db, dry basis; nd, not
detected.

Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051

N.L. Mkandawire et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

3.2. RTE cereal properties

WSC had signicantly higher starch content, brightness (L*), and
yellowness (b*) compared with RSC (Table 2), while RSC had higher
protein, redness (a*), and bulk density. RSC contained tannins while
the WSC did not. Interestingly, the tannin content of the RSC
appeared very low compared with the starting grain. For example,
by calculation, the RSC_L cereal should have contained about 8.5 g
tannins/kg (15.7 g/kg*0.55). However, only 0.9 g tannins/kg were
found in this sample. This represents >90% reduction in tannins
during extrusion. A similar reduction was found in the RSC_H.
Dramatic decreases in tannins were reported previously during
extrusion cooking (Dlamini et al., 2007). This could be due to heatinduced degradation of tannins in the extruder, although more
likely is that extrusion facilitated the formation of insoluble tanninprotein complexes (Emmambux & Taylor, 2003).
The higher whole grain sorghum our cereals showed higher
bulk density in comparison with their lower sorghum counterparts
(Table 2). This was associated with smaller piece size in the RSC
with no change in piece elongation. This was probably due to the
expansion limiting effects of dietary ber in the higher sorghum
cereals (Camire, Camire, & Krumhar, 1990). Other factors that
increased as whole grain sorghum our added increased included
protein and redness (a*), which is consistent with the our
compositional data (Table 1).
WSI and WAI decreased with increased sorghum our in the
formulation (Table 2). A decrease in WSI indicates lower starch
ci & Go
g
s, 2008). Starch in corn our is more
conversion (Yag
sensitive to molecular degradation than other cereal starches
(Mezreb, Goullieux, Ralainirina, & Queneudec, 2006), which could
explain the decrease in WSI and WAI as sorghum our increased
(corn our decreased). WAI is related to the porosity of the extrudate; reduced WAI reects restricted water or liquid accessibility of
ci & Go
g
s,
extruded starches as a result of a compact structure (Yag
2008). The decrease in WAI with higher sorghum our formulations is consistent with lower starch conversion and higher bulk
density.
The type of sorghum used did not appear to affect WSI or WAI

rzano et al. (2014) reported a slight, and in
(Table 2). Vargas-Solo
some cases non-signicant, increase in WAI in red sorghum
extrudates compared with white. The lack of a difference in the
present study may be due to different genotypes used or different

processing conditions. Our results are consistent with Vargas
rzano et al. (2014) in suggesting that tannins do not affect
Solo
WSI or WAI.
The OAT_R had signicantly higher ash, protein, lipid, bulk
density and WAI but had lower starch content and WSI compared
to the sorghum cereals (Table 2). While comparisons between the
sorghum cereals and the OAT_R were made, it is important to note
that the OAT_R was formulated and processed differently from the
sorghum samples.
3.3. In vitro protein digestibility
RSC showed impaired protein digestibilities compared with
OAT_R and the WSC (Fig. 1). Additionally, higher sorghum our in
the RSC formulations resulted in lower protein digestibility. In
contrast to the RSC, the WSC showed protein digestibilities similar
to the OAT_R.
Sorghum proteins are known for their low protein digestibility
compared with other cereals (Mertz et al., 1984). The low protein
digestibility of the RSC is probably due to the inhibitory effects of
tannins, which have been well documented (Duodu, Taylor, Belton,
& Hamaker, 2002). It is noteworthy that the WSC had similar digestibility to the OAT_R sample, since many non-tannin sorghum
varieties still have poor protein digestibility (Duodu et al., 2002;
Mertz et al., 1984).
One unusual property of sorghum proteins is that digestibility
often decreases upon cooking in excess water (Hamaker, Kirleis,
Mertz, & Axtell, 1986). However, the present results support high
digestibility of sorghum protein after extrusion in the WSC, and
previous reports have shown that extrusion of sorghum increases
protein digestibility (Fapojuwo, Maga, & Jansen, 1987; Mertz et al.,
1984). Therefore the limited water and rapid processing time in
extrusion may avert the detrimental effects of cooking on sorghum
protein digestion.
3.4. In vitro starch digestibility
All samples showed similar RDS (Fig. 2). High starch digestibility
of extruded whole grain cereals has been reported previously
(Hernot, Boileau, Bauer, Swanson, & Fahey, 2008). Subtle differences were noted for the SDS and RS fractions among samples. In
general, WSC contained more RS, which was accounted for by a

Table 2
Chemical and physical characteristics of extruded ready-to-eat cereals.
Component

OAT_R

WSC_L

WSC_H

RSC_L

RSC_H

Moisture (g/kg, wb)

Ash (g/kg, db)
Lipids (g/kg, db)
Starch (g/kg, db)
Sucrose (g/kg, db)
Free glucose (g/kg, db)
Dietary ber (g/kg, db)
Protein (g/kg, db)
Condensed tannins (g/kg, db)
Lightness/darkness (L*)
Redness/greenness (a*)
Yellowness/blueness (b*)
Bulk density (kg/m3)
Major axis length (mm)
Minor axis length (mm)
Elongation
WSI (g/kg)
WAI (kg/kg)

35.9 1.1a
45.0 0.0a
25.2 1.2a
549 13d
40.9 1.9b
1.1 0.7c
95.7 3.3
122 0a
nd
91.2 0.8b
1.51 0.17c
7.62 0.44a
132 1b
12.4 0.5a
11.5 0.3a
1.08 0.04
119 8c
5.30 0.05a

27.4 0.7c
21 0b
2.3 0.3c
712 8a
81.9 0.6a
4.4 1.4a
76.9 7.2
70.3 0.2e
nd
96.2 0.2a
0.36 0.07e
3.96 0.38b
101 1e
11.6 0.5b
11.2 0.3b
1.05 0.05
181 5a
4.66 0.02b

31.7 4.6b
22 0b
2.3 0.1c
680 2b
84.4 2.4a
3.1 0.1ab
89.4 0.7
78.8 0.5d
nd
95.7 0.5a
0.20 0.18d
2.92 0.76c
121 1c
11.4 0.4b
10.7 0.5b
1.04 0.05
149 3b
4.25 0.04c

23.9 0.1c
19 0bc
2.8 0.1c
662 1b
81.7 0.2a
2.9 0.1b
90.9 0.3
79.7 0.1c
0.902 0.065b
81.9 0.8c
7.47 0.10b
0.24 0.17d
109 1d
11.1 0.4b
10.5 0.4b
1.06 0.04
179 0a
4.48 0.04b

32.7
21
5.0
631
84.5
2.2
93.1
88.2
1.93
75.5
8.68
0.52
138
10.4
9.92
1.04
156
4.08

0.0ab
0b
0.5b
16c
0.3a
0.1bc
0.5
0.4b
0.51a
0.8d
0.08a
0.14d
0a
0.4c
0.31c
0.05
3b
0.25c

Results are presented as mean SD (n  2); means in the same row followed by a different superscript letter are signicantly different (p < 0.05); oat reference cereal (OAT_R);
white sorghum cereal (WSC); red sorghum cereal (RSC); 550 g sorghum our/kg (L); 700 g sorghum our/kg (H); db, dry basis; nd, not detected; WSI, water solubility index;
WAI, water absorption index.

Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051

N.L. Mkandawire et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

3.5. Sensory evaluation

Fig. 1. In vitro protein digestibility of extruded ready-to-eat cereals. Error bars show SD
(n 2); bars marked with different letters are signicantly different (p < 0.05); oat
reference cereal (OAT_R); white sorghum cereal (WSC); red sorghum cereal (RSC);
550 g sorghum our/kg (L); 700 g sorghum our/kg (H).

reduction in SDS. WSC_H in particular contained more RS than the

OAT_R and both RSC. Hernot et al. (2008) reported the RS content of
extruded whole grain cereals (barley, corn, oats, rice, and wheat).
The RS content of these cereals ranged from 69 g to 127 g RS/100 g
starch. The WSC_H contained more RS (208 g/100 g starch) than
any of these whole grain cereals.
The increased RS in the WSC_H may impart a benecial effect on
gut health (Laandra, Riccardi, & Shewry, 2014). In particular, RS
results in benecial shifts in the composition of the gut microbiota
(Martnez, Kim, Duffy, Schlegel, & Walter, 2010). Furthermore, RS
results in high production of butyrate via microbial fermentation
(Lesmes, Beards, Gibson, Tuohy, & Shimoni, 2008). Butyrate exhibits many tropic effects on the host, including immune modulation, cell differentiation and proliferation, and enhanced gut barrier
function (Peng, Li, Green, Holzman, & Lin, 2009).
Notably, there were no pronounced effects of tannins on starch
digestibility, i.e., the RSC did not show decreases in starch digestibility compared with the WSC (Fig. 2). Previous reports with
tannin-containing sorghum bran/endosperm mixtures and tannin
extracts have shown that tannins can decrease starch digestibility
under some conditions (Austin, Turner, McDonough, & Rooney,
2012; Barros, Awika, & Rooney, 2012), although our previous results have shown that tannin content does not explain variation in
starch digestibility in cooked whole grain sorghum (Mkandawire
et al., 2013).

The overall acceptability of sorghum RTE cereals corresponded

to like slightly on the hedonic scale (Table 3). The sorghum cereals
scored signicantly lower than the OAT_R for appearance and
aroma liking. However, avor was not signicantly different from
the OAT_R for all sorghum cereals except RSC_H. The appearance of
RSC was preferred over WSC (p 0.002), but the avor of WSC was
liked more than RSC (p 0.003). No signicant differences were
found for cereals containing 700 g sorghum our/kg compared
with those containing 550 g/kg.
This was a pilot consumer panel with only 50 panelists. Conducting a larger-scale consumer panel may yield more signicant
differences due to higher power. Additionally, descriptive studies
should be conducted in conjunction with the larger-scale consumer
trials to identify particular attributes that lead to improvement in
the sensory properties of sorghum cereals.
In a conjoint analysis on potential sorghum food products,
V

azquez-Arajo, Chambers, Cherdchu, 2012 reported that most
respondents indicated that similar sensory characteristics to current products is important. In this study, although some subtle
differences in sensory properties were noted, the sorghum cereals
were at least similar to the commercial reference sample. Moreover, the most important sensory characteristic identied in
V

azquez-Arajo et al. (2012) for breakfast cerealdtexturedwas not
signicantly different among any of the sample pieces in this study.
Importantly, this sensory panel was conducted without milk.
Although RTE ring-shaped extruded cereals, such as OAT_R, are
commonly consumed without milk, it is more common to consume
these cereals with milk. The textural properties of sorghum cereals
may be very different from the OAT_R in milk, although this was not
addressed in this study.

4. Conclusions
In vitro digestibility of protein and some sensory properties
were signicantly negatively impacted by the use of tannincontaining red sorghum our in RTE cereals. In contrast, the use
of non-tannin white sorghum our in RTE cereals resulted in cereals with similar protein digestibility and sensory properties. The
cereals containing 700 g white sorghum our/kg also contained
more RS than a commercial RTE oat cereal. These results suggest
that whole grain non-tannin white sorghum may be used to create
RTE cereals with compositional and sensory qualities comparable
to a commercially available and successful RTE oat cereal. Future
studies should address the acceptability of sorghum-based cereals
in larger consumer tests.

Table 3
Hedonic scores for extruded ready-to-eat cereals.

Fig. 2. Starch digestibility fractions of extruded ready-to-eat cereals. Error bars show
SD (n 5); bars marked with different letters are signicantly different (p < 0.05); oat
reference cereal (OAT_R); white sorghum cereal (WSC); red sorghum cereal (RSC);
550 g sorghum our/kg (L); 700 g sorghum our/kg (H); rapidly digestible starch
(white bars); slowly digestible starch (gray bars); resistant starch (black bars).

Characteristic

OAT_R

WSC_L

WSC_H

RSC_L

RSC_H

Overall
acceptability
Appearance
Aroma
Texture
Flavor
Aftertaste

6.3 1.9

6.2 1.8

6.5 1.4

6.1 1.8

5.8 1.7

6.9
6.2
6.6
6.3
5.7

1.5a
1.6a
1.8
1.8a
1.9

5.7
5.6
6.4
6.3
6.2

2.0bc
1.6b
1.9
1.6a
1.7

5.4
5.6
6.5
6.5
6.1

1.9c
1.5b
1.6
1.6a
1.5

6.1
5.8
6.3
6.1
6.0

1.7b
1.5b
6.3
1.8ab
1.8

6.1
5.5
6.3
5.7
5.9

1.7b
1.6b
1.5
1.6b
1.8

Results are presented as mean SD (n 50); means in the same row followed by a
different superscript letter are signicantly different (p < 0.05); oat reference cereal
(OAT_R); white sorghum cereal (WSC); red sorghum cereal (RSC); 550 g sorghum
our/kg (L); 700 g sorghum our/kg (H); Hedonic rating, 1 dislike extremely,
9 like extremely.

Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051

N.L. Mkandawire et al. / LWT - Food Science and Technology xxx (2015) 1e6

Acknowledgments
This work is a contribution of the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, supported by funds provided through the Hatch Act.
Additional support was provided through Project UNL 102 (Building a Sustainable Infrastructure for the Product Development and
Food Entrepreneur/Industry Technical Support: A Strategy to Promote Increased Use of Sorghum and Millet in East Africa) of the
USAID Sorghum, Millet, and Other Grains Collaborative Research
Support Program (INTSORMIL CRSP).
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Please cite this article in press as: Mkandawire, N. L., et al., Composition, in vitro digestibility, and sensory evaluation of extruded whole grain
sorghum breakfast cereals, LWT - Food Science and Technology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.051