Cement Sheath Stress Failure

K .... Goodwin, SPE, Mobil E&P Services Inc., and R.... Crook, SPE,
Halliburton Services Research Center

Summary. Observation of the sudden appearance of annular pressure in wells exposed to high temperature changes or excessive
internal casing pressure prompted a laboratory investigation to simulate conditions under which cement sheath failure could occur and
thereby define the causes, characteristics, and limits of the problem. Cement sheath failure is manifested by interzonal annular-fluid
movement and abnormally high annular pressure at some point behind the casing up to and at the surface. Cement sheath failure can
be observed in any producing area where excessive flowing temperatures exist at the surface or where excessive internal casing test
pressures are used. The detrimental effects of cement sheath failure are numerous and may include lost revenue from lost production,
potentially hazardous rig operations (especially when annular isolation loss creates shallow-water sands supercharged with gas), and
potentially hazardous producing operations. Exposure of steel casing to excessive temperature increases or internal test pressures causes
diametrical and circumferential casing expansion. This circumferential force creates a shearing force at the cement/casing interface,
causing failure at the cement/casing interface or radial fracturing of the cement sheath from the inner casing surface to the outer casing
(or borehole) surface.
Introduction
In several operating areas, annular-flow problems not attributable
to common annular-flow-after-cementing definitions are experienced. This paper is not intended to discuss short-term annularinflux problems. Long-term annular-influx problems usually experienced after a well begins producing represent a completely
different set of circumstances. Long-term annular influx generally
occurs after excessive casing test pressures once the cement sheath
has set and attained some compressive strength, or following excessive temperature changes resulting from excessively high producing temperatures or steam-injection temperatures. Long-term
annular influx has long been believed to be caused by either cement sheath failure or hydrostatic pressure loss in a channeled
(bypassed) mud column after the weighting material has settled out
of the drilling mud.
An extensive investigation was begun to determine the reasons
for these long-term annular-flow phenomena. Analysis of cementing systems and well cementing techniques concentrated on the use
of "good cementing practices" (i.e., pipe movement; effective
casing centralization; sufficient circulation times and rates before
cementing for mud and hole conditioning; and sufficient volumes
of water, washes, or spacers for hole cleaning). Such current cement sheath evaluation devices as fluid-compensated bond logs or
ultrasonic-type logging devices were used to determine the presence of primary cement channels. After analyzing only a relatively few problem wells, it became evident that something drastic had
happened to the cement sheath in each well. In all the wells investigated, clean cement was circulated to surface with no indication
of lost circulation or fallback; however, the presence of a cement
sheath was not evident.
The only evidence of cement in the annulus visible on the bond
logs was an approximate 50% decrease in amplitude; no evidence
of casing or formation signal was visible on the microseismogram
of the bond log. The presence of a cement sheath was extremely
difficult to prove on the ultrasonic logs as well. Without evidence
of a viable cement sheath on any of the logging devices, the existence of a mud channel in the primary cement sheath was difficult
to ascertain. With the understanding that full circulation was attained during primary cement placement, gas-cut cement is readily identifiable on ultrasonic logging devices, cement particles cannot
enter formation-matrix permeability, and cement (once it has set)
does not magically disappear from the annulus, it was readily apparent that something had destroyed the cement sheath. Further investigations indicated that all these production casing strings had
been exposed to either high internal test pressures or high surface
flowing (or injection) temperatures.
Typically, oil- or gas-well casing strings are pressure tested to
some value after the string has been cemented, or before drilling
out in the case of intermediate casings, and after the cement has
attained some compressive strength. These pressure tests are inCopyright 1992 Society cif Petroleum Engineers

SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992

tended to ensure the mechanical integrity of the casing string. The

maximum internal test pressure generally will equal some percentage of rated casing burst pressure, assuming an equivalent annular
pressure equal to a gradient of water, which decreases the assumed
differential pressure created across the casing-wall thickness.
Cooke et al. 1 demonstrated that a cement column in the annulus exhibits full hydrostatic pressure as long as the cement is in
the liquid state but that, as the cement passes through the gel state
and sets, the cement-column pressure can vary from 2 Ibm/gal to
the equivalent formation pore pressure covered by the cement
column. Carter 2 and Burkowsky et al. 3 showed that the cementcolumn hydrostatic pressure can be as low as 0 psi. These low pressure values generally occur when the cement sets in casing/casing
annuli, nonpermeable laboratory-test models, or openhole sections,
with no pore pressure and no water available for the cement hydration/hydrolysis reaction. Carter 2 demonstrated cement sheath
failure in unsupported cases created by excessive internal casing
pressures causing diametrical, and subsequently circumferential,
expansion.
Assuming that the cement column represents a physical force (not
a hydraulic pressure) against the outer casing surface, the total internal casing pressure (and the differential pressure across the casingwall thickness) becomes the sum of the surface pressure plus the
hydrostatic pressure of the casing fluid. Depending on the casingfluid density and depth, these differential pressures can range from
equal to the surface test pressure to as high as 20,000 psi at the
bottom of the hole. This implies that cement sheath failure caused
by excessive casing test pressures generally should occur somewhere in the bottom one-halfto three-quarters of the casing string,
creating zonal isolation loss over those intervals. Postcementing
annular flow caused by this type of cement sheath failure generally
is not evident at the surface, unless the differential test pressure
is sufficient to create sheath failure to the surface. If excessive casing
test pressures are conducted while the cement is gelled but not set,
casing expansion frequently will create a large microannulus between the casing and cement sheath, creating a flOW path to the
surface.
The magnitude of unsupported casing expansion 5 (Fig. 1) may
be calculated as
Me=(tlpd~)/(Ehc)' ............................... (1)

where tlde=change in OD, tlp=change in pressure, E=Young's

modulus for steel, and hc=casing-wall thickness.
The casing ID also increases concurrent with casing expansion.
The casing ID, d j , may be calculated after internal pressurization
as
d j =( {[7 , 854(tlde +de)2] -A tl/0.7854)O.5, ............. (2)

where A 1 =original cross-sectional area, in. 2 . Eqs. 1 and 2 were

derived by Zinkham and Goodwin. 4
In some subject wells, annular surface pressure became evident
only after a well had begun producing. This phenomenon was ob291

~5

12000
1000

a;

800

0-

<I

600
400

200
0

"I Il /

/, I(j /
V!J /
v
~~v
I#) v
0.00

0.02

v
/

/"

0.04
l>. 00

006

008

,-""~'" ~

V
i-e-+-

13.375" (85
9625" (53.5")
.... 7" (29")
... 7" (38 6 )
.... 55" (155#)
-e- 5S (23.5 6 )
6 )

--:::--_~--1

T.st Mod.1
Fig. 2 is a schematic of the test model devised for laboratory measurements to determine the effects of excessive pressure or temperature changes on cement sheaths in casing/casing annuli. A test
model was built for each test as it was taken to cement sheath failure,
then was cut into four sections for visual observation and to photograph the sheath. The model consisted of a 5lh-in., 23-lbm!ft inner casing and a 7%-in., 29.7-lbm/ft outer casing with mounting
plates welded at the top and bottom of the 7%-in. casing, leaving
5lh ft of annulus for the cement. A pad of steel wool was placed
in the bottom of the annulus for even distribution of water to the
annular cement sheath to test permeability. The cement system was
mixed and pumped into the annulus. then cured at temperature by
circulating hot (350 0 P) oil through the 5lh-in. casing. The annulus was maintained at 500 psi during the curing phase. Typically,
the temperature on the outside of the 7%-in. casing dropped by 35
to 40 o P.
Testing procedures after compressive-strength development within
the cement sheath follow.
-r---.--.---.-.----.-...,--,r-.----,-,---,r--,
23,s

0.02

. . . . .v

so

Sys

m No 1

0.01

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

'2000

Internal Casing Pressure, psi

Fig. 3-Supported and unsupported casing-diameter expansion.

292

0.10

served where surface flowing temperatures were excessively high

or in steamflood injection wells. In cases where annular flow (gas
or liquid) was measured and sampled at the surface, we determined
that the flow did not originate in the producing zone of interest,
but in other zones considerable distances above the primary producing zone. This implies that cement sheath failure occurs in the upper one-fourth to two-thirds of the casing string when failure is
caused by excessive temperature changes. In the case of shallow
steamfiood injection wells, however, cement sheath failure appears
to occur over the entire cemented interval.
This type of cement sheath failure was believed to result from
sheath stress cracking caused by diametrical and circumferential
casing expansion from excessive temperature increases. Laboratory measurements of the cementing systems in these cases demonstrated that compressive-strength retrogression accompanied by
matrix-permeability increases caused by high temperatures (320 to
500 0 P) was. not occurring.

!'

75/8" Outer Casing

.in ..

Fig. 1-Unsupported casing expansion vs. pressure.

0.03

112" Inner Casing

Hot Oil CirculatIOn

----.l

1==

Inlet For Permeability

Measurement

Fig. 2-Schematlc of the pressure-/temperature-change test

model.

1. At 0 psi in the 5lh-in. casing, measure the base permeability

of the annular cement sheath to water.
2. Increase the inner (5lh-in.) casing pressure to 2,000 psi, record
any pressure increase in the annulus, and then measure the permeability of the annulus to water.
3. Decrease the pressure on the inner casing to 0 psi, then measure the permeability of the annulus to water.
4. Repeat Steps 2 and 3 in 2,000-psi increments to a maximum
of 1O,000-psi inner casing pressure.

Cement Systems
The cementing systems tested and their measured physical properties are as follows.
1. System 1 contained a cement/siliceous material mixture, 30%
latex by weight of water (BWOW), 1.25% synthetic fluid:-Ioss additive, and 0.5% gelling agent mixed at 12.1Ibm!gal with 10.81
gal mix water/sack. The yield was 2.49 ft3/sack. The compressive strength of the system at the time of testing was 1,000 psi,
E=0.69 x 10 6 , and Poisson's ratio was 0.42.
2. System 2 contained a cement/pozzolan mixture, 10 Ibm silica
flour/sack, 30% latex BWOW, 2 gal/sack synthetic fluid-loss additive, and 0.25% gelling agent mixed at 13.1 Ibm/gal with 6.48
gal mix water/sack with a yield of 1.76 ft3/sack. The compressive strength of the system at the time of testing was 2,500 psi,
E=0.8 x 10 6 , and Poisson's ratio was 0.32.
3. System 3 was the same as System 2 without the latex at 13.1
Ibm/gal. The compressive strength of the system at the time oftesting was 2,000 psi, E=0.9 x 10 6 , and Poisson's ratio was 0.30.
4. System 4 contained Class H cement and 35% silica flour mixed
at 18 Ibm!gal. The compressive strength of the system at the time of
testing was 9,600 psi, E=2.4x 10 6 , and Poisson's ratio was 0.11.
Test Results
Figs. 3 through 5 show the test results. The first test, using Cement System 1, reflects the presence of a siliceous, highly porous,
reactive filler material. As internal casing pressure was increased
incrementally, the cement matrix permeability decreased incrementally to 0 md at 8,OOO-psi inner casing pressure (Pig. 4). After sectioning the test cell, we found that the cement had failed and was
in a liquid state with the consistency of putty. Subsequent laboratory testing indicated that the putty-like material consisted of fully
hydrated cement, evidence that the cement system had been compressed to total crystalline (structural) collapse during the test. The
remaining cement systems tested (Systems 2 through 4) show no
appreciable change in matrix permeability with increasing inner
casing pressure (Fig. 3).
Fig. 5 illustrates changes in the integrity of the cement sheath,
representing measurements of the annular permeability to water after
the inner casing pressure had been bled to 0 psi following each incremental pressure increase. Because only System 1 exhibited a
change in matrix permeability, increases in annular permeability
SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992

80
0.3

.,

.,

'\/ f.-"'"

~ ~

--r--.......

60

S .. tem <0. I

r-~I'--

No 2

-., Syst m No.

a.

yste

"-.,.,...
....._r--..J.

40

~
0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

Internal Casing Pressure, psi

20

---+--+--+syst m No

2000

---

/ ....../
j /

N .2

....... ~/ ..-'

4000
6000
8000
Internal Casing Pressure, psI

N. I

10000

12000

Fig. 4-Annular permeability chart with Internal casing pressure Indicated.

Fig. 5-Annular permeability chart at O-psl Internal casing

pressure.

must reflect creation of flow channels (stress cracks) within the cement sheath structure. All the cement systems tested withstood the
2,OOO-psi inner casing pressure cycle with minor stress fracture formation. Major stress fractures were observed after the 4,000-psi
pressure cycle, and catastrophic stress fractures developed after the
6,000-psi pressure cycle.
During the inner casing pressure cycling as the cement sheath
in the tests began to fail, annular pressure changes could be measured to determine the supported casing diametrical changes for comparison with unsupported diametrical changes. Combining the
definition of bulk modulus of elasticity with the volumetric change
in the annulus created by the internal casing pressure provides a
solution for the resulting supported diameter of the inner casing.

ported casing. Fig. 3 also illustrates a rnicroannulus that occurred

in the test of Cement System 2 with no subsequent change in casing
support up through 6,000-psi pressure cycling. System 2 is more
ductile than the other cements, although it started to develop minute
stress cracks during this portion of the test. System I, another ductile cement, also exhibited elastic behavior and provided full casing
support until its catastrophic failure at 6,OOO-psi internal casing pressure. Systems 3 and 4, the more brittle cements, exhibited failure
at the first test pressure (2,000 psi), although the total change in
inner casing diameter was not as severe as that of the elastic materials after catastrophic failure.
From these tests, it appears that the higher-compressive-strength
material (i.e., the more brittle cements) provided better casing
support but lost the ability to seal the annulus at a much lower internal casing test pressure. After these cement systems fail catastrophically, the slope of the line of diameter change should equal
that of the unsupported casing. These magnitudes of casing expansion become even more significant when considering the size of
the rnicroannulus created, M/2, and during attempts to evaluate
a cement sheath with bond logging tools.
Permeability measurements were made in the annulus while pressure testing the internal casing and after release of the internal casing
pressure to determine when the cement sheath failed. The permea-

ds = ({[(.:1pIEb )O. 7854(d~ -dr)] +(0. 7854d~)

-[0.7854(d~ -dr)]}/0.7854)O.5, ..................... (3)

where d 2 =outer casing ID (hole diameter), d l =original inner

casing 00, .:1p=change in internal casing pressure, V=original
annular volume, and Eb=bulk Young's modulus. Eq. 3 was derived by Zinkham and Goodwin. 4
Fig. 3 illustrates the calculated inner-casing expansion resulting
from the support provided by each of the cement systems tested.
The 5~-in. casing line represents calculated expansion of nonsup-

Before Pressure Test

Before Pressure Test

...

After Pressure Test - -

Fig. 6-Cross section of Cement System 1 failure.

SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992

---

- After Pressure Test

Fig. 7-Cross section of Cement System 2 failure.

293

bility measurements were made with water at a loo-psi !J.p. This

procedure measures the total annular permeability and the cement
sheath matrix permeability. Figs. 4 and 5 show these measurements;
Fig. 4 illustrates cement matrix permeability measurements during application of internal casing pressure, and Fig. 5 illustrates
total annular permeability with no internal casing pressure. In Fig.
4, the complete loss of matrix permeability in System 1 illustrates
internal collapse of the cement system to a plastic material (total
compressive failure to O-psi compressive strength). Subsequent tests
indicated that System 1 was totally amorphous (hydrated cement).
Fig. 5 dramatically illustrates when excessive stress cracking began in the systems. Although System 4 did not fail as catastrophically as the other systems, it still began to fail at the first internal
pressure test at 2, ()()() psi.
Figs. 6 through 9 illustrate the types of stress cracks observed
in the test models sectioned after each test. The crack direction apparently may be determined by the greater value of tensile strength
or shear-bond strength. In higher-tensile-strength cements, the
cracks generally tended to generate either within the cement system or at the casing/cement interface and parallel to the inner casing
surface until internal test pressures also exceeded the tensile strength.
The cracks then radiated toward the outer casing surface. In highershear-bond cements, the cracks radiated directly from the inner to
the outer casing surface.

Temperature

These stress cracks result from the cement failure in tension, not
in compression. These changes in temperature do not occur near
a producing zone but toward the surface, where significant differential temperatures can occur (e.g., surface flowing temperature
less the normal geothermal temperature or steamflood inlet temperature less the normal geothermal temperature). Generally, the
presence of the stress cracks in the cement sheath is not a problem
while the casing is expanded (e.g., while the well is flowing or
during steam injection) as long as the cracks do not extend into the
formation at a well-bonded interface. When the casing relaxes during
cooling, the cracks open sufficiently to permit annular flow. The
differential temperature, !J.T, required to create casing expansion
equal to internal test pressure expansion may be defined as
!J.T=(h w1 -hw2)/(Ohwl)' ............................ (4)

where hwl =original casing-wall thickness, hw2 = pressurized

casing-wall thickness, and O=volumetric (cubical) expansion of
steel, 2.07xlO- 5 in.lin.-oF.
Eq. 4 was derived by Zinkham and Goodwin. 4 This method was
used to generate Figs. 5 and Figs. 10 through 13.

Field Trials
Field testing was conducted with the same casing sizes and cements
previously used in the laboratory test model. Following placement
and curing of the cement in a well, the quality and quantity of the
cement sheath were measured with an ultrasonic cement-evaluation

Temperature changes in a flowing well also can create significant

casing-diameter increases. This expansion is cubical (volumetric).
The coefficient of cubic expansion of a solid is approximately three
times the linear coefficient. 5 The axial stresses created by the increasing casing OD create stress cracks in the cement sheath much
as the previously described excessive inner casing pressure does.

Fig. 10-Expanslon of 51/z-ln. casing. temperature vs. pressure.

294

Fig. l1-Expanslon of 7ln. casing. temperature vs. pressure.

SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992

500'---~~---r----~--~-----r--~

500~--~-----r----~--~----~--~

400~--~r----+----+---~--~~--~

400~----+-----~--~-----+~~~----~

300i---~r----+----+-~~~--~--~

3004---~----~----~~-t~~4---~

200i---~r----+~~~~~-----r----;

<l

100~---'~~~-----r----+-~~~#~/f~t~
..It

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000 12000

2000

4000

6 P, PSi

6000

8000

1ft

10000 12000

6 P, psi

Fig. 12-Expanslon of 9%-ln. casing, temperature vs. pressure.

Fig. 13-Expanslon of 13%-ln. casing, temperatul'e vs. pressure.

device. One well was cemented with Cement Systems 3 and 4, and
the other well was cemented with Cement System 2. In response
to the results of the laboratory tests and to meet the necessities of
field operation, the casing was pressure tested with tubing and a
retrievable packer to isolate the lowest test pressure to the bottom
end of the casing, subsequently increasing test pressures toward
the top of the well. An upper section of the first well contained
Cement System 3, which had developed compressive strength in
the range of 2,000 psi, and Cement System 4, which had developed compressive strength in the range of 3,000 psi.
Comparison of the evaluation logs of Systems 3 and 4 (Figs. 14
and 15) before and after being subjected to 12,150-psi internal
casing pressure (surface pressure plus casing-fluid hydrostatic pressure) demonstrates that the more brittle system (System 4) failed,
while the more ductile system (System 3) remained intact.
Another casing string was cemented with commercial lightweight
cement containing silica flour and 20 vol % latex. To date, the well
has been pressure tested, but no evaluation logs have been run for
definitive effects of the pressure tests on the more ductile cement
sheath.

same type of failure has been observed on wells that used expendable perforating guns to shoot high-density (8- to 12-shot/ft) patterns with large holes (0.45 to 0.5 in.).
3. Generally, low-compressive-strength (500- to 1,000-psi) cements are more ductile than other cements and can withstand the
stress cycling. Also, ultrahigh-compressive-strength (> 12,OOO-psi)
cement can withstand stress cycling without cracking. One suggestion for circumventing the cracking problem is to use a low-density
cement slurry to cement the entire well (deleting the high-strength
tail slurry).
4. Loss of annular control of gas or water also has been observed
in cases of excessively high surface flowing temperatures or steamflood injection. Where pumping low-density, low-compressivestrength cements was possible, the cracking problem practically was
eliminated.
5. Cement sheath stress cracking as a result of excessive temperature changes generally occurs in the upper one-third to onehalf of the well.

Conclusions
1. Casing expansions created by excessive internal casing pressures can create radial stress cracks in the set cement in the annulus. These cracks, which cause loss of annular zonal isolation,
generally are created in the lower one-quarter to one-third of the
well.
2. Typical causes of such cracks include pressure testing the
casing after the cement has attained high compressive strength. The

Methodology
Eq. 2 solves for the new casing ID following expansion. The method
involves subtracting the cross-sectional area of the steel (which does
not change) from the expanded-OD cross-sectional area, which defines the new ID cross-sectional area of the expanded casing.
Eq. 3 combines the classic definition of the Eb equation with the
annular-volume change caused by increased casing OD measured
during testing. An average bulk modulus of elasticity for cement
is 1.51x10 5 .
Eq. 4 assumes that the casing expansion caused by increased temperature is equal to casing expansion caused by internal pressure

9 5/S"' Casing

13 3/S"' Casing
600~---4-----r----~--~-----r--~

500

./

400

300
<l

/'

<l

P.

43.

.# 1ft

~ 53 .

.#/ft
100~--~~~~-----+----~--~+-~~

V'

2000

4000

__---+----+---~--~~--~

400;---~r----+----;---~~7'~--~

200
100

5004---~

6000

8000

10000 12000

6 P, psi

Fig. 14-Acoustlc Impedance log showing Transducer 2 track

before and after pressure testing casing, Cement System 3.
SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000 12000

6 P, psi

Fig. 15-Acoustlc Impedance log showing Transducer 2 track

before and after pressure testing casing, Cement System 4.
295

Authors
K.... Goodwin Is
an associate drillIng engineering adviser with Mobil
E&P Services Inc.
In Dallas. Before
joining Mobil In
1985, he was employed by Dowell
and Western Co. of
North America.
Goodwin
Crook
During his career,
he has worked In
the laboratory and field In stimulation, cementing, and lost
circulation. His Interests Include remedial cementing and cement sheath evaluation, and he currently teaches cementIng courses, conducts remedial cementing and cement sheath
evaluation seminars, and provides technical assistance In
these areas worldwide. He holds a BS degree In chemistry
from Northwestern State U. Goodwin, a 25-year SPE member, served on the 1990-91 Forum Series Committee and currently Is a Short Course Instructor. Ronald ... Crook is a
research engineer and technical team leader for the Applications Research Group at Halliburton Services Research
Center in Duncan, OK. His research Interests are In squeeze
cementing, the use of spacers and flushes, new cementing
materials, large-scale displacement of drilling fluids, and practices related to devlated-wellbore cementing. He also has conducted field studies associated with downhole temperature
measurements and geothermal cementing. He holds a BS
degree In chemical engineering from Oklahoma State U. Crook
served on the program committees for the 1989-91 SPElIADC
Drilling Conferences and on a Technical Program Committee for the 1990 Annual Meeting.

increases. All that remains is setting the casing-pressure expansion

method equal to the temperature expansion method and solving for
the change in temperature required to produce an equivalent expansion value.

Nomenclature
Al = original cross-sectional area, L2, in.
de = OD, L, in.
di = ID, L, in.
d s = supported OD, L, in.
d l = original inner casing OD, L, in.

296

d2
E
Eb
he
hwl
hw2

T
V

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

outer casing OD (hole diameter), L, in.

Young's modulus for steel, mlU2
bulk Young's modulus, m/U2, psi
casing-wall thickness, L, in.
original casing-wall thickness, L, in.
pressurized casing-wall thickness, L, in.
internal casing pressure, m/U2, psi
differential temperature, T
original annular volume, L3, in. 3
volumetric (cubical) expansion of steel, 2.07 x 10- 5
in.lin.-oF

Acknowledgments
We thank the managements of Mobil E&P Services Inc. and Halliburton Services for permission to publish this paper. The help of
all persons concerned with the project is deeply appreciated.

References
1. Cooke, C.E., Kluck, M.P., and Medrano, R.: "Field Measurements
of Annular Pressure and Temperature During Primary Cementing," JPT
(Aug. 1983) 1429-38.
2. Carter, L.G.: "Effect of Bore-Hole Stresses on Set Cement," MS thesis, U. of Oklahoma, Norman, OK (1968).
3. Burkowsky, M., Ott, H., and Schillinger, H.: "Cemented Pipe-in-Pipe
Casing Strings Solved Field Problems," World Oil (Oct. 1981) 143-47.
4. Zinkham, R.E. and Goodwin, R.J.: "Burst Resistance of Pipe Cemented Into the Earth," JPT (Sept. 1962) 1033-40.
5. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 36th edition, Chemical Rubber Publishing Co. (1954-55) 2066.

51 Metric Conversion Factors

ft x 3.048*
E-Ol
ft3 x 2.831685
E-02
OF
gal
in.
in. 3
Ibm
md
psi

x
x
x
x
x
x

(OF - 32/1.8)
3.785412
2.54*
1.638706
4.535924
9.869233
6.894757

Conversion factor is exact.

m
m3

C
E-03
E+OO
E+Ol
E-Ol
E-04
E+OO

m3
cm
cm 3
kg
Ilm 2

kPa

SPEDE

Original SPE manuscript received for review Sept. 2, 1990. Revised manuscript received
June 15, 1992. Paper accepted for publication April 30, 1992. Paper (SPE 20453) first
presented at the 1990 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New
Orleans, Sept. 23-26.

SPE Drilling Engineering, December 1992