Journal 19

ISSN 1757-5834
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association
No. 19 AUTUMN 2010

EDITOR
Ian Jeffreys PhD, FNSCA, ASCC, CSCS*D
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Daniel Cleather MA, ASCC, CSCS
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair BSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
NEWS / CHAIRS COLUMN
page 2-3
TRAINING LOAD
page 4
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
page 15
CONFERENCE REVIEW
page 22
COACHING COLUMN
page 30
WORKSHOP REVIEW
page 34
1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Lancashire FY8 5QB.
t: 0845 300 8078
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e: info@uksca.org.uk
Learning from the Boxer

n this edition we have produced a brief summary of the main take
home points from the presentations at this years UKSCA Conference.
In reviewing these, what is clear is the huge diversity of work being
undertaken under the banner of strength and conditioning. Strength
and conditioning coaches work in a variety of settings and with a wide
range of athletes. This diversity of roles and situations make the
generation of single answers to all training problems highly complex and
indeed, highly unlikely. While certain elements were common in many of
the programmes presented, just as equally, the diversity of answers and
approaches was similarly clear. The skill of integrating information into
workable systems for given situations is crucial, and requires high levels
of synthesising intelligence to be able to mould this into workable
systems and creative intelligence to use information and methods
creatively to generate new answers to problems.
Listening to experienced coaches talk about their programmes and

experiences can be a wonderful learning experience, yet how effectively
are we able to take in and act upon the key messages? Being able to
return to many of the messages of the presentations, and to read other
peoples reviews of the presentations emphasised to me how much
excellent information I had missed, or not fully taken in through the
weekend. Undoubtedly, fatigue and the sheer quantity of excellent
information were reasons for this, yet one often overlooked was my
ability to listen effectively. Listening involves the act of hearing,
perceiving and retaining information and in itself is inefficient. It is
suggested that within 8 hours of listening to information, we forget up to
a half of what we have heard. Conference attendance and professional
development are often identified as key aspects of development for most
coaches, yet are our listening skills holding back the potential gain we
could get from these? While listening skills themselves can be inefficient,
the problem is often exacerbated by preconceived expectations or
perceptions. Are we truly open and receptive to information or are we
guilty of more selective listening, identifying messages that reinforce our
beliefs and developing an automatic shutoff to those that challenge them?
Discipline intelligence is important in allowing us to evaluate information,
but we must beware of becoming like the man in the Simon and
Garfunkel song, the boxer , where, the man hears what he wants to hear and disregards the rest. This lyric
might reflect our tendency to be selective when listening to presentations, and perhaps presents an area where
we can enhance the productivity of any conference presentation we attend.
The content of this edition of Professional Strength and Conditioning reflects the above mentioned diversity of
work that strength and conditioning coaches undertake.
Our lead article for this issue is by Dr Greg Haff. A worldwide authority on periodisation, Greg has written an
excellent paper reviewing the methods of load quantification. Based on extensive experience and research, it
provides a thorough evaluation of all the methods currently available to coaches and assesses the strength and
weaknesses of each.
In our columns, Graeme Close and James Morton have produced a great summary of their experiences in the
trenches of elite sports nutrition. Entitled the top ten nutritional mistakes made by elite athletes, it outlines
these mistakes, and provides practical remedies to correct these. In the coaching column, Dan Pratt, the S&C
coach at Wellington College, has produced a thought provoking article outlining guidance for the provision of
demonstrations in the strength and conditioning setting.
Additionally, this edition has a summary of a TASS Olympic weightlifting workshop, where David O Sullivan took
up the place offered to the UKSCA by TASS S&C Director Nick Ward.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
OBITUARY
Prof. Yuri Verkoshansky
I was very sad to receive the news that on the 23rd June this year, Dr Yuri Verkhoshansky had
unfortunately passed away. His contributions to the scientific development of strength and power
training since the early 1960s are monumental, and his works have heavily influenced many of the
best coaches. He will be forever recognised as one of the great minds in the field of explosive
strength training. Some of us will remember, that more than 20 years ago he introduced the new
approach of planned training, Programming of training, based upon the innovative, (at that time),
methodology that is presently characterised as structured process modelling (conjugate-sequence
system training, block training).
A practising coach, as well as a scientist, Verkoshansky assisted in the preparation of Soviet
national sports teams for the Olympic Games and other international competitions throughout the
1970s. This work continued through the 1980s, and by the beginning of the 1990s he was the
head of the Theoretical and Methodological Centre at the Russian Research Institute of Sport. In
1992, he was elected President of the International Association on Theory and Methodology of
Training in Elite Sports at the International Sports Scientific Congress in Israel. Since 1995,
Professor Verkhoshanskys focus had been as a scientific consultant for the National Olympic
Committee of Italy.
Verkoshanskys first research study on plyometrics was published in 1964, and since then, he has
authored more than 500 scientific-methodological papers and more than 20 monographs. His work
has been translated in 22 foreign languages and published in 29 countries. He was an associate
editor of the NSCA Journal and the Journal of Applied Sports Science Research. Perhaps his best
known contributions to our knowledge base in the UK have come from his Supertraining
collaborations with the late Mel Siff (now in its 6th edition), and his application of speed-strength
training principles and practices.
Verkoshanskys influence will continue to inspire many of us developing the concept of evidencebased practice in our training programme design, and the legacy of his teaching will, I am sure, be
evident in many of the training programme designs that we will see from coaches in years to
come. Our thoughts go to his daughter and scientific assistant Natalia, who we hope will continue
with his work.
Clive Brewer
UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

2
UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk
Jeremy Moody
CHAIRS COLUMN
Is it really time for the journal to go

out again? Where does the time go?
Following a number of
conversations with members, I
thought that it might be of interest
to update you with UKSCA
developments, activity on the Board
of Directors and initiatives. There is
a huge amount of work going on
behind the scenes at the moment
across a number of areas, including
dates for next years accreditation
and workshop timetable and of
course, the annual conference.
By means of an update on our
membership, at the time of writing
we currently are 1251 Associate
members strong, with 288
members who are now Accredited
Strength & Conditioning Coaches
(ASCC), with a total of 637 having
gone through the accreditation
procedure in total.
A key initiative in the next 12
months for the association is a
National Survey of Strength &
Conditioning Facilities. Here we
will be collating information about
S&C facilities in the UK and
publishing the results on the
website. Rather than providing
information from a snapshot in
time, it is planned that the results
will be constantly maintained in
order to provide a searchable, upto-date database of facilities for use
by both members and the public.
We are aware that as the
recognition of S&C and the
profession develops, more and
more coaches are looking for
facilities with particular equipment
available to train their athletes and
also an increasing number of
members are establishing their own
gym facilities and are looking to
promote these to athletes and other
coaches. In addition, we hope to

obtain information on the levels to
which staff are trained and whether
they have met UKSCA standards
through the accreditation process.
An additional aim is to give facilities
the opportunity to obtain UKSCA
recognition and endorsement, the
criteria for which is currently being
developed and in the safe hands of
Alex Wolf. More details on this to
follow. If you currently work in a
facility, run a facility or indeed own
a facility or you know a colleague
who may be interested in this
initiative, please register an early
bird expression of interest by
emailing Kate in the office,
kate@uksca.org.uk titled Facility
Survey.
Another key development for the
association in the coming months is
the ongoing relationship with
Further and Higher Education
establishments. We are currently
continuing to develop relationships
with Universities and FE Colleges
looking to provide opportunities for
their students to gain skills and
experience in strength &
conditioning through integrating the
UKSCA assessment process into
their education programmes,
running workshops and other
seminar style events. Additional to
this, we are in the early stages of
developing a scheme whereby we
will look to accredit programmes of
study based on its content and
facilities amongst other things.
Again, if you are involved in the
teaching of S&C or related activities
within the FE or HE environment
and would like to receive
information on this please email
Sarah, sarah@uksca.org.uk, titled
HE & FE.
It has been a busy time in 2010 on
the Accreditation front with the
induction of an additional 12
assessors to the process to support
the growing demand for UKSCA
assessments. This has meant a
great deal of additional travel and
work from the current assessors to
assist in the integration of the new
group, so a big thanks to them on
helping to make this so successful.

We are currently assessing on
average 15 new members a month
(not including those retaking
elements) and expect this number
of new members to continue
through 2011.
An extension to this area is the
development of the Master Coach
accreditation. The process for
accrediting master strength &
conditioning coaches will be
developed in 2011. The
development will begin with the
formation of a small working group
and will involve full consultation
with employers and coaches to
ensure that the competency
standards meet the needs of the
whole profession, now and in the
future. This is particularly exciting,
now we are in a position to move
the accreditation process forward
from the entry level accreditation
that we currently offer.
Below is a brief summary of
additional project updates with
more details to follow in the next
edition of Professional Strength and
Conditioning:
UKSCA Core Text Book
scheduled for release in June/July
2011
Football Association positive
meetings with the FA in recent
months and workshops at
Manchester United and Blackburn
Rovers have presented an excellent
platform for collaboration and a
working relationship in the
future.....work is ongoing
UKSCA and SPKD
(http://www.spkd.net/) recent
work sees the potential for an
ongoing partnership with an S&C
association based in Turkeywork
is ongoing
As always I am keen to hear from
members with ideas and thoughts
for future projects and direction of
the association. Please contact me
on Jeremy@uksca.org.uk
Jeremy Moody
Chairman UKSCA

Quantifying Workloads in
Resistance Training: A
Brief Review
G. Gregory Haff, Ph.D., C.S.C.S.*D, ASCC, FNSCA
Summary
The ability to quantify training loads and volumes is of particular
importance when working with periodised training plans. The ability to
plan and monitor resistance training loads allows the strength and
conditioning professional the ability to modulate training stressors and
better manage fatigue which ultimately leads to a greater potential that
performance is optimised. In order to better understand the methods
available for monitoring resistance training variables, the present review is
designed to explore the various methods for quantifying training volumes
and intensities used in the design and monitoring of resistance training
programmes.
Introduction
Dr. Greg Haff is an associate
professor in the Division of
Exercise Physiology at the West
Virginia University School of
Medicine. He has published
numerous research articles on
sport science related topics and
has been recognised by the
National Strength and Conditioning
Association as the Young
Investigator of the Year in 2001. In
2008 Dr. Haff received the
Distinguished Teaching Faculty
Award at the West Virginia
University School of Medicine. Dr.
Haff has served as a strength and
conditioning consultant for Team
Arrow a Collegiate Cycling Team,
Canadian Track Cycling champion
Mark Ernsting, and several other
national and international level
athletes. Dr. Haff is a Fellow of The
NSCA, a former NSCA board
member, a Regional Level
Weightlifting Coach, and a Level 3
Cycling Coach.
When designing and implementing a periodised training plan the ability to

manage training stressors is an influential factor in determining the overall
effectiveness of the training interventions.3,29 Through the modulation of
training stressors, a periodised training plan can enhance the recovery
adaptation process which will result in a dissipation of fatigue in concert
with an elevation of preparedness, and ultimately, performance capacity
at predetermined time points. The accomplishment of these goals is
dependent on the ability of the coach to estimate and evaluate the
workloads accomplished in the various aspects of the training plan. This
ability allows the coach to appropriately sequence and integrate all of the
athletes training stressors. If these factors are not considered and/or
monitored, the likelihood that the training programme will result in less
than optimal results will increase markedly.
Depending upon the sport, there are several distinct components of the
training plan including technical, tactical, metabolic conditioning, sprint
agility, endurance and resistance training. The ability to estimate or
directly calculate the training loads of each of these training factors allows
for a better understanding of the workload encountered by the athlete and
can give keen insight into the fatigue factors generated by the training
plan. Of particular importance is the ability to estimate the amount of
work that the athlete completes during the resistance training component
of the overall training plan.19 Generally, the volume of resistance training
performed is considered to be indicative of the work performed and
proportional to the caloric expenditure that is accomplished in the training
session, day or training cycle. Mathematically, the amount of mechanical
work accomplished can be calculated by multiplying the force by the
displacement during the resistance training exercise performed. For
example, if an athlete were to perform 5 repetitions of the back squat
with 150 kg and were to move through a vertical distance of 0.6 m, the
work accomplished would be calculated with the following equation:
Work = weight (kg) x vertical displacement (m) x number of repetitions
Work = 150 kg x 0.6 m x 5 = 450 kgm = 4413.0 J = 1.054 kcal
In this example, the athlete would have accomplished 450 kgm or
4413.0 J of work during the performance of this exercise. When this
information is determined for an exercise or training session, it allows the
strength and conditioning professional to gain an understanding about the
amount of work or caloric expenditure accomplished.27 Generally, it is
impractical and virtually impossible to measure the displacement
accomplished for each repetition of every exercise undertaken in a

4
resistance training programme. However, the ability to

directly estimate or quantify workloads in the
resistance training environment appears to be on the
horizon. Emerging technologies such as accelerometers
and linear position transducers may offer a mechanism
for directly quantifying the work accomplished by
allowing for the assessment of vertical displacements,
which can then be used in conjunction with the training
load and volumes to create a more reasonable
estimate of workload and potentially caloric
expenditure.
While a direct assessment or calculation of work gives
valuable information to the strength and conditioning
professional at this time, it may be impractical to
directly calculate it, especially when working with large
groups of athletes. Therefore, the primary purpose of
this brief review is to explore the various methods for
estimating the training volume and intensity in
resistance training. These methods may be used as
part of the training programme design process or the
athlete monitoring process in order to give the strength
and conditioning professional or sports scientist
information about the resistance training stressors
encountered by the athlete. This may in turn allow for
a better management of fatigue, which can increase
the potential for optimising performance at predictable
pre-determined time points.
Methods for Estimating Training

Volume
When examining the periodisation literature, there are
three main methods that can be used for the
estimation of training volume in resistance training:
1) determination of total repetitions completed10,
2) calculation of the volume load3,9,27, and
3) calculation of the volume index.1
Repetition Method: The most basic method for
quantifying the volume of resistance training and
estimating the work accomplished, is the calculation of
the total repetitions that have been completed in an
exercise, during a training session or training cycle.
Based upon this method of determining work, 3 sets of
10 repetitions would result in the same amount of total
repetitions as 10 sets of 3 repetitions. While both
loading paradigms result in 30 total repetitions, the
two protocols would actually result in vastly different
amounts of total work or physiological stress. This
contention is supported by a recent study by McCaulley
et al.20 in which various repetitions and set schemes
had their mechanical work equated in order to quantify
the physiological responses to each loading structure.
In order to equate the mechanical work accomplished
with 4 sets of 10 repetitions performed at 75% of 1
repetition maximum (1-RM) (work = 84.2 8.5 J x 103
), a total of 11 sets of 3 repetitions were performed at
90% of 1-RM (work = 84.2 19.7 J x 10-3). Careful
inspection of this data reveals that one loading
structure resulted in 40 total repetitions, while the
other resulted in 33 repetitions even though both
structures resulted in similar work outputs.
Additionally, each protocol resulted in vastly different
hormonal profiles, suggesting that even though the
volume of work was equated, the physiological stress
encountered was very different. The differentiating
factor appears to be the load encountered, thus the
best estimate of volume or workload must consider the
amount of weight lifted and not simply rely on the total
repetitions completed.
Therefore, it is generally accepted that while the repetition

method is very simple to calculate, it offers a poor
estimate of the amount of work or volume of training
completed in a resistance training bout or training
programme.3,27 Even though this method is a poor method
for estimating or quantifying the training volume and
workload, it has continued to be used by several
researchers who are exploring various resistance training
models24,25 and practitioners who work directly with
athletes. A more accurate approach would be to either
directly quantify work accomplished,19 or use estimates
which account for the actual weight lifted by the athlete27
when attempting to either quantify or equate training
loads when comparing various training interventions.
Volume Load: In an attempt to better estimate the
workload that is encountered in a resistance training
setting, the volume load is generally calculated.3,19,27,30
This estimate of workload expands upon the repetition
method for determining volume or workload by
accounting for the weight lifted during the resistance
training exercise or session.
Typically the volume of training is reported as a metric
ton,1,3,9 a short ton,2 or the volume load.3,27 Where
volume load is reported as a kilogramme value, while a
metric ton is equivalent to 1,000 kg and a short ton is
1,102.3 kg. To calculate either the metric ton or short
ton, one must first calculate the volume load and then
divide by either 1000kg to get a metric ton or 1,102.3
to get a short ton (Table 1).
In order to calculate the volume load there are two
distinct methods which can be performed, one equation
which utilises the absolute load lifted and one equation
which utilises the percentage of 1-repetiton maximum
(% 1-RM).3,9 The first equation for calculating the
volume load is accomplished by multiplying the number
of repetitions completed in an exercise by the actual
resistance encountered. This equation can be
represented as the following:
Equation 1: Volume load (kg) = number of sets x
number of repetitions x weight lifted (kg)
If, for example, an individual were to perform 3 sets of
10 repetitions in the back squat at 150 kg, the
calculation would be performed with Equation 1 as
follows:
Volume load (kg) = 3 x 10 x 150 kg = 4500 kg
The second equation for calculating the volume load is
accomplished by multiplying the number of repetitions
by the percentage of 1-RM.9 This equation is
represented as the following:
Equation 2: Volume load (kg) = number of sets x
number of repetitions x %1RM
Another way of looking at this equation would be to
consider the percentage as a factor of 100 kg. For
example, if the athlete were to lift at 67% of their
maximal capacity, the %1RM number would be
represented as 67 kg. Therefore, if the same individual
as presented above performed the back squat for 3
sets of 10 repetitions at 150 kg and this load
represented 67% of their 1-RM, the calculation would
be performed with Equation 2 as follows:
Volume Load (kg) = 3 x 10 x 67 = 2010 kg
Once this factor is calculated, it can then be quantified
in terms of the actual maximum capacity for the
exercise. For example if the athletes maximum back
squat is 200 kg then the individualised volume load
would be calculated as follows:
Volume Load (kg) = 3 x 10 x (200 x 0.67) = 4020 kg
Table 1: Methods of Volume Conversions

Exercise
Sets
Repetitions
Load
Volume Load Metric Ton
(kg)
Short Ton
(kg)
Power Snatch
100
1500
1.500
1.367
Snatch Pull (from floor)
120
1800
1.800
1.633
Snatch Pull (from knee)
130
1815
1.815
1.647
Snatch Grip RDL
90
1350
1.350
1.225
6465
6.465
5.865
Training day totals=
Note: to get metric ton divides the volume load by 1000. To get the short ton divide the volume load by 1102.3.
Table 2. Comparison of the methods for calculating training intensity.

Volume Load Calculation Volume Index **
Exercise
Sets
Repetitions
Load
Total
(kg)
1RM
Repetitions
Equation 1 Equation 2
(kg)
(kg)
Back Squat
10
150
67
30
4500
2010
45
205.7
Back Squat
10
180
60
30
5400
1800
54
246.8
1-Leg Squat
10
50
22*
30
1500
660
15
68.6
Behind Neck Press
10
60
50
30
3000
1500
18
82.3
120
14400
5970
132
603.4

Note:
*= the 1-leg squat was calculated as a percent of the 1-RM back squat. Based upon a 1-RM back squat of 225 kg and the athlete weighs
100 kg
** = note the volume index calculations are based off of the volume load calculated with equation 1.
Equation 1: sets x repetitions x load (kg)
Equation 2: sets x repetitions x %1RM
Equation 4:sets x repetitions x load/body mass (kg)
Equation 5:sets x repetitions x load/body mass (kg)0.67
Another approach would be to calculate the

individualised volume load by multiplying the estimate
calculated with Equation 2 by a factor of 2. This factor
is selected because the maximum capacity in the lift is
2 times greater than the 100 kg factor used in the
estimation.
When comparing the two volume load equation, it is
important to note that they result in very different
estimates of workload (Table 2). For example, when
examining Table 2, it is clear that method 2
consistently results in lower volume load estimates
when compared to method 1 if it is not modified in the
context of the maximum capacity. This poses a
significant issue if the method for calculating volume
load is not specifically addressed in the methods of
research articles or reviews of literature on training.
Therefore, it is imperative that the method for
calculating volume load is clearly outlined. It may be
useful to use method 2 as a planning tool when writing
a training plan because it allows one to work with
percentages9 and then use method 1 as a monitoring
tool to see what the athlete actually accomplished.3
Even though the calculation of volume load does not
typically include a measure of distance traveled during
the exercise it should be considered a reasonable
estimate of workload.27 Support for this contention can
be found in the work of McBride et al.19 where various
methods of determining the volume of resistance
training were assessed and the volume load equation
(Equation 1) resulted in a reasonable estimate of work.
It is important to note that when comparing the
volume load of an exercise to a direct calculation of
work performed that the distance the barbell travels
will significantly impact the amount of work performed.
As a result, the volume load estimate may result in an
underestimation or overestimation of the workload
accomplished depending upon the exercise performed.
The fact that the distance the bar travels is not
considered in either volume load calculation can create
a potential error in the estimation of workloads

completed during a resistance training bout. It is
possible that there could be an under or overestimation
of workload depending upon the exercise being
performed.5,30 For example, when looking at Table 2,
the back squat resulted in a volume load of 4500 kg
(Equation 1), while the back squat resulted in 5400
kg (Equation 1). Clearly the squat required the
movement of a larger load and thus this accounted for
the higher volume load estimate. However, this is likely
an overestimation of the work performed because the
distance traveled is significantly less in a squat than
in a full back squat. Typically the squat is performed
by lifting the barbell from blocks which decreases the
distance the barbell travels when compared to a full
squat. In this instance, Equation 2 for calculating
volume load may be a better method of estimating
workload because the percentage of 1-RM is relative to
the lift being performed. For example, the back squat
would have a volume load of 2010 kg, while the
squat would result a volume load of 1800 kg. While
method 2 creates a value that better represents the
workload because it is tied to the 1-RM of each
exercise, it is limited because it most likely
underestimates the actual workload performed. Ideally,
it would be best if the actual distance traveled during
each exercise was quantified, yielding a more accurate
method of estimating workload.
Because the volume load is significantly affected by the
distance the bar travels it may be warranted to re-write
the volume equation to the following:
Equation 3: Volume load (kgm-1) = sets x repetitions x
load (kg) x distance (m)
If the distance traveled by the barbell were determined
for each exercise the athlete performs, this volume
load equation would give a better depiction of the
overall training loads encountered.
Bosoc4,6 suggests that the ultimate quantification of
training loads would require the direct monitoring of

6
the dynamics of the lifting task including displacement,

force, velocity, and power characteristics. There are
several methods that can be used in this task including
the use of the V-Scope,13,15 force plate-linear position
transducer systems,7,20 video analysis12,26 and potentially
accelerometers. Many of these devices, such as the
force-plate linear position transducer and video
analysis systems are used in research settings but
have not typically been used in the applied settings of
coaching because of their cost and the time
commitment necessary for collecting and analysing
data.
In the applied setting, the training environment
requires instantaneous feedback, portability, and
relative ease of use.26 In the early 1990s, there was an
attempt to address this need with the development of
the V-Scope weightlifting analysis system. This system
was designed as a coaching tool in order to provide
instantaneous information about a lift, but because of
the need for multiple devices when working with large
teams and the corresponding cost of the device, its
application did not become popular.
More recently, the development of accelerometer
technologies may result in a monitoring break through
which will allow for the direct quantification of training
workloads.26 Sato et al.26 recently reported the validity
of the acceleration measures determined during a high
pull. However, no data was reported on the ability of
the system to quantify displacements, and further
scientific inquiry is required in order to verify the ability
of the accelerometer to measure displacements and
ultimately quantify workloads. If accelerometer
technologies are proven by future scientific inquiry to
be both accurate and valid with the quantification of
displacement they will unlock an ability to better grasp
the workloads accomplished in the resistance training
environment.
One potential alternative to high tech devices would be
to actually measure the displacement of specific
exercises with a tape measure and place this rough
estimate into Equation 3 when attempting to calculate
the volume load.8 This rudimentary method for
calculating displacement expands upon the basic
volume load calculation but contains one potential
confounding factor. Specifically it assumes that the
displacement is consistent between each repetition of a
set or across a loading spectrum. The fact that the
displacement may change across a set for a specific
exercise is supported by work by Haff et al.13 In this
study it was determined that the vertical displacement
varied across a set of 5 repetitions at both 90% and
120% of the 1 repetition maximum power clean during
the performance of a clean pull. Therefore, while a
basic measure of displacement improves upon the
basic volume load calculation, a more accurate
approach would be to have a method or technology
which measure displacement for each repetition of
every set.
While the volume load is generally a useful tool for
quantifying work encountered by the athlete during
resistance training, the inclusion of displacement in the
equation may be necessary to maximize the accuracy
of the estimation. Additionally, when looking at power
exercises, the volume load without the inclusion of
vertical displacement may underestimate the workload
accomplished during the exercise19 while partial
movements may result in an overestimation of work
accomplished. Even with these potential limitations,
research studies, as well as example training

programmes, should at least report the basic volume
load estimate as it is still a better representation than
only reporting the number of repetitions performed.
This practice should be encouraged because it gives a
more accurate picture of what is planned for or has
been accomplished in the training session.
Volume Index: When looking at the volume load
estimate of work, it does not account for the athletes
size, which may significantly impact the amount of
work the athlete has performed. Depending upon the
athletes size, the amount of work that is actually
performed can vary significantly. One method for
accounting for an athletes size in the calculation of
volume is the calculation of what has been termed the
volume index.1 The volume index calculation method
results in significantly different estimates of workload
when compared to the traditional volume load
calculations (Table 2). There are several potential
methods or equations for calculating the volume index
which can be used when attempting to evaluate the
volume of training.
The first equation that can be used to normalise the
volume load to body mass is to divide this volume load
by the athletes body mass (Equation 4)1:
Equation 4: Volume index =
(sets x repetitions x load (kg)) = Volume load (kg)
Body mass (kg)
Body mass (kg)
If, for example, a 100 kg athlete were to perform 3
sets of 10 repetitions with 150 kg the equation would
be formatted as follows:
Volume index =
(3 x 10 x 150)
100
4500
= 45
100
If, for example this athlete were to lose 2 kilogrammes

(body mass = 98 kg) and perform the same workout,
the volume index would be able to address this
change:
Volume index =
(3 x 10 x 150)
98
4500
= 46
98
The basic assumption that is made when dividing the

weight lifted by body mass is that strength levels are
proportional to body mass and how that muscle mass
is distributed.11 However, it has been recently
suggested that to normalise strength measures,
allometric scaling needs to be employed.11,16,17 The
principle of geometric scaling serves as the foundation
for the concept of allometric scaling, which suggests
that the load lifted should be divided by some variable
related to body size. This effectively will remove the
effect body mass on the training load.16 The most
common methods for normalising is divide the force by
body mass to the 2/3 power.
Therefore, the next equation that can be used when
attempting to normalise the volume load would utilise
an allomterically scaled force value (Equation 5) and be
calculated with the following formula:
(sets x repetitions x load (kg)) = Volume load (kg)
Body mass (kg)0.67
Body mass (kg)0.67
If, the athlete described above was 170 cm tall and
weighed 100 kg and performed 3 sets of 10 repetitions

Table 3: Comparison of Method for Calculating Training Intensity

Warm-up Sets
Method
Exercise
% 1-RM
Back Squat
Kilogram
Set 1
Back Squat
Target Sets
Set 2 Set 3 Set 4
Volume Load
Set 5 Set 6
30
45
55
60
60
67.5
101
124
135
135
Training Intensity
Total
Target Sets
Total
Target Sets
60
1550
900
52
60
135
3488
2025
116
135
Note: 60 = % 1-Repetition Maximum , percentages are based off of a 225 kg back squat maximum. %1-RM = percentage of 1 repetition maximum.
5
Repetitions
at 150 kg, the normalised volume index would be as

follows:
Volume index =
considered when attempting to evaluate training

workloads.
Methods for Quantifying Training

Intensity
(3 x 10 x 150 (kg)) = 4500 (kg) = 205.7

100 (kg)0.67
21.9 (kg)0.67
If the athlete then lost 2 kg and performed the exact
same workout, the volume index would be:
Volume index =
(3 x 10 x 150 (kg)) = 4500 (kg) = 208.5
98 (kg)0.67
21.69 (kg)0.67
By allometrically scaling the body mass and then
calculating the volume index the coach is able to
compare the training loads encountered by athletes of
different sizes and effectively monitor the training
stressors encountered as the athletes body weight
changes. Ideally, this estimation would be stronger if
the volume load calculated was based upon the actual
distance traveled by the bar during the lift. This would
be accomplished with the following equation:
(sets x reps x load (kg) x distance (m))
The ability to represent the training intensity of an

exercise or training bout is essential when evaluating a
training plan. When examining the periodisation
literature it is clear that there is a distinct interplay
between the volume of training and the intensity of the
training bouts encountered.3,14,18,21,22
Traditionally there are two methods which can be used
to quantify intensity during a training session:
1) the training intensity, and
2) the intensity index.
Training Intensity: Training intensity is considered as
the average kilogrammes lifted for an individual
exercise or overall training session. Typically this
estimate of intensity is calculated as follows:
Equation 7: Exercise intensity = Volume load
Repetitions
Volume load (kg)
0.67
0.67
Body mass (kg)
Body mass (kg)
For example, if an athlete were to perform three sets of

5 repetitions at 135 kilogrammes the volume load could
be calculated with Equation 1 yielding a volume load of
2025 kg and plugged into Equation 7 as follows:
Exercise intensity =
If, for example, the same lifter above moved the

barbell a total of 0.6 m during the back squat
performed in the previous example, the volume load
equation would be calculated as follows:
2025 kg
Volume index =
(3 x 10 x 150 (kg) x 0.6 (m))
98 (kg)0.67
(2700 kgm-1)
= 2025 kg
15
Total Repetitions
= 124.5
21.69 (kg)0.67
Comparing the results of the volume load calculated

with Equations 5 and 6 reveals a slightly different
workload value for this exercise. This small difference
in the quantification of work for an individual exercise
can be meaningful when a total training sessions
volume load is calculated and, therefore, should be
= 135 kg
If the calculation was performed based upon the

percentage of 1-repetition maximum (RM) method,
then volume load would be calculated with the use of
Equation 2 and the volume load determined would then
be plugged into Equation 7. If the athlete, in this
example, had a maximum back squat of 225 kg, the
target loads of 135 kg would represent 60% of their 1-
Table 4. Example calculation of volume load and training intensity for a workout.
Method 1
Exercise
Back Squat
Sets
3
Total
Volume
Training
Volume
Training
Repetitions
(kg)
1RM
Repetitions
Load
Intensity
Load
Intensity
Equation 1 (kg)
(kg)
Equation 2 (kg)
10
150
67
30
4500
150
2010
kg
67
Back Squat
10
180
60
30
5400
180
1800
60
1-Leg Squat
10
50
22*
30
1500
50
660
22
Behind Neck Press
10
60
50

Note:
30
3000
60
1500
50
120
14400
110
5970
50
100 kg
** = note the volume index calculations are based off of the volume load calculated with equation 1.
Equation 1: sets x repetitions x load (kg)
Equation 2: sets x repetitions x %1RM
Method 1: uses Equation 1 in the calculation of volume load
Method 2: uses Equation 2 in the calculation of volume load

8
Method 2
Load
30
15
88
137
116
(kg)
170
100
15
30
2550
1500
225
450
30
5
30
5
Bicep Curls
30
5
15
5
15
5
15
5
Front Raise
1150
77
1550
100
5
Exercises
Auxiliary
Strength
80
5
60
5
Push Press
90
5
100
5
100
5
170
5
110
5
60
5
Core Exercises
Strength
Back Squat
140
5
170
5
170
5
1300
87
103
145
2175
450
225
2650
4100
3475
(kg)
(kg)
145
5
145
5
145
5
90
5
Exercise
Category
Power
Power Clean 60
5
110
5
(kg)
(kg)
(kg)
Training
Intensity
Load
Intensity
Load
Intensity
Load
6
5
4
2
1
Total
Volume
Training
Target Sets
Volume
Training
Volume
Warm-up
Target Sets
Set
Set
Warm-up
Exercise
Type of
Exercise
900 kg
Total Repetitions
Set
Set
Set
by Exercise Type
Set
Total Volume Load
and Training Intensity
Total Volume Load
by Exercise Classification
Total Volume Load
Table 5: Example of Examining the Volume Load and Training Intensity Based upon the Type of Exercise or Category of Exercise.
RM and Equation 7 would be as

follows:
Exercise intensity =
= 900 kg = 60 kg
15
If you examine Table 3 closely, it is

clear that when the training load is
held constant at the target sets, the
kilogrammes lifted or the %1-RM
represents the exercise intensity.
However, if the load fluctuates this will
not be the case. For example, looking
at the total workload, which includes
the warm-up sets the exercise intensity
is represented as either 52 or
116 kilogrammes depending upon the
method of quantification.
The training intensity for individual
exercises can then be used to calculate
an overall intensity for the training day
(Table 4).3,27,28 In Table 4, for example,
the athlete performed a basic 4
exercise training day which was part of
a strength endurance block of training.
After calculating the volume load the
training intensity for the day was
determined. It is important to note
that the training intensity is an
average intensity for all the exercises
performed, and thus, smaller muscle
mass exercise will result in a decrease
in the average intensity for the
training day.
One strategy that can be used to deal
with this issue is to calculate the
volume load and training intensity for
the warm-up, target sets and down
sets while examining the results based
upon the whole workout or by exercise
type. For example, when looking at
Table 5 there is a difference between
the total session volume load of
10900 kg and the target set volume
load of 6900 kg. Additionally, the
inclusion of the warm-up sets in the
calculation of the training intensity will
result in a lower training intensity
value as will combining auxiliary and
core exercise in the calculation. In this
example, the volume load for the core
exercises is 10225 kg and the training
intensity is 114 kg while the auxiliary
exercises have a volume load of
675 kg with a training intensity of
23 kg.
Regardless of how the training
intensity and volume load are subdivided, it is important that the
method is clearly defined and
consistently applied. By examining the
training intensity depicted in the
various aspects of the training session
(i.e. warm-up, target sets, down sets,
and total workout) the strength and
conditioning professional can garner a
more accurate picture of the training
stressors encountered by the athlete.

Table 6. Example calculation of volume index and intensity index for a workout.
Method 1
Exercise
Sets
Back Squat
Repetitions
Load
Total
(kg)
1RM
Repetitions
10
150
67
30
Method 2
(kg)
45
(kg)
1.5
206
6.9
Back Squat
10
180
60
30
54
1.8
247
8.2
1-Leg Squat
10
50
22*
30
15
0.5
69
2.3
Behind Neck Press
10
60
50
Training day totals/averages=

Note:
30
18
0.6
82
2.7
120
114
1.1
603
5.0
100 kg and is 170 cm tall.
Method 1: uses Equation 4 [sets x repetitions x load/body mass (kg)] to calculate volume index
Method 2: uses Equation 5 [sets x repetitions x load/body mass (kg)0.67] to calculate volume index
Table 7: Example use of Volume Load and Training Intensity Projections in the Planning Process.
Load (%1M)
Day
Exercise
Monday
Reps
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Volume Load
Squat
70
75
80
73
4470
75
Power Clean
70
75
80
73
4470
75
Bench Press
70
75
80
73
4470
75
65
70
75
63
4095
68
65
70
75
63
4095
68
Wednesday Power Snatch

Snatch Pull (FL)
Friday
Total Block Values
Sets
Overhead Squat
65
70
75
63
4095
68
Front Squat
60
65
70
63
3870
65
Power Clean
60
65
70
63
3870
65
Incline Bench Press
60
65
70
63
3870
65
Intensity Index: The intensity index is another

method of representing the intensity of the training
bout or exercise.1 Typically, the intensity index is
calculated with the following equation:
Equation 8: Intensity index = Volume index
Total repetitions
When employing this equation the volume index can be
calculated with either Equation 4 or 5 and then divided
by the total number of repetitions performed in the
various aspects of the training session.
For example, looking at Table 6, it is clear that
allometric scaling (method 2) alters the volume index,
which in turn, alters the intensity index when
compared to the more traditional method for
computing both variables (method 1). With this
method, the intensity index allows for the
quantification of an intensity which accounts for body
size and shifts in body mass that can occur as a result
of weight gain or weight loss, and thus, may have an
impact on training stressors.1
Applying Methods of Quantifying

Volume and Training Intensity
The ability to accurately plan, track and monitor the
volume and intensity of the resistance training
programme allows for a better understanding of the
training stressors encountered by the athlete.
Specifically employing basic calculations allows the
strength and conditioning professional the ability to
more accurately determine the dosage of training and
ensure that the athletes level of preparedness is
tracking in the appropriate direction. Conceptually, the
application of the materials presented in this brief
review can be considered in the context of either the
planning or monitoring process.
Planning Training: When the strength and
conditioning professional is designing the periodised
training plan it is important that he/she understands
the variations in the workloads and patterns of loading
contained in the various phases of their overall plan.
One method that can be used to accomplish this goal is

10
Training Intensity
Table 8: Example Use of Volume Load and Training Intensity as a Monitoring Tool.
Load (kg)
Day
Exercise
Monday
Reps
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Volume Load
Squat
154
165
176
161
9834
164
Power Clean
112
120
128
117
7152
119
Bench Press
95
101
108
99
6034.5
101
78
84
90
82
5004
83
85
91
97.5
88
5421
90

Snatch Pull (FL)
Friday
Total Block Values
Sets
Training Intensity
Overhead Squat
78
84
90
82
5004
83
Front Squat
108
117
126
113
6966
116
Power Clean
96
104
112
101
6192
103
Incline Bench Press
72
78
84
76
4644
77
Notes: Based upon the following actual and estimated 1-repetition maximums: Back squat = 220, power clean = 160, bench press =135, power
snatch = 120, snatch pull = 130, overhead squat = 120, front squat=180; and incline bench press = 120.
Table 9: Example Use of Allometrically Scaled Volume Index and Training Index as a Monitoring Tool.
Load (kg.kg-0.67)
Day
Exercise
Sets
Reps
Monday
Squat
Power Clean
Bench Press
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
104.1
111.4
118.3
108.7
442.6
7.4
75.7
81.0
86.0
79.1
321.9
5.4
66.7
271.6
4.5
Body Mass
63.9
68.4
102.1
102.3
72.6
103
Volume Load
Training Intensity
101.9
53.1
57.2
60.9
55.4
226.5
3.8
Snatch Pull (FL)
57.5
62.0
65.9
60.0
245.3
4.1
Overhead Squat
53.1
57.2
60.9
55.4
226.5
3.8
102.1
101.6
Body Mass
Friday
Total Block Values
Week 1
101.2
101
Front Squat
73.4
79.2
85.5
77.1
315.2
5.3
Power Clean
65.2
70.4
76.0
68.6
280.2
4.7
Incline Bench Press
57.0
51.4
210.1
3.5
101.5
101.2
Body Mass
48.9
101.4
52.8
102
Notes: Based upon the following actual and estimated 1-repetition maximums: Back squat = 220, power clean = 160, bench press =135, power
snatch = 120, snatch pull = 130, overhead squat = 120, front squat=180; and incline bench press = 120.

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk 11
to use Equation 2 to project the volume loads of

training and Equation 7 to project the expected training
intensity that will be encountered by the athlete. This
method can be especially useful when working with
large numbers of athletes as individualisation can occur
after the basic planning is completed.
Figure 1: Example 3:1 Loading Paradigm.
For example, if a 4-week block of training was being

designed with a 3:1 loading paradigm, the basic volume
load and training intensity would increase across the
first 3 microcycles of training, and then, the 4
microcycle would represent an unloading week (Figure
1). The basic daily programme may look like the
example presented in Table 7. By using percentages of
the athletes 1-RMs for each of the exercises planned, a
basic training intensity variation can be visualised
during the planning process. While this is only an
estimate of the intensities, it does give the strength and
conditioning professional a rough idea of what the
training load variation might be.
Looking at the basic structure of the mesocycle
presented in Figure 1 and Table 7, it is clear that a
classic model of periodisation has been structured
based upon the examples presented by Plisk and
Stone23 in the planning process. Careful inspection of
the example plan demonstrates daily and microcycle
fluctuations in volume load and training intensities.
Even though Figure 1 and Table 7 allow for the ability
to visualise the basic loading structures, it is important
to note that the actual accomplished work may be
slightly different depending upon the ability of the
athlete to complete the prescribed workloads and their
1-RMs for each exercise.
Monitoring Training: From a monitoring perspective
the actual lifts completed and the kilogrammes lifted
should be used in the calculations of both volume load
and training intensity. Using the same basic exercises
and loading patterns as presented in planning training
section (Table 7) of this article could be completed by
an athlete. Based upon the number of repetitions
completed and the athletes maximal capacity in the lifts
planned, the basic 3:1 loading pattern was completed
(Figure 2). While this basic pattern is slightly different
than the one used in the planning process, it still
represents what the structural pattern established.
Further inspection of the training plan and results can
be done by looking at Table 8 where the actual weights
lifted are recorded. While it is highly unlikely that the
athlete will make every lift at a prescribed load for this
example, lets assume that they have. Based upon the
basic volume load and training intensity calculations we
can see that daily and microcycle variations in volume
and intensity of training are created. However, the
exercise selected and the athletes maximal capacities
in these lifts, the Wednesday workout had a lower
volume and intensity than planned in Table 7.
Figure 2: Example 3:1 Loading Paradigm Based upon

Volume Load and Training Intensity Values From
Actual Training Results.
Figure 3: Example 3:1 Loading Paradigm Based

upon Volume Index and Intensity Index Values
From Actual Training Results.
Another potential method for monitoring the training

programme is to calculate the allometrically scaled
volume and intensity index (Table 9). Central to the
ability to employ this monitoring tool is the daily
determination of body weight. In this example, the
same programme as presented in Table 8 is re-analysed
with the use of the volume and intensity indexes. As
with the previous examples, a 3:1 loading paradigm has
been performed (Figure 3). Careful inspection reveals
that the basic loading pattern depicted in Table 8 is
only slightly altered when presented in the context of
the volume and intensity index values. The small
difference in loading patterns is largely a result of the

12
fact that the athlete in this example only demonstrated

small changes in body weight across the block of
training. If the athlete had been attempting to lose
weight for a weight class based sport, the variation in
the results would be much greater.
Conclusions and Practical

Applications
When working with periodised training programmes, it is
useful to employ methods for estimating volumes and
intensities of resistance training in the planning process.
By doing this, the strength and conditioning professional
will be able to better plan for higher volume or intensity
training days. Any one of the methods presented in the
brief review could be used in this process, but using
actual loads based upon 1-RM may be problematic when
working with large groups of athletes. In this case, it
may be warranted to use Equations 2 and 7, which are
based upon percentages of 1-RM.
In the monitoring process, it is best to use the actual
sets, repetitions, and weights lifted in the analysis of
what has been done in the training plan. By using
these values, a more accurate depiction of the training
plan can be presented. If possible, the inclusion of
displacement (Equation 3) should be used to increase
the accuracy of the evaluation. While including
displacement may be warranted in most cases it is not
necessary or easy to accomplish. Therefore, using the
Equations 1 and 7 would be an acceptable alternative.
Regardless of the method used to analyse the training
plan, it is important to be consistent in the application
of the various methods.
Additionally, if presenting research on periodisation or
training models it is important that the volume load,
training intensity and total repetitions be reported. If
only repetitions are reported, the volume of training will
be clearly misrepresented and open to misinterpretation.
Adding the volume load and training intensity to the
programme analysis will allow for a better understanding
of the model of training being employed.
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PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
The Top Ten

Nutritional Mistakes
Made by Elite Athletes
Graeme L Close PhD, ASCC, CSCS and James Morton PhD
The sole purpose of life may be simply

to serve as a warning to others Anonymous
Dr James Morton is a Senior Lecturer

in Exercise Metabolism and Sports
Nutrition at Liverpool John Moores
University. His research interests
focus on the exercise-induced
cellular and molecular responses of
human skeletal muscle and the
influence of diet and nutrition on
modulating these responses. As an
early stage researcher, James has
been awarded with Young
Investigator Awards from the British
Association of Sports and Exercise
Sciences and the European College
of Sport Sciences. Outside of
teaching and research commitments,
James also provides nutritional
support to professional soccer
players and both professional and
amateur boxers.
Graeme Close is the column editor for

the Performance Nutrition section.
Over the last 10 years, the authors have spent a lot of time working
with elite athletes from a variety of sports, including rugby (league and
union), golf, rowing, cycling, athletics, football and boxing. James
Morton is currently the performance nutrition consultant for Liverpool
FC and several professional boxers, whilst Graeme Close is the
performance nutrition consultant for Munster RUFC and advises several
professional rugby league teams. One of our major roles is to educate
the athlete and attempt to correct dietary mistakes. This article will
take a look at the ten most common nutritional mistakes made by elite
athletes, (in the opinion of the authors), and provide practical advice on
how to correct or avoid these potential nutritional disasters.
Sometimes, the advice will be routed in fundamental science and other
times the advice comes from practical experience. These mistakes are
in no particular order - except for number 1!
1. Skipping breakfast
THE PROBLEM - Many athletes do not eat a breakfast, commonly due

to a range of reasons, including lack of time, not feeling like eating in
the morning, the misconception that this is a good way to lose body
fat, or simply due to habit. Skipping breakfast is associated with many
adverse health effects including increasing body fat levels1 and it has
even been linked to increased chances of cardiovascular disease2. Many
athletes feel that a cup of coffee is a sufficient breakfast and that they
can eat a proper breakfast once they have finished their morning
training.
Graeme is a lecturer at Liverpool John Moores University in cellular and metabolic

medicine. His current research is focused upon investigating cellular mechanisms
responsible for muscle damage and repair. Graeme regularly presents at international
conferences and has given keynote presentations on skeletal muscle damage and
repair. He is also head of R&D for www.nutritionx.co.uk and can be contacted on
graeme@nutritionx.co.uk. Graeme is a former professional rugby league player and
currently works with Munster RUFC as the performance nutritionist. He is also an
accredited UKSCA member and a BASES accredited physiologist.

From an athletic point of view, an overnight fast will

result in a major drop in liver glycogen (less than 20g
of glycogen compared with approximately 110g). The
main role of liver glycogen is to help maintain a
constant blood glucose concentration. A steady blood
glucose concentration is essential since the brain and
central nervous system can only use these for energy.
If blood glucose concentrations become too low (less
than 3mmol/L), symptoms of hypoglycemia occur
including dizziness, nausea, increased heart rate, loss
of motor control and an inability to concentrate, with
obvious implications on training and performance. This
is more likely to occur if liver glycogen stores are low
following an overnight fast. Moreover, glycogen broken
down in the muscle cannot be released as glucose into
the circulation, as muscle lacks the enzyme glucose-6phosphatase. Therefore, blood glucose concentration
must be maintained by another means this being the
glucose-alanine and glucose-glutamine cycles. These
cycles involve the muscle releasing the amino acids
alanine and glutamine into the blood, where they are
transported to the liver for conversion into glucose.
Therefore, training after an overnight fast not only
induces hypoglycemia thus decreasing athletic
performance, but can also result in the body becoming
catabolic, resulting in a net loss of lean muscle mass!
THE SOLUTION - To overcome this, it is essential that
athletes consume breakfast. This breakfast should
ideally consist of low Glycemic Index (GI)
carbohydrates and moderate protein and should be
consumed approximately 1 hour prior to the training
session. If a reduction in body fat is the main aim of
the morning training session, then protein should be
eaten such as poached eggs or yoghurt and
carbohydrates should be avoided until after the training
session. This will prevent the loss of lean body mass
but still promote fatty acid oxidation and thus, a
decrease in body fat.3
2. Chronic dehydration
THE PROBLEM Many athletes we have worked with
demonstrate a consistent level of dehydration as
assessed using urine osmolarity. A value of between 100300 mOsm.kgH2O would indicate a good level of
hydration, although it is not uncommon to observe values
around 900 mOsm.kgH2O and personal observations
have observed values of over a 1000 mOsm.kgH2O in
elite rugby players after they have been educated into
the importance of hydration. Dehydration can result in
reduced blood volume, increased core temperature,
increased rate of glycogen oxidation and decreased sweat
rate,4 all of which can have a major detrimental effect on
performance. It has been suggested that a typical fluid
loss for a sedentary person (due to respiration, sweating,
faeces and urine) in a cool climate is approximately 2.2L
per day. During strenuous exercise many athletes can

lose 2-3 additional litres through sweating, even on a
cool day.5 It should be noted that fatigue towards the end
of exercise can be just as much due to dehydration as it
can be lack of fuel.
THE SOLUTION Athletes need to be educated to
realise and understand the importance of being
hydrated and they must train themselves to increase
their fluid intake. We advise our athletes to:
General
1. Drink approximately 500ml of fluid with each meal
of the day.
2. Drink an additional 2L throughout the day.
3. Monitor urine colour and odour which should be pale
and odourless. However, it is important to be aware
that some vitamins, especially B vitamins can give a
yellow tinge to urine.
Competition or training
1. Drink 500ml of fluid approximately 2-3 hrs preexercise.
2. During exercise, start drinking early and aim to
drink 250ml per 15 mins.
3. Make sure the fluids are lower than ambient
temperature.
4. If exercise is longer than 60mins, consider adding
carbohydrate to the drink (60g/hr in a 6-8%
solution).
5. If exercise is longer than 1 hour, consider adding
sodium to the drink (0.5g/L).
6. Weigh yourself before and after exercise and for
every 1L loss of weight replace with 1.5 times that
in fluid (for example if 1Kg loss drink 1.5L of fluid
post-exercise).
3. Not understanding the Glycemic

Index (GI) of carbohydrates
THE PROBLEM - As discussed in a previous edition of
PSAC, athletes are often advised to follow a high
carbohydrate diet with figures ranging from 6g-10g per
kg body mass often recommended. However, athletes
are rarely educated in the different types of
carbohydrates and especially the role that the GI plays
in the storage and metabolism of these carbohydrates.
The GI system involves ranking foods based on their
immediate effect on blood glucose, with carbohydrate
foods that break down quickly during digestion having
the highest GIs.
Data has demonstrated that for general health and to
maintain low body fat the predominant source of
carbohydrates should be low GI e.g.6 This is because
there is a greater rate of fat oxidation following the
consumption of a low GI meal than a high GI meal.
Moreover, there is greater satiety following a low GI
meal with athletes reporting feeling full for longer.
A further potential problem for athletes is the risk of
rebound hypoglycemia after a high GI meal. Following
a high GI meal, there is a sharp increase in blood
glucose followed by a subsequent sharp rise in insulin
concentration. This lasts for approximately 2 hours.
There is then a reactive hypoglycemia, lasting 1-2
hours. If an athlete was to exercise during this reactive
hypoglycemia, less fat and more carbohydrate would
be oxidized, potentially resulting in premature fatigue,
plus the athlete may feel tired and lethargic at the
start of the exercise. Consumption of a low GI meal
does not result in this reactive hypoglycemia.

16
High GI carbohydrates are particularly useful for the

rapid replacement of muscle glycogen, i.e. post
exercise, and as an immediate source of energy i.e.
during exercise. High GI carbohydrates also facilitate
the uptake of creatine into the muscle, so are also
useful to include in a creatine based product.
THE SOLUTION It should now be clear that an
understanding of the GI of carbohydrates is essential
information for any athlete. Athletes need to be aware of
what foods are high and low GI. Once they understand
this information, the following advice can be given:
1. Eat a low GI breakfast (muesli, porridge, bran
flakes, wholemeal toast).
2. Eat a low GI pre exercise meal approximately 3
hours pre competition.
3. Eat high GI carbohydrates post-exercise for rapid
muscle glycogen re-synthesis.
4. Eat high GI carbohydrates immediately pre and
during exercise if required.
5. Eat a low GI evening meal to maintain low body fat.
4. Inappropriate weight loss

strategies
THE PROBLEM Elite athletes often strive to attain a
specific body mass and composition that is usually driven
by the desire to keep body fat as low as possible, whilst
simultaneously maximizing power to mass ratio. This is
true not only for those sports with weight classifications
(e.g. combat sports, rowing, horse-racing etc), but also
for endurance-based sports (e.g. road cycling) and the
major team sports (e.g. football, rugby, basketball etc). In
the case of the former, weight-making athletes often rely
on a combination of acute, (i.e. days), or chronic, (weeks
to months), weight loss strategies that are dependent on
a combination of severe energy restriction (one to two
meals per day) and dehydration (restriction of fluid intake,
use of sweat suits, saunas, diuretics, laxatives etc).7 In
such cases, athletes are often driven by the belief that
less is more where they perceive that the lower the daily
calorie intake, the greater the absolute weight loss. It is
of course well documented that once daily energy intake
is restricted below the initial resting metabolic rate (RMR),
the RMR in turn responds by resetting itself to a lower
value, thus making it harder to actually lose body fat.
Furthermore, reducing energy intake too low can also
reduce training intensity, impair mood and lead to overtraining and increased infection.8 In addition to energy
restriction, the practice of deliberately restraining from
fluid intake has obvious health concerns and in the United
States, there were incidents in which 3 collegiate
wrestlers died as a result of dehydration.7
For team sport athletes, the pre-season period is often
a time when players return to their clubs with excess
body fat and are immediately placed on energyrestricted diets. These interventions are sometimes
underpinned by the strategy of keeping carbohydrate
low, although sometimes, messages are lost in
translation, and the athlete actually reverts to a zero
carbohydrate diet (as opposed to low), thus leading to
similar problems to those outlined above. The concept
of what actually constitutes a low carbohydrate diet
can also vary from athlete to athlete, as well as from
nutritionist to nutritionist, and is also sport dependent
(e.g. gymnasts would not need as much carbohydrate
as endurance athletes).
THE SOLUTION The process of losing weight, (and
specifically body fat), is relatively straightforward and
requires the creation of an energy deficit that should

be achieved by a combination of reduced energy intake
and increased energy expenditure. Specific advice is
outlined below:
1. Measure, (or estimate), RMR and training
expenditure, either directly or indirectly, and set
daily nutritional plans to at least maintain RMR.
2. Aim for a weekly energy deficit that would lead to
approximately 1 kg weight loss per week
(approximately a daily deficit of 1,000Kcal).
3. Educate the athlete that weight loss induced by acute
training sessions are representative of fluid losses
induced by sweating and not immediate fat loss.
4. Emphasise a daily diet that is based around reduced,
(but not zero), carbohydrate intake. Emphasis
should be on low GI and increased protein intake,
(so as to increase satiety and reduce lean mass
loss), with reduced saturated fat intake.3
5. Ensure that carbohydrate intake is limited in the
evening periods when energy expenditure is at its
lowest.
6. Where acute weight loss strategies have been
adopted (such as 1-2 days or in the hours prior to
weigh-in), ensure appropriate refueling in terms of
both energy and fluid intake.
7. Team sport athletes undertaking energy reduced
diets on training days, need to ensure appropriate
fueling in the day or two preceding competition.
5. Lack of variety in the diet

especially a lack of fruit, vegetables
and oily fish
THE PROBLEM Many athletes seem to stick to a

meal plan that works for them which often involves
eating the same meals each week. This lack of variety
in the diet can lead to a lack of key nutrients. For
example, many athletes avoid eating oily fish such as
mackerel, tuna steaks or salmon, and as such, their
diet may be lacking in omega 3 fatty acids, which are
very important not only for health but also athletic
performance.9 We have also noticed a reluctance to eat
fruit and vegetables, with some athletes thinking that a
multi-vitamin will suffice, or even more worryingly,
think that a multi-vitamin is a better option than eating
fresh fruit and vegetables.
THE SOLUTION Coaches and sports nutrition
consultants should educate athletes into the importance
of eating a balanced varied diet. The reason for the lack
of variety is closely linked to Mistake 6. We have found
that providing athletes with smoothie recipes is a great
way to get the athletes to eat more fruit, a vegetable
steamer makes much tastier vegetables than over
boiled school dinner vegetables and pan fried tuna

steaks are a great way to introduce oily fish into an

athletes diet. Provision of fresh fruit and smoothies
post-training also helps to increase intake.
Young Munster athletes attending a course

in basic cooking skills
6. Lack of basic cooking skills

THE PROBLEM Many athletes leave the family home
at a young age and move into either, their own home,
or shared accommodation with other young athletes. In
our experience this can be the cause of a classic
dietary mistake an inability to prepare and cook
healthy nutritious balanced meals. We have often
advised athletes that a lasagne for example is a
reasonable post-exercise meal and then discovered
that the young athlete is eating a budget microwave
lasagne often with approximately 14g of saturated fat
and less than 20% beef! This dietary mistake not only
leads to poor meal choices, but can exacerbate mistake
number 5. Over boiled vegetables for example, similar
to what we used to get in schools, do not taste good,
and it is therefore no surprise that young athletes
choose to eliminate them from the diet. Many
individuals appear to have a fear of cooking fish and
this can lead to a lack of omega 3 in the diet. A final
problem is the poor understanding of food hygiene,
with many young athletes suffering from some form of
food poisoning during their athletic careers.
THE SOLUTION It is essential that sports nutrition
consultants not only assess athletes knowledge of their
dietary needs, but also their ability to prepare and cook
the food. In our experience, it is a great idea to enroll
young athletes on a basic cooking course specific for
athletes. This course should teach the athletes how to
prepare food safely, how to make a variety of basic
meals and importantly, how to include foods such as
vegetables and fish into their meal plans. This training,
if done as a group (see below), can be great fun for
the athletes, whilst at the same time giving them the
necessary skills to prepare a diet suitable for an elite
athlete. It is important that the chef taking the course
is familiar with the unique needs of an athlete - often
the sports nutrition consultant will need to educate the
chef prior to the training.
7. Not understanding portion sizes

and macronutrient content of basic
foods
THE PROBLEM Athletes eat food. While this may
sound obvious, it has implications for the way in which
advice is delivered. For example, many nutrition
consultants and dieticians will tell athletes to eat a meal
containing 20g of protein and 60g of carbohydrates. In
our experience, very few athletes would be able to
convert this advice into a meal plan. This often leads to
over consumption of protein and a lack of carbohydrates.
Athletes, (as well as the general public), also often
struggle to understand portion sizes.10 We have dealt
with many athletes who are unable to lose body fat
and closer analysis suggests that their basic diet is
very good and the reason for the weight gain is simply
that their portions are massive. For example, a typical
portion given on the back of packet of cereal is
typically 1/3rd of what an athlete may eat. Also, whilst
a handful of nuts may be good advice if your hands are
particularly large this can lead to excessive fat intake.
THE SOLUTION Athletes need to be given a list of
foods that contain a portion of carbohydrate or protein.
This list may be specific to a sport, so for example, 20g
of protein may represent a portion or 50g of

carbohydrate may represent a portion. This list should
also differentiate between high and low GI
carbohydrates. Athletes should never be given
ambiguous advice such as a handful of nuts or a
medium bowl of cereal. If in doubt, bring the food in to
a meeting with your athlete and show them what you
mean by a handful of nuts or a medium bowl.
8. Poor pre-competition meal

THE PROBLEM - The purpose of the pre-exercise meal
is to essentially top-up muscle and liver glycogen stores
prior to competition, as well as ensuring optimal precompetition hydration. Although this seems a relatively
straightforward process, there are many problems
associated with the pre-competition meal. Firstly, many
athletes believe the pre-competition meal to be the most
important meal for performance. In reality, however, the
most important meals should have been consumed in
the day or two leading up to the event, so as to
maximize pre-competition muscle glycogen stores.11 For
this reason, athletes often over-eat at pre-competition,
which leads to problems with digestion and absorption
and ultimately causes bloating and stomach discomfort.
It is crucial therefore, that this meal is consumed 3-4
hours prior to competition, so as to allow sufficient time
for digestion. Furthermore, high fat (e.g. cheese, pastry,
cream based sauces etc), high protein (especially red
fatty meats such as steak and pork) and fibrous foods
(e.g. large portions of vegetables) should also be
avoided due to potential digestive problems. It has also
been suggested that low glycemic index foods offer an
advantage over high glycemic index foods, given their
ability to offset any rebound hypoglycemia induced at
the onset of exercise and also by potentially sparing
muscle glycogen utilisation during exercise.12 However,
coaching staff and nutritionists should also be aware that
many athletes are superstitious and have their own precompetition routine that may not conform to sports
nutrition guidelines. In such cases, it may in fact be
more beneficial to leave this athlete to their own devices
rather than run the risk of upsetting the athletes
psychological state prior to competition!
THE SOLUTION
1. Ensure that pre-competition meals are consumed 34 hours prior to the event.
2. Emphasise meals that are low GI and also low in fat
and fibre based-foods (e.g. spaghetti and tomato
based sauce).
3. Provide a moderate amount of protein (e.g. 10-20 g
of chicken), and avoid red meat.
4. Consume at least 500ml of water/fruit juice (e.g.

18
apple juice), or electrolyte based sports drinks (e.g.

Lucozade Lite, Hydra 10) with this meal.
5. Consider the use of carbohydrate based
snacks/drinks in the 30-60 min leading up to the
event e.g. gels, drinks, energy bars etc.
6. Experiment during non-competition so as allow for
individual preferences.
9. Poor post-competition meal

THE PROBLEM - The purpose of the post-competition
meal is mainly to replace muscle and liver glycogen
stores, replace fluids and electrolytes lost in sweat,
promote protein synthesis (and reduce protein
degradation) and attenuate any immuno-suppression
induced by the stress of competition. There are many
factors that can determine the success of postcompetition nutrition and which ultimately dictate the
type of strategy that is put in place. From a logistical
point of view, the facilities available at the competition
site greatly affect the nutritional approach and, for the
team sport athlete in particular, this is most affected by
whether the fixture is home or away. From a scientific
perspective, the most important factors are the energy
demands of the competition itself and furthermore, the
timing, quantity and glycemic index of the foods and
drinks consumed (all of which we consider of equal
importance).13
In our experience (largely from team based sports),
the most common mistakes that athletes make is the
conscious decision to delay post-competition feeding
because they do not like to eat immediately after
exercise. Furthermore, the 24-48 hours after
competition is also crucial to replenish muscle glycogen
stores and this becomes especially important if
competition is repeated 2-3 days later. Research from
soccer has supported this notion by demonstrating that
when soccer players are left to their own devices, even
at 42 hours after a game, muscle glycogen stores have
still not returned to 100% of pre-game levels.14 In the
case of the Premiership soccer player, this would be
disastrous for those players who have European related
fixtures within 3 days of Premiership league games. We
should again stress, however, that the post-competition
strategy is mainly dependent on the energy demands
and competition schedule of the sport itself and as
such, is highly context specific.
THE SOLUTION - The problem of poor postcompetition nutrition can be overcome by educating
the athlete on its importance and also ensuring an
appropriate understanding of the logistical and
scientific factors underpinning its delivery. In general,
we recommend:
1. Providing food and drinks immediately postcompetition through a variety of carbohydrate and
protein rich drinks and snacks in accordance with
the athletes dietary preference.
2. Ensure carbohydrates are high GI based and
ingested at a rate of 1.2 g/kg body mass. Also
provide fructose-based carbohydrates (e.g. fresh
fruit platter) to promote liver glycogen re-synthesis.
3. Where the energy demand has been high, ensure
the athlete continues to refuel at hourly intervals for
an additional 2 hours after the immediate postcompetition feedings. This usually takes the form of
a post-match meal, followed by further snack-based
interventions.
4. Educate the player that post-competition nutrition is
very different to pre-match nutrition, given that high
GI foods are preferred to low GI foods.

5. Where protein is provided, ensure that it is whey
and not casein based (in the case of drinks), and
animal and not plant based (in the case of food) so
as to provide an easily digestible and complete
protein source, respectively.
6. Provide electrolyte-containing drinks as opposed to
plain water, so as to maximise rehydration.
7. Where energy demands have been especially high
(e.g. extra-time game), consider the use of
immune-boosting interventions such as additional
vitamin C, glutamine, Echinacea, probiotics etc.
8. Where further competition takes place within 2-3
days, educate the athlete about the need for further
high carbohydrate-based daily diets.
10. Over reliance on supplements

and believing popular media
THE PROBLEM Our athletes are probably sick of
hearing the phrases Supplements, not a substitute
and You cannot supplement a poor diet but these are
2 phrases we both passionately believe in. It never
ceases to amaze us that some athletes do not realise
that eating a large turkey breast fillet will give the
same amount of protein as a protein shake. We are
convinced that some athletes think that protein can
only be consumed in expensive shakes and forget that
food is by far the best way to achieve their daily
requirements of the macronutrients. Whilst we accept
that at times supplements are convenient, and can be
an essential part of an athletes diet, we firmly believe
that correct food intake must come before dietary
supplementation, a view often ignored by athletes.15
Athletes should also be aware that sports supplements
are a multi billion dollar industry and as such, they will
be faced with inaccurate and biased information from
supplement manufacturers in an attempt to boost
sales. Just because a product says in the label it will
reduce body fat does not necessarily mean that it
will! Athletes MUST also be aware that some
supplements have, and continue to produce positive
drugs tests, either through the product being a banned
substance, for example 19-norandrostenedione, a prohormone which is readily metabolised to the anabolic
steroid nandrolone after oral ingestion, or through the
contamination of non-banned supplements.
THE SOLUTION - Athletes should make every effort to
gain their required macro and micronutrient intake
through eating a well balanced diet. Consultation with
a qualified dietician or sports nutrition consultant
should help the athlete to achieve such a balanced
diet. If, after implementing this diet, the athlete is still
deficient in macro or micro-nutrients, or it is more
convenient to consume these in a supplement, for
example a protein/carbohydrate recovery drink
immediately post-exercise, then the decision to use
supplements should be made following consultation
with a suitably qualified individual.
There are, of course, dietary supplements that are
difficult to achieve from a balanced diet including
creatine, beta-alanine, caffeine, vitamin D, sodium
bicarbonate and taurine, which may improve
performance in certain situations. Our advice for any
athlete considering these is to discuss this with a
qualified individual, and get individual tailored advice
supplements are not, and will never be, a one size fits
all approach.

Finally, we advise that athletes should ONLY take

supplements that do not contain any prohibited
substances and are batch tested for contamination. You
can find a list of the prohibited substances on the world
anti doping website (www.wada-ama.org). Many credible
companies use the HFL laboratory in Newmarket to
batch test their products, and information on the
companies that use this service and which of their
products they test, appear on the HFL website
(www.hfl.co.uk). Some companies go one step further
and sign up to Informed Sport, and in doing so, the
informed sport logo is displayed on the packaging of the
product (www.informed-sport.com). The Informed Sport
logo tells the customer that the supplements they are
buying have undergone rigorous quality testing for all
products prohibited by WADA. Hopefully, in the future
many more companies will sign up to Informed Sport,
making the selection of safe supplements much easier.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Kapantais E, Chala E, Kaklamanou D, Lanaras L,

Kaklamanou M, Tzotzas T. (2010). Breakfast skipping and
its relation to BMI and health-compromising behaviours
among Greek adolescents. Public Health Nutr. 8:1-8.
Nola IA, Doko Jelinic J, Bergovec M, Ruzic A, Persic V.
(2010). Dietary habits and cardiovascular diseases. Acta
Med Croatica. 64(2):89-95.
Mettler S, Mitchell N, Tipton KD. (2010). Increased protein
intake reduces lean body mass loss during weight loss in
athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 42(2):326-37.
Sawka MN, Burke LM, Eichner ER, Maughan RJ, Montain
SJ, Stachenfeld NS. (2007). American College of Sports
Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement.
Med Sci Sports Exerc. 39(2):377-90.
Maughan RJ, Shirreffs SM. (2008). Development of
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individual hydration strategies for athletes. Int J Sport Nutr

Exerc Metab. 18(5):457-72.
Stevenson EJ, Astbury NM, Simpson EJ, Taylor MA,
Macdonald IA. (2009). Fat oxidation during exercise and
satiety during recovery are increased following a lowglycemic index breakfast in sedentary women. J Nutr.
139(5):890-7.
Morton JP, Robertson C, Sutton L, MacLaren DP. (2010).
Making the weight: a case study from professional boxing.
Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 20(1):80-5.
Gleeson, M. Nutrition and Immune Function. (2008)
Professional Strength & Conditioning . 12: 7-10.
Peoples GE, McLennan PL, Howe PR, Groeller H. (2008).
Fish oil reduces heart rate and oxygen consumption during
exercise. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 52(6):540-7.
Ashfield-Watt PA. (2006) Fruits and vegetables, 5+ a day:
are we getting the message across? Asia Pac J Clin Nutr.
15(2):245-52.
Costill DL, Hargreaves M. (1992). Carbohydrate nutrition
and fatigue. Sports Med. 13(2):86-92.
Wee SL, Williams C, Tsintzas K, Boobis L.(2005).
Ingestion of a high-glycemic index meal increases muscle
glycogen storage at rest but augments its utilization during
subsequent exercise. J Appl Physiol. 99(2):707-14.
Jentjens R, Jeukendrup A. (2003). Determinants of postexercise glycogen synthesis during short-term recovery.
Sports Med. 33(2):117-44.
Bangsbo J, Mohr M, Krustrup P. (2006) Physical and
metabolic demands of training and match-play in the elite
football player. J Sports Sci. 24(7):665-74.
Suzic Lazic J, Dikic N, Radivojevic N, Mazic S,
Radovanovic D, Mitrovic N, Lazic M, Zivanic S, Suzic S.
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(Epub ahead of print].

20
Conference Review
2010
The 2010 UKSCA Conference was held over the weekend of June 4th to 6th at Kents Hill
Conference Centre in Milton Keynes. The Conference featured a wide variety of speakers
and topics, reflecting the diverse work being carried out within the field of Strength and
Conditioning. These talks were the usual mixture of keynotes and breakout sessions, and
the main take home points of each are outlined in this feature.
Keynote sessions
Dr Dan Baker Power Training Research
and its Practical Application in the Training of
the Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Team
Dan gave one of the most energetic and enthusiastic
presentations ever seen at a UKSCA conference. The
key theme that ran through his presentation was that,
in working with some of the worlds best rugby league
athletes for the last 14 years, evidence-based practice
has been delivered within a coaching environment
grounded in making his athletes work hard. Dan
presented the findings of 17 of the scientific, peerreviewed research papers that he has published, using
his performance athletes as his subjects, and spoke
about how this research, (and other data), has
influenced the strength and power training programme
at the Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Club.
The importance of strength and power in a collision
sport such as rugby league was clearly demonstrated,
as Dan presented four studies that showed players who
played at the highest levels were differentiated from
lower performance levels, in terms of upper body
strength, upper body power output and upper and
lower body strength and power. Upper body speed was
shown not to be a good test to differentiate between
elite and sub-elite players. The importance of testing
and monitoring strength and power within his
programmes was illustrated with data presented for
players in the squat (1.9 x BW), pull-up (1RM,
Bodyweight + external load), bench throws and squat

jumps. This data also illustrated the importance of
strength as a precursor to increasing power output. A
key finding of Dans data is that strong athletes
typically achieve PMax at, (for example, in the bench
press), 45% of 1RM, compared to less strong athletes,
who achieved PMax, (in the bench throw), at 55%1RM
reinforcing the key need to individualise the training
load of all players within a squad, (a principle often
ignored by inexperienced strength coaches working in
team sports).
The monitoring data presented in Dans research also
illustrated that high reps within work sets had a
negative effect upon power output, in both upper body
and lower body exercises; both within a set of 10, and
following a set of 10. The density of the sets, (volume,
recovery), significantly influences the suppression of
power output (a positive dose-response relationship),
for several minutes of passive rest, with those athletes
who have higher levels of strength demonstrating
greater power suppression.
The arrangement of loadings between sets has always
interested strength coaches, and Dan communicated
that his players attained highest power outputs with
sets arranged in an ascending order, although with
lighter loads, a descending order may be more
effective in increasing power output. However, the use
of a drop set following an ascending load protocol
(90kg, 100kg, 105kg, 80kg) may be an effective
strategy. The key is to utilise a set configuration that

22
matches your training objective. This also applies to

contrast training, which Dan demonstrated that he
utilises effectively with low rep ranges, ensuring that
reps are not overly fatiguing. For example, contrast
loading is effective for upper body if the contrast
resistance is not too heavy, (i.e. it is better to use 6080% 1RM, not 90% 1RM!). Interestingly, this contrasts
with the research presented to the 2007 (Dr Drew
Harrison), and 2008 (Dr Tom Comyns) conferences,
where loads approximating 2RMs were presented as
producing the best results for contrast training in jump
athletes. Dan also presented his programmes and
supporting evidential basis for agonist/antagonist
contrasting muscle actions in upper body complex
power training. Dan uses pulls/cleans and jerks/bench
throws, (i.e. pull versus push), as effective
combinations for agonist/antagonist complex training
within his players workouts.
The Broncos strength training programme is designed
so that players are technically proficient by the time
that they are incorporated into the first grade training
programme, (players are usually established by 22-23
years of age). This practice is built upon research at
the club, which has indicated that most changes in
strength and power occur early in the career of elite
rugby league players (from 17-18 yrs up to 22-23 yrs).
At more elite levels, changes in strength and power are
more difficult to orchestrate, and therefore, within the
Broncos programme, extensive use is made of variable
resistance training methods, such as the use of bands
and chains. This is supported by peer-reviewed
evidence from a number of studies that Dan has
published in this area, showing that, with experienced
lifters, within-repetition methods of contrasting
resistance appear to be effective in increasing lifting
velocity or power.
The Broncos training objectives speak for themselves:
Be strong, powerful, fast, fit and athletic. After 14
years, 3 championship winning teams and a number of
International athletes, the experience that Dan is able
to draw upon in presenting what he does, how he does
it, and the underpinning (evidence-based) rationale,
presented the conference with a memorable insight
into what, (and how), coaching can be undertaken
within elite team sport environments.
Mike McGuigan Monitoring and

Assessment of Strength and Power in High
Performance Athletes
Dr. Mike McGuigan is the Power Scientist for the New
Zealand Academy of Sport, and during his presentation
he gave a very interesting insight into the methods and
techniques that some sports institutes outside the
United Kingdom are adopting to monitor and assess
elite level athletes. Mike openly discussed his personal
experiences with monitoring of strength and power in
athletic populations, and presented a range of tools
and approaches that can be used at the most basic of
levels through to more advanced technological
applications.
Mike began his presentation giving insight into the
assessment of strength. A range of basic approaches
were discussed (e.g. RMs, isometric forces etc), as well
as the value of reporting absolute and/or relative
strength, in addition to the use of scaling methods to
better represent the data. As an advocate of the
isometric mid-thigh pull that has been used elsewhere,
Dr. McGuigan highlighted the reliability of this method
of strength assessment, as well as its strong
correlation to the 1RM squat and power cleans. Owing

to the ease of assessment for the mid-thigh pull, Mike
highlighted its value; particularly when working with
large groups of athletes where testing can be
performed quickly and efficiently and the need for
technical coaching is very small.
In his discussions on power testing, Mike overviewed
the use of force measurement, displacement
measurement, accelerometers, and timing systems,
and the role that each can play in quantifying power.
This section of the presentation covered the
components of Power Profiling used at the New
Zealand Academy of Sport, where Mike formulates a
holistic picture of athletic standards using a variety of
tests, (e.g. lower body jump profiles, upper body
push/pull profiles, etc).
In the final portion of his presentation, Mike went on to
discuss the importance of presenting testing
information in an appropriate fashion that is valuable
to scientists, but more importantly to the coaches and
athletes themselves. Radar plots, eccentric utilisation
ratios, z-scores, percent change, and smallest
worthwhile changes were all identified as methods that
Mike has used in the field, and found to be valuable.
Each of these can be simply adopted by any strength
and conditioning coach, and thus demonstrated
valuable take home messages from this presentation.
Mike also presented a host of case study information
demonstrating the variety of information that can be
collected and subsequently presented to support an
athletes development.
Dr. McGuigan gave a hugely insightful talk, providing
truly valuable take home messages, stating that if we
are not assessing, we are guessing, when it comes to
understanding athlete development. This was certainly
the pertinent point taken from this presentation.
Assessment and monitoring should be a strategy
adopted by all strength and conditioning professionals,
no matter what the level of the client or athlete, in
order to define objective measures of performance.
Mike eloquently outlined a host of strategies that can
be used to fulfil this requirement. Mike came across as
a highly knowledgeable speaker with an open style,
and a willingness to discuss all the methods that he
uses in his day-to-day work.
Ron McKeefrey Team Based Speed

Training and Conditioning
Big Ron McKeefrey has been the Head Strength and
Conditioning Coach at the University of South Florida
for 10 years, and during his presentation he gave a
warts-and-all insight into the summer speed and
conditioning programmes he uses with the South
Florida Bulls. A quietly spoken guy, Ron began his talk
discussing the responsibility that strength and
conditioning professionals have in being good role
models to the athletes they work with, and to support
young athletes as they develop into good members of
the public. Ron reinforced the fact that the role of the
strength coach goes beyond simply planning sets and
reps, but that in developing good relationships with
athletes, a coach can have a significant impact on
athletes lives beyond the weight room.
Ron went on to give a complete overview of the
summer training programme he uses at South Florida,
particularly with the American football team. This gave
delegates an insight into the exact details of each of
the training components he uses. Outlined, were the 4day weight training programme that are put into

practice, the nature of the speed work he integrates

into the summer conditioning plan, and finally, the role
that metabolic conditioning and interval training work
plays in preparing a team for the NCAA.
Ron closed his presentation with a host of video clips
showing actual footage of his athletes in training. The
videos showed that working with teams in a group
environment and providing them with new and novel
challenges each and every day can have a huge
motivational impact. Indeed, while the videos showed
players being pushed to their limits, they also showed
that with the right motivation great things can be
achieved. The video clips were certainly well received by
all in attendance, as it is always great to see how people
do it on the other side of the pond, as well as to get the
chance to steal a few ideas for exercises and drills.
Its not often you get a coach who is prepared to stand
up on a stage in front of peers and lay their whole
programme out on slides, but this is exactly what Ron
did. What a great insight into his strength and
conditioning programme, with a ton of take home
information for all the delegates to use. In summary, a
great guy, a great insight into a NCAA training
programme, and great video of athletes training hard
and believing in what their coaches are prescribing for
them..even eating worms..though I dont know if
that is really part of the plan. Thanks Ron.
Jon Goodwin Sprint Mechanics:

Combining New Insights and Old Ideas to
Refine our Physical Preparation
Jon Goodwin is programme director of the BSc and MSc
Strength and Conditioning Programmes at St. Marys
University College Twickenham. Jon has been a track
and field sprint coach since 1997 and a strength and
conditioning coach since 1999, working with club to
International standard athletes. Jon is an accredited
member of the UKSCA. He has a BSc in Sport
Rehabilitation and an MSc in Biomedical Engineering,
and is studying towards a PhD in Sprint Mechanics.
This excellent presentation was an in depth mechanical
analysis of sprint technique focussing on the role that
the production of forces have to play in altering our
motion and therefore sprint technique. Biomechanical
principles were explained, which provided a basis for a
sprint coaching technical model and would therefore
guide or possibly challenge current coaching practice.
The forces which act against us when we are running
at a constant velocity are gravity (vertical) and some
air resistance (mainly horizontal). If not for their
existence, a runner would keep going at uniform
velocity forever (Newton 1). By far the greater of these
forces is gravity, which points to the importance of
runners developing the ability to produce vertical force,
and questions any obsession that coaches may have
with horizontal force. Therefore, to run at maximum
velocity we are required to apply forces, which
overcome the changes in motion created by gravity
and air resistance, and these forces can only be applied
when we are in contact with the ground.
2. Contact Time. This is the length of time the athlete

takes in contact with the ground. It is variable
depending on how long it takes for the athlete to apply
enough impulse (force x time) to halt their downward
velocity and reaccelerate themselves upwards into the
next flight phase.
These two components give us, respectively, a
displacement and a time taken to complete the
displacement. This provides coaches with an equation
fundamentally important for speed.
Velocity = Contact length/Contact time
Changing the first variable may prove difficult, as
unless born with long legs athletes have to work with
what theyve got! While getting stronger may enable
athletes to handle slightly longer contact length,
coaches should not coach technically inefficient wide
contact positions e.g. reaching out or pushing off a
long way behind.
Contact time on the other hand is a hugely important
variable. Better sprinters generate similar impulses to
other athletes, but apply the necessary forces in a
shorter period of time. Elite sprinters can generate
higher peak leg extension forces on the ground AND in
a shorter period of time. Therefore, the importance of
accessing more force quickly was emphasised which
creates the ability to minimise contact time.
This gave rise to a discussion illustrating the futility of
working on fast feet on its own. Drills which
concentrate on faster foot contact time can result in
less force production and thus result in less impulse!
Based on a kinematic description:
V (velocity) = CL/CT (contact length/ contact time)
which is V = displacement/time
If CL is mostly anthropometrically determined and
therefore cant be significantly changed it is necessary
for the athlete to minimise the time they have to
express the necessary impulse. To improve impulse,
athletes need to become stronger and technically better.
Discussion of joint movements and muscle actions
highlighted the importance of pre activation, coordination, joint stiffness and efficient transfer of
energy. Vertical force is expressed by hip extension
power and knee and ankle stiffness. This indicates the
importance of weightlifting movements such as the
clean and snatch, and plyometrics such as hopping and
bounding. Training programmes tend to be too
focussed on only concentric actions. Athletes and
coaches should consider eccentric work and this work
should be done either under high load, (above RM max
with assistance on the concentric), or quickly!
There are two variables for a coach to consider in order

to improve the effectiveness of the application of force
to produce greater top speed running velocities:
Skill development is also massively important to the

efficient application of force. To support this, the
biarticular muscle function in sprinting was highlighted
and the example given of the eccentric action of the
hamstrings, which is essential for pre-activation. The
relevance and importance of technique was discussed,
an example being the role of dorsi flexion in facilitating
a lengthening of gastronemius and contributing to
ankle stiffness. Technical work should focus on
stiffness at ground contact at knee and ankle level,
as people who are able to generate ankle stiffness at
contact time run faster!
1. Contact Length. This is the distance the athletes

centre of mass travels while he is in contact with
ground. This will vary depending on how long the
athletes legs are and how far he reaches in front of his
centre of mass and/or his push off from behind.
Reference to the force velocity curve indicated that

coaches should be aware that all training activities go
across the curve, depending on variance in load and
movement velocity, and importantly, that greater
attention should be paid to developing more force in

24
the eccentric phase of the curve since this represents a

pivotal time in force development during stretch
shorten cycles.
This timely update and review of key principles of
sprint mechanics had some important take home
messages for the Strength and Conditioning Coach on
which to focus:
Block periodisation
A block was defined as a training cycle of highly
concentrated specialised workload, and the basic
principles of block periodisation were outlined.
Basic Principles of Block Periodisation

1. Consecutive development of characteristics/abilities
Continuous development of the athletes ability to

generate leg extension forces
2. Mesocycle blocks that focus on minimal number of

target characteristics/abilities
Particular importance of drive through the hip
3. High concentration of training workloads
Particular importance of knee and ankle stiffness
4. Total number of proposed blocks is relatively small
Emphasis on reducing ground contact time by vertical

application of force, rather than quick feet
5. A single mesocycle block lasts 2 -4 weeks
Teaching sound running technique from an early age

to establish default movement patterns
7. Annual cycle = number of training stages
Vladimir Issurin Block Periodisation

Professor Vladimir Issurin serves as a scientific and
professional coordinator in the elite sport department
of the Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate
Institute. As a member of national Olympic
delegations, he took part in six Olympic games, three
times as a team leader of the Israeli kayak and
swimming national teams, (2000-2008). Previously, he
served as a scientific advisor and head of the complex
group for the USSR Olympic canoe/kayak team during
three quadrennial cycles (1978-1991). He has written
over 150 scientific articles in national and international
journals and has authored and co-authored nine books.
Dr. Issurin began by outlining the advantages and
disadvantages of traditional periodisation theory.
This traditional model was pioneered 50 years ago by
Matveyev (Matveyev et al 1964), and featured classic
single, double and multi peaks. Traditional periodised
plans may have many targets, aiming to increase
multiple specific characteristics/abilities
simultaneously.
Advantages
These are ideal for seasonal sports e.g. rowing
They work well for low level athletes
Limitations
A sport may require more than 1 -3 peaks in a
training cycle e.g. team sports
High level athletes have less volume of training and
more competitions. Some volume is replaced by
competitions and subsequently there is a need to
peak more often
The simultaneous development of many
characteristics will inhibit the effectiveness of
training. This is for two reasons:
1 Low stimulation produced by mixed training
2 Conflicting physiological responses:
Excessive fatigue accumulation
As a result of stress, any developments made will be
reduced towards the end of the season
The inability to take part in multiple competitions
It is unrealistic to expect a traditional model of
periodisation to produce multi peak demands, yet this
is required from athletes, not least because of
commercial demands. Team sports in particular require
a different approach, and block periodisation can
provide a model for these situations.
6. Training stage = number of mesocycle blocks

Dr. Issurin stressed that block periodisation is not a
single approach and a number of different models from
high-level sport have been developed including:
1. Anatoli Bondarchuk - Hammer throwing (1986,1988
track and field journal)
Development ( 4 weeks)
Competitive (4 weeks)
Restoration (2 weeks)
Training stage lasts 9-10 weeks
2. Vladimir Issurin & Vassili Koverin Canoe/Kayak
(Issurin & Koverin 1985 & 1989)
Transmutation of specific and technical abilities high intensity. (The athlete should always be
fatigued with no time for recovery). Therefore this
mesocycle must be short.
Realisation (tapering) full restoration
Training stage lasts 6-10 weeks
Cornerstones of Block Periodisation

Block periodisation is based upon a number of key
cornerstones:
1. A high training load concentration
2. Residual training effects retention of changes in
the bodys state and motor abilities after cessation
of training period. (N.B. Older athletes adapt slower,
but maintain better)
3. Optimal length of transmutation is 3 weeks as this is
the border of biological adaptation
4. A recovery mesocycle must always follow to prevent
failure to adapt
5. Realisation should not be longer than 2 weeks
otherwise detraining will occur
For detailed information on Professor Issurins work on
Periodisation the following reference will be of interest:
Issurin, V.B. New horizons for the methodology and
physiology of training periodisation. Sports Med. 2010;
40(3):189-206
Professor Michael H. Stone Skeletal

Muscle Hypertrophy An Overview for
Planning and Programme Design
Prof. Mike Stone, UKSCA fellow, former Head of
Physiology at the US Olympic Training Centre, and now
Laboratory Director at East Tennessee State University,
provided the audience with one of the best
presentations he has delivered in the UK. He reminded
the audience of the importance of utilising
underpinning theory, based upon the latest research, to
develop our applied practice in improving the

performance potential of our athletes.

We know that the relationship between hypertrophy
and performance is complex at best: indeed, how to
positively influence (cause or prevent) muscular
hypertrophy has, at some point, been a keen
consideration for every strength coach in their career.
Much of the discussion around this topic has focused
upon genetics, sets and reps. In this detailed and
comprehensive review of hypertrophy, Mike reminded
us that we need to be able to engage with concepts of
cellular physiology to be able to apply an evidencebased approach to our programme design. The detail
underpinning these key considerations, as outlined in
the presentation, are presented below.
Hypertrophy deals with muscle growth. Hyperplasia is
the addition of new cells. Muscle growth is related to
the balance of anabolic:catabolic mechanisms.
Hypertrophy of muscle fibres appears to be somewhat
fibre specific; Type II fibres depend more upon protein
anabolism and Type I fibres depend more upon
inhibition of catabolism for growth. For reasons not
totally clear, Type II fibres grow at a faster rate than
Type I. In the adult, muscle hypertrophy is stimulated
primarily by damage (obviously not so severe that the
fibre cannot regenerate), and alterations in
metabolism.
Coming into the presentation, many of the audience
would have considered that muscle hypertrophy is a
process of producing a greater anabolic effect
compared to catabolic effects. The talk reminded us
that hypertrophy is a complex interplay between the
stimulus (damage produced by metabolic and
mechanical means), and the resulting alterations in the
endocrine system, immune system and autocrine and
paracrine mechanisms. A key theme that needs to be
reinforced is that the data indicates that the immune
system and autocrine and paracrine mechanisms play
the primary roles.
This process is a complex one, and challenged many of
us to keep notes. The detailed explanation now follows:
Damage to skeletal muscle provokes an immune
response (infiltration of white blood cells, production of
pro-inflammatory cytokines and prostaglandins), and
produces mitogens such as EGF, IGF1 and mechanogrowth-factor.
These mitogens, in turn, stimulate intra-cellular signals
that promote protein synthesis. The primary intracellular signalling pathways, stimulating increased
protein synthesis, are the mitogen-activated protein
kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinases
(MAPK/ERK) and mammalian target of rapamycin
(mTORC1). These pathways are essentially protein
kinase cascades leading to enhanced mRNA
concentrations and protein accretion.
inhibit the mTOR pathway and re-direct energy toward

cellular ATP production. This observation may partially
explain why aerobic training inhibits strength and
power performance gains. This observation is also
important in influencing training programme design, as
it also helps to explain why high volumes of any type
of exercise that demand high chronic energy
expenditure (including resistance training) can reduce
anabolic effects and reduce the hypertrophy
adaptation.
Perhaps the most powerful inhibitory factor for muscle
growth is the protein myostatin. Myostatin binds to
activin Type II receptors, and then initiates a cellsignaling cascade in skeletal muscle activating
proteins, leading to activation of proteins (SMADs)
that induce myostatin-specific gene regulation. In the
embryo, myostatin inhibits myoblast differentiation
into mature muscle fibres. Myostatin has also been
shown to inhibit Akt, a kinase that is part of the
mTORC1 pathway, and this results in growth inhibition.
Therefore, myostatin acts in two ways, by inhibiting
muscle differentiation, and by inhibiting Akt/mTORinduced protein synthesis.
The endocrine system produces both anabolic and
catabolic hormones that can modulate/alter the
hypertrophy adaptation to a given stimulus. For
example, testosterone and insulin are both anabolic in
nature and stimulate mTORC1. Cortisol is primarily
catabolic and stimulates another protein cascade
group, (forkhead box O) the FoxO proteins that deal
with muscle atrophy. Interestingly, testosterone also
plays an anti-catabolic role here by inhibiting the action
of cortisol on these proteins. Testosterone also inhibits
myostatin and promotes satellite cell incorporation.
Although alterations in endocrine function clearly play a
role in muscle hypertrophy, some controversy exists as
to the degree in which post-exercise responses of
hormones alter the hypertrophy adaptation to training.
Currently, there is very little data indicating that the
short-lasting hormone responses to resistance exercise
have a major function in the development of increased
muscle CSA.
Although there is little evidence of training induced
hyperplasia (increased cell number) occurring in
humans, it is possible that satellite cells can alter the
hypertrophy response to a stimulus. Satellite cells
(muscle stem cells in the basal membrane), can also
play a role in total muscle cross-sectional area.
Damage appears to activate satellite cell incorporation
into muscle. Satellite cells can become active and
evolve into a mature muscle cell or more likely
donate their nuclei to a damaged cell promoting
growth.
Various systems support or inhibit the hypertrophy of

skeletal muscle and the intra-cellular signalling
pathways. An energy generating intra-cellular system,
adenosine monophosphate kinase (AMPK) opposes the
action of MAP/ERK and particularly mTOR.
Heredity is an extremely powerful factor, for example:

evidence indicates that among some people (including
families) that myostatin can be expressed at lower
concentration, resting testosterone can be higher and
the Type II fibre population can be higher. These
factors predispose these individuals for larger muscle
and greater gains as a result of resistance training.
Essentially as the energy demand of exercise and

training increases and the ATP/AMP ratio drops, the
AMPK pathway is activated. The long-term (training)
effect of AMPK activation is mitochondrial biogenesis
and alteration in myosin heavy chains such that MHCII
is decreased and MHCI is increased producing a slower
but more energy efficient muscle fibre. As the
ATP/AMP ratio drops (chronically) the AMPK is able to
Appropriate diet and nutrient supplementation can also

increase the hypertrophic adaptation. Considerable
evidence indicates that greater hypertrophy can result
if sufficient calories and protein (amino acids) are
available. Furthermore, evidence indicates that the
timing of supplementation may be critical. Taking in
small to moderate amounts of carbohydrate and
protein during and immediately after a training session

26
can promote protein synthesis and increase the

anabolic environment of the muscle fibre, leading to
greater hypertrophy.
As with many training problems, Mike reminded us that
there is no clear-cut best method of resistance training
for producing hypertrophy. Clearly, muscle damage is a
necessity however, exactly how many repetitions,
sets, how much rest between sets or how often (etc.)
is to an extent debatable. There are several factors
that could affect the hypertrophy outcome /
adaptation:
Subject Characteristics Training Variables
1. Experience
1. Volume
2. Level and State
2. Relative Intensity
3. Sex
3. Training Intensity
4. Age
4. Rest/Recovery Periods
5. Length of Training
Sessions/number of sessions
6. Time of day
7. Warm-up catecholamine
release, etc.
8. Hypoxic Training (Kaatsu)
To an extent there are some individual variations, but

in general, using these ideas may increase hypertrophy
adaptation:
1. Training variation
2. Higher volumes (for hypertrophy alterations). This
may mean higher reps among beginners, but highmoderate reps and higher intensities among more
advanced athletes (or those with a higher training
age). However, the total volume must not be
excessive
3. Sufficient rest between sets (not less than 2 minutes
between sets)
4. Sufficient recovery between workouts
5. Protein/carbohydrate supplementation
Further reading:
Stone et al. Training to failure: Is it worth it? Strength
and Cond. 18(3):44-51, 1996
Jones E.J. et al. Cross-Sectional Area and Muscular
Strength: A Brief Review Sports Med 38: 987-994,
2008.
Breakout sessions
Nick Allen Men in Tights! Lessons to be
Learnt from Training the Performing Arts
As the Clinical Director of the Birmingham Royal Ballet
Company and The Jerwood Centre, Nick comes with a
very strong background in sports. His past involvement
in Olympic sports and Premier League Rugby Union,
coupled with his recently finished epidemiological based
PhD, provides the launch pad to his challenging work of
reducing injuries in ballet, and ensuring systems of
training and recovery move forwards.
In his presentation, Nick compared and contrasted the
notions of sport vs. dance and athlete vs. artist. One of
the biggest challenges highlighted, were the extrinsic
factors of being a ballet dancer. The sheer volume of
practice and performance are the greatest challenge,
adding the huge pressure of trying to reduce injuries in
the dancers to keep them on the stage performing
night after night. Typically the dancers have an hour
and a half class first thing in the morning, followed by

6 hours of rehearsals. They work 6 days a week, and
47 weeks a year, with up to 8 shows a week a total
of 150 shows a year! In addition to this, the dancers
perform on different surfaces, each with different
properties depending on the stage where the
performance is held. They often wear lavish costumes
that can be thick and heavy, meaning thermoregulation
is an issue. Their shoes are for aesthetic purposes only
and provide no protection or absorption of pressure.
Interestingly, despite the athleticism of many of the
moves and jumps performed in ballet, the dancers are
not that fit and strong when compared to athletes.
Their average VO2max scores are low and lower limb
joint torque values are low. Their impressive ability to
jump high repeatedly, comes from practice. They
possess an incredible amount of highly tuned skill.
Their precision is indomitable; their movement patterns
are highly efficient. This means though, that if they get
it wrong, they are doomed. There is no margin for
error as their limbs and joints dont possess the
strength to protect them from injury. In order to
reduce this risk, Nick has begun to change the culture
of training from just rehearsing, to carrying out
additional conditioning to try to address this weakness.
They now have a gym and a hydrotherapy pool. In the
pool, they have been successful at exposing
asymmetries in the dancers, one of the determining
factors in injury. By taking the dancers out of their
natural environment, these imbalances are
accentuated, and can be detected, then worked on in
rehabilitation sessions.
Towards the end of the session Nick touched on some
of his other areas of interest and research including
vitamin D deficiency and its impact on balance, muscle
and bone health; and his interest in efficiency of
movement.
The video clips of the dancers in rehearsal highlighted
the physical demands of ballet and showcased their
impressive physical abilities, leaving the audience with
a new respect and intrigue in this expressive art form.
Nikos Apostolopoulos Microstretching

and Inflammation with Regards to Recovery
and Regeneration
In his unconventional style of presenting, it was clear
that Nikos had come to challenge and question some
of the traditional methods surrounding stretching. With
the backdrop of John Dees 16th Century philosophy
that nature conceals more than she reveals, Nikos
went on to introduce the paradigm shift that
microSTRETCHING is to the world of therapy.
Microstretching has been defined as an active
realignment soft tissue manipulation technique based
on gentle passive stretching techniques, where relief
is provided without stretching to the point of pain. The
development of this technique has come from the
study of pain and the musculoskeletal patterns
developed as a result. In this method, through
relaxing the nervous system, the bodys own
recuperative energy is stimulated. The
parasympathetic nervous system is stimulated while
the effects of the sympathetic nervous system are
decreased. Microstretching, thus moderates the
inflammatory response of the body. Traditional
stretching techniques can induce cytokine release,
pro-inflammatory proteins that can be detrimental to
recovery, and any hyper inflammation from trauma
can lead to immune suppression. However, since pain

is a stimulus, which can cause tissue damage, in

microstretching, no level of pain is created so that
these effects are minimised. The method also seeks to
eliminate any potential of muscle contraction when
stretching.
Microstretching encompasses a holistic approach to
stretching. For example, if the semimembranosis is
injured, why not focus on the 51 other muscles around
the knee and hip instead of just treating one muscle?
At Nikos clinic, alongside stretching, they also
recommend supplementation of fish oils as a protein
sparer, bee pollen as a mineral rich source, and
vitamin E and C as part of a wider programme of
recovery.
The parameters for stretching are based around the
combination of duration, intensity and frequency,
coupled with balance, stability and control to get the
best results. Recommendations are an intensity of 30
to 40% of a maximum perceived stretch, a duration of
60 seconds per hold and a frequency of 3 times per
muscle group once per day.
The practical aspect of the session was very helpful. The
group relocated from the lecture theatre to a quiet room
with pillows, where stretches were demonstrated and
then tried by the group. The pillows were to provide
comfort. Part of the philosophy of the method is that no
part of the body should be under tension and that the
body should be fully relaxed to gain maximum benefits.
There is no doubt that this cutting edge method will
challenge and question traditional methods in our quest
to help athletes recover and regenerate post injury, and
more importantly post training and competition.
Harvey Newton Developing the 'Coaches

Eye': Optimising Performance During
Olympic-Style Weightlifting
Harveys breakout presentation gave S&C coaches with
a range of abilities and experiences the opportunity to
gain insight into the technical aspects and
considerations of the Olympic lifts. Coach Newton has a
wealth of experience in coaching Olympic lifts to
weightlifters and athletes. The presentation was
practical and interactive, which allowed for greater
learning for those not too familiar with the lifts. For
those more experienced, it gave scope for reflection on
how they coach the Olympic lifts and to weigh up the
cost-benefits of using the Olympic lifts for explosive
strength development.
Harvey showed several clips of athletes performing the
Olympic lifts with various and common technical issues.
The delegates provided technical input into what the
errors were, what was causing them and possible
solutions. The visual learning environment was
continued through delegates volunteering to
demonstrate their snatch or clean. Delegates, with the
guidance from Harvey, gave coaching feedback,
enabling everyone to gain an opportunity to develop
and understand the coaching eye.
Overall, Harveys presentation demonstrated the
experience necessary to understand and coach the
intricacies of the Olympic lifts. His experience and
passion shone through the actual detail of the lifts,
with stories and interesting facts, such as the rule
change allowing the bar to touch the thigh during the
lifts. Underlying Harveys presentation, was the vital
message that experience, learning and productive
coaching with athletes is fundamental to developing
the necessary abilities to coach and motivate athletes.
Mike Favre Planning and Methods of

Physical Preparation for Combat Sports
Mikes presentation was based around the physical
preparation for grappling sports, specifically wrestling
and judo. From the outset, Mike was clear his role was
to develop the physical qualities necessary for
improved sports technique, not to coach sports
technique.
Planning & Physical Preparation

Proper Planning, Prevents Poor Performance
Mikes take was that preparation planning should be a
multi-disciplinary approach with the national coach
having overall authority. The main goal was to
establish a multi-year physical development model to
allow continued improvements. The following process
was followed:
1. Determine annual and quadrennial competitive
calendar
Identify periods of competition and preparation
2. Plan athletic development around the competitive
calendar (Mikes athletes may train through
domestic and some overseas events)
Identify organisational and individual goals
3. Cannot peak for every event but dont need to
Establish peaks (mainly around World or Olympic
Games)
Mike gave good examples of an annual plan consisting
of 10-14 mesocycles, changing in focus with each new
cycle. These cycles last from 2-6 weeks depending on
the time of year and training focus. The training
sessions would follow a similar structure every time:
1. Dynamic warm up (multi-planar bodyweight and
agility based drills)
2. Plyometric based drills (hops, medicine ball throws)
3. Explosive lifts (Olympic lifts)
4. Assistance lifts (arms, pummelling, prehab and grip)
5. Torso (specifically bracing strength under high load)
The athletes would have informal testing every 4-6
weeks, with formal testing occurring twice a year.
These tests include maximum lifts, throws, runs and
jumps.
Methods
There is no such thing as being in too good a condition
and you cant ever get too strongyou cannot take
your physical preparation for granted
A thorough needs analysis is critical to determine the
physical needs for the athlete population. This included
the metabolic and mechanical demands, as well as the
physical characteristics necessary to assist this
development. The grappling sports (Greco-Roman,
Freestyle and Judo) shared similar needs in that they
all need ability to change level at the hips and all
require short explosive bursts of activity.
Not only do grappling athletes need to be strong, they
need to be strong in awkward positions such as GrecoRoman wrestlers lifting the opponent off the floor. This
was the basis for strength development. Mike also
demonstrated the need for strength endurance,
explosive ability including rate of force development,
power endurance, speed, agility and quickness. The
latter was important for the transition from positions
quickly, first step quickness and rapid changes in
direction. Grip, shoulder and arm strength and

28
endurance were also stated as key physical qualities

to develop. Athletes also need to be flexible due to
the large amount of twisting in awkward positions.
While the staple of strength training derived from
major barbell lifting, the programme also included
lifts, which were not so biomechanically efficient
such as Kneeling Zerchers. Weight room training
must enhance mat work, so training using
instruments such as kegs, sledge hammers, heavy
ropes and D-Balls were all used to transfer weight
room training to mat performance.
The overall goal is to relentlessly pressure the
opponent throughout the match. The athletes have
to be more committed, more focussed and more
physically and mentally prepared than their
opponent to be successful. The athletes must be
great wrestlers/judokas with excellent technical and
tactical skills. But ultimately for the athlete to be
successful, they must enjoy the battle.
Danny Holdcroft S&C for Skeleton

Performance Preparations for Amy
Williams, Winter Olympic Gold Medalist,
Vancouver 2010
Danny gave a fascinating insight into the world of
S&C at the elite stage, outlining his work with the
GB skeleton team, that famously resulted in GBs
only gold medal of the 2010 winter olympics, that
of Amy Williams.
A key feature of Dannys presentation was that
effective S&C support is not simply about the
programme, but equally important is the
performance environment created by the coach.
This includes building effective working relationships
with athletes and creating an environment of trust,
where everyone is on the same page and working
towards a common goal. These elements are often
overlooked in the S&C world, where we focus on
what is delivered and occasionally forget how it is
delivered. Dannys view of a S&C coach as a total
performance coach clearly illustrated the wider
impact S&C coaches can have on performance.
This is not to suggest that programming is not
important. Danny outlined the process he utilised
to develop high performance, from initial analysis
of the sport and athletes to developing effective
long term development programmes that could
deliver sustained success for Great Britain. This
long term approach was seen as a key factor in the
success of the programme. An important feature of
this work, and one which highlighted the real world
application was that, while plans were vitally
important, they had to be adaptable. The world of
sport is far from perfect, and many factors will
have the capacity to impact upon the plan. Here
the coachs ability to adapt is crucial and Danny
highlighted how adaptations could be made
efficiently and effectively in response to a range of
factors.
Another refreshing feature was how Danny did not
set himself up as the font of all knowledge. Instead
he set up a support team, where he gained
information from a diverse range of highly
knowledgeable professionals, from a range of
disciplines in order to produce the most effective
programme possible.
Darcy Norman Bullet Proofing Athletes for

Performance Injury Prevention and
Rehabilitation Strategies for the S&C Coach
Darcy brought a host of experience to his presentation.
The director of Norman Kinetics, based in Lake Tahoe
California, Darcy had spent the previous three years as
head strength and conditioning coach at Bayern Munich
FC, being a key part of the support team that helped
Bayern reach the Champions League final that year.
Indeed, Darcys role was publicly praised by Head Coach
Louis Van Gaal following the successful season.
Previously, Darcy had worked at Athletes Performance in
Tempe Arizona, and the Olympic Therapy Centre in
Seattle Washington, as well as consulting with many
professional teams from a range of sports. A highly
respected coach, and much sought after presenter, Darcy
eloquently presented his approaches to working with
athletes and practically demonstrated some of the
exercises that form the backbone of his programme.
He emphasised the importance of preparation to
performance, and how this preparation is most
effective when presented in a progressive long term
programme, which ensures fundamentals are
developed prior to moving onto advanced training
methods. He continued to break down performance
into a number of fundamental cogs, each of which had
further sub-divisions, and all of which had the
influence to both affect performance and influence
injury risk. Here, Darcy clearly demonstrated the wide
ranging role that strength and conditioning coaches
can, and need to, take in order to maximise athletic
performance in both the short and long-term. Critical
to this was the development of effective movement
patterns, and optimal mobility and stability. Darcy
outlined the dangers of the overpowered athlete
where strength and power were developed on a base
of poor movement patterns and gave numerous
demonstrations of where this happens and the
potential problems. While outlining corrective
programmes in these situations his message was how
to avoid these problems occurring in the first place
via a progressive programme of exercise that
emphasised the correct way rather than the way of
least resistance. This was further emphasised in the
need to screen athletes movements rather than just
test performance. Darcy outlined the importance of
movements showing how his screening results were
showing a high correlation with injury prediction, with
low scores indicating an increased prevalence of
injury.
Darcy continued to outline the controlling factors of
movement as joint mobility and stability, muscular
mobility and stability, and motor programming and
demonstrated how these need to be developed in tandem
to produce optimal movement patterns.
Darcy then went on to illustrate how these principles
could be applied in practice, giving sample programmes
and sessions from his time at Bayern Munich. This
effectively led into a practical session where delegates
were coached though some of the movements Darcy uses
in his programme. This presentation was a great example
of the diversity of work and approaches needed in order
to maximise athletic performance, and encouraged
coaches to explore approaches wider than simply the
traditional lifts and exercises utilised in many
programmes.

COACHING COLUMN
Strength and
Conditioning
Coaching Practice:
What is an Effective
Demonstration?
Daniel Pratt, BSc, ASCC
Daniel is currently completing the
Strength and Conditioning MSc at St
Marys University Twickenham, as
well as being the Strength and
Conditioning coach at Wellington
College, Berkshire. He also works
with Scottish Exiles Rugby and the
Emerging Players at Surrey County
Cricket Club.
Ian Jeffreys is a senior lecturer

in strength and conditioning at
the University of Glamorgan.
He is also the Proprietor and
Performance Director of All-Pro
Performance in Brecon, Wales.
A registered Strength and
Conditioning Coach with the
British Olympic Association, an
NSCA Coach Practitioner, and
a Board Member of the United
Kingdom Strength and
Conditioning Association, Ian
was voted the NSCA High
School Professional of the Year
in 2006.
Ian Jeffreys is the column editor for
the Coaching Column.
Introduction
Strength and conditioning (S&C) practitioners often have a number of varied
roles they are required to fulfil, including functional movement screenings,
performance assessments and programme design. However, the coaching
processes by which skills and techniques are taught in order to enhance
physical qualities in strength and conditioning settings are often overlooked,
and the coach can often be reduced to simply providing encouragement and
motivation. Whilst the role of the S&C coach as a motivator should not be
overlooked, there is growing evidence within the skill acquisition literature,
that as coaches, we should give greater thought to our coaching processes
and the type of knowledge we encourage our athletes to obtain. Two forms
of knowledge have been identified with regards to motor tasks. Firstly,
procedural knowledge, which is the ability to be able to simply perform a
task or skill and secondly, declarative knowledge, which is concerned with
how the skill is performed and governed by rule based information.18
Crucially, as coaches we must recognise that declarative knowledge, which is
often favoured by coaches, is liable to an effect termed reinvestment, which
involves athletes reverting back to a performance level corresponding with a
cognitive stage of learning, usually in pressure situations.10 Several authors
argue that this requires coaches to find methods, such as analogies
(amongst others), which focus on encouraging our athletes to learn via
problem solving processes, with the belief that this will limit potential
reinvestment and also encourage greater retention of learning.7,15,17
There are a number of coaching tools available to us when working with our
athletes, including demonstrations, verbal cues, instructions and feedback;
as well as methods of manipulating the practice structure of sessions.16
Whilst all these variables will impact on the coaching environment, the role
of demonstrations is often crucial, and it is rare to see a S&C coach go
through a session in either the gym or the field without providing some form
of demonstration. This could be a consequence of the importance placed on
effective skill production in many coaching qualifications. In an attempt to
enhance the skill learning of our athletes, both in the gym and in the field,
we must consider the impact our demonstrations of skills have on our
learner athletes and in particular the skill level of the demonstration and
who provides it.5
Many S&C coaches may consider that much of the research into skill
acquisition is based around the learning of actual sports skills, such as a
pass in football.18 This is therefore unrelated to the coaching of skills used to
enhance performance capacities, such as olympic lifts, which for sports
performers, (excluding weightlifters) are simply a modality used to enhance
specific physical qualities of an athlete. However, as S&C coaches, we are
involved in coaching movement mechanics that do directly transfer to

30
Key Features of Observational Learning

Attention
Observers must attend and watch the

demonstration.
Retention
The demonstrated performance must be

retained in the memory of the learner.
Reproduction
The observer must be able to reproduce and

practice the demonstration they have
witnessed.
Motivation
The observer must want to retain and

reproduce what they have observed.
Table. 1. Description of key features of Observational

Learning highlighted by Bandura3.
performance, such as in agility drills for both field and
court based sports. Additionally, due to the importance
placed on the long term development of athletes by
National Governing Bodies, we must also consider the
wider impact of how we coach in the gym, as this will
likely have some influence on our athletes and the
process by which they become accustomed to learning.
The remainder of this article will consider the evidence
available with regards to skill acquisition and the skill
level of the demonstration presented and will also
address the question of who should provide it, with
specific reference as to how this may impact on our
practice as S&C coaches.
What is the theory behind

demonstrations?
The skill acquisition literature also refers to
demonstrating as modelling, both of which can be
defined as involving the observation of a performance
of a skill or action targeted for learning by someone
separate to the learner.18 The ability to learn through
watching others was originally highlighted by Bandura3
in the Social Learning Theory, in which four key
elements of observational learning were identified,
including attention, retention, reproduction and
motivation as outlined in Table 1 (above).
Whilst the focus of this article is on the practical
implications of the skill level of the demonstration, and
who should provide it, it is also important to note that
there are several other features influencing the
effectiveness of a demonstration, including when it is
given, how often it is provided and the speed at which
it is provided, with research showing that often slow
motion demonstrations may not provide learners with
the required relative motion information to understand
the skill effectively. However, slow motion
demonstrations may offer a method by which to break
down a complex movement pattern, such as an
olympic lift..1,6
What does the research tell us

about who should provide
demonstrations?
Before reviewing the available literature regarding who
should provide demonstrations, it is important to note
that very little evidence actually exists researching
strength and conditioning exercises or sports skills. The
majority of research has looked at novel tasks, which
means we have to infer a great deal from the available
research in this area, in order to enhance our coaching
practices. It is also important at this stage to define
several terms that are used in the skill acquisition
literature with regards to the provision of

demonstrations. The research reviewed has aimed to
establish whether a learning or unskilled demonstration
is more effective than a correct or skilled
demonstration. A learning or unskilled demonstration is
used to mean a demonstration which is an adequate
representation of a skill, but one which is developing
and does not mean a demonstration which is incorrect
or littered with errors. On the other hand, a correct or
skilled demonstration refers to a demonstration of a
skill, which is believed to meet what is recognised as
the ideal technique to perform a skill. The use of a
learning or unskilled demonstration is theorised to be
effective due to placing fewer constraints on learners
and allowing them to establish a solution to a problem
which is efficient to them as an individual.13
Early research into who should provide demonstrations
was conducted by Landers and Landers8 on a ladder
climbing task. They compared the effects of a student
or teacher demonstrator who was either skilled or
unskilled. Landers and Landers8 identified that the
skilled teacher and unskilled peer provided the most
effective demonstrations, which may suggest that it is
a combination of who performs the demonstration and
the perception of their skill level which limits the
effectiveness of the demonstration. Lirgg and Feltz9
also conducted a similar study, but found differing
results, indicating that the most effective
demonstrations were provided by either a skilled peer
or teacher. The possible reason for these differing
results is that in the Landers and Landers8 study the
demonstrators and learners knew each other and were
reported as having good relationships, which is likely to
have influenced the motivation and attention levels of
the learners. What this research appears to highlight is
that a skilled teacher or coach led demonstration may
be most effective in enhancing immediate skill
performance, but that there may also be a role for
demonstrations being provided by an unskilled or
learner peer who is known to the group of learners. In
contrast to research presented up to this point, Pollock
and Lee14 did not observe any differences between
improvements in performance seen between a skilled
or learning demonstration in a computer game tracking
task. However, these results may be explained by the
fact the computer based task was extremely limited,
involving simply following a cursor around a set out
track on the screen.
Crucially, none of the research presented thus far has
made use of a retention period. A retention period
refers to the stability of learning assessed at a period
of time following the initial learning stimulus.
McCullagh and Meyer12 did make use of a retention
trial, and argued that there were no differences in
performance improvements between a correct or
learning demonstration, where subjects learnt a
squatting movement pattern, in either immediate
learning or following a 48 hour retention period.
However, although not significant, a number of trends
appear in McCullagh and Meyers12 data. Firstly, over
the initial 5 practice trials, the correct demonstration
was more effective, however, the second trend present
is that by the final 48 hour retention trial, the learning
demonstration group appear to have retained the
squatting skill more effectively. A major issue with the
results of McCullagh and Meyer12 is that the control
group used observed the same demonstration as the
learning group, but did not receive feedback regarding
the demonstration. This may actually highlight that the

important coaching factor is the cues given regarding a

demonstration, rather than the demonstration itself.
Furthermore, whilst it appears attractive that a
squatting pattern was researched, the task was
actually to perform 14 squats in 30 seconds against a
load of 30 lbs, which does not replicate what would be
utilised in most strength and conditioning settings, nor
is it mentioned the depth of squat that was required,
which is an important issue of coaching philosophy
within strength and conditioning. In further research by
McCullagh and Caird,11 it was identified that a learning
demonstration was significantly more effective than a
correct demonstration, in learning a task requiring
barriers to be knocked down in a given time and order,
both during the initial skill acquisition test and in an
immediate and 24 hour retention test. This research
provides clear support for the use of a learning model
for both immediate skill learning, but also, importantly,
the ability to retain skills. However, it is again
important to note that both the learning and correct
demonstration groups also received demonstration
feedback, as well as initial instructions on how to
complete the task, which may limit the power we can
place on the effect of the differing demonstration
methods. Finally, Hirose et al.4 also identified that a
learning model was the most effective demonstration
form when learning a task requiring patterns to be
made on a computer screen with hand controlled rails.
Whilst the learning demonstration was the most
effective, this was only significant compared to the
control group, and only approached significance when
compared to the correct demonstration group. Despite
the novel task and the lack of significant difference
between the learning and correct demonstration
groups, this research did show a trend over a 24 hour
and one week retention period for a learning
demonstration to offer greater retention benefits than a
correct demonstration.
Summary of the Research

The literature available at present regarding who
should provide demonstrations may appear to favour
the use of a learning model, particularly when
considering the aim of ensuring that skills are retained
over time. The effectiveness of a learning
demonstration would appear to be due to the learners
being actively involved in a problem solving learning
process, which is likely to require greater levels of
attention. It may also be possible that a learners
motivation may be enhanced through the use of a peer
demonstration, due to the learner striving to
outperform the peer demonstrator and this may also
go some way to enhancing skill retention levels.
Practical Implications
For most strength and conditioning coaches two major
coaching areas of work are within the weights room
and the speed and agility setting. These are two very
different environments, with skills within the weights
room being of a closed nature and those in the speed
and agility setting needing to be transferable to the
open environment of sports. In establishing the need
for speed and agility skills to transfer directly to sports
performance, and the associated open settings, our
athletes may gain some benefits through the use of a
learning and possibly peer led demonstration, as
opposed to a purely coach led coaching process. The
major factor allowing us to utilise a peer led learning
model in a speed and agility setting is the much

reduced safety fears when compared to the weights
room. For most S&C coaches, a feature of their
philosophy will be to do no harm to their athletes,
which provides a challenge if they are aiming to utilise
learning and peer led demonstrations. It is likely that a
learning demonstration of skills such as olympic lifts
used in the weights room, may not necessarily provide
a safe technical model. When combining concerns over
safety and the fact that exercises performed in the
weights room, for the majority of athletes are only a
training modality and not a competitive skill, it may be
more advisable for a more correct demonstration to be
utilised, which is coach led. This is particularly so if we
require our athletes to obtain a skill quickly, as it is
likely that a learning demonstrations will take longer to
achieve the skill acquisition outcomes sought after. A
number of further issues concerning who should
provide demonstrations, although not limited to this
decision process, should also be considered, including,
what is the current stage of learning of the athletes in
question? This will influence what is deemed a learning
and correct demonstration. Similarly, an understanding
of the learning style favoured by an athlete is
important, with more visual learners clearly preferring
the use of a demonstration and finally the type of skill
which is being learnt, in terms of whether it is
continuous, discrete or serial.2
Conclusion
It has been identified that a learning and peer led
demonstration may offer a better retained form of
observational learning compared to a correct coach led
demonstration, possibly through enhanced levels of
attention and motivation. However, it is also important
to highlight that the role of practice is ultimately still
crucial, and that, whilst a learning model could
potentially be more enduring, as S&C coaches we are
often limited by time available prior to competition,
which may require the use of more correct models to
speed the immediate learning process. It is also worth
noting that demonstrations are only one available
coaching tool, and that, in reality, they are used in
combination with other tools available to coaches, such
as feedback. Furthermore, the decision of who provides
your demonstrations should take account of safety
concerns and whether these must be constrained for,
or whether the greater concern is how directly the skill
transfers to the sporting setting. Ultimately, it is likely
that the issue of safety versus skill transfer, combined
with coaching philosophy and the characteristics of the
given athletes, will lead to the selection of either a
correct or a learning demonstration. However, research
does identify that a peer led learning demonstration
may offer some benefits to our athletes and does not
appear to do any harm, therefore it may offer an
additional coaching tool to us as S&C coaches.
References
1.
2.
Al-Abood, S.A, Davids, K, Bennett, S.J, Ashford, D. and

Marin, M.M. (2001).Effects of manipulating relative and
absolute motion information during observational learning
of an aiming task. Journal of Sports Sciences, 19 (7): 507520.
Ashford, D., Bennett, S. and Davids, K. (2006)
Observational modelling effects for movement dynamics
and movement outcome measures across differing task
constraints: A meta-analysis. Journal of Motor Behaviour,
38 (3): 185-205.

32
3.
Bandura, A.C. (1977). Social Learning Theory. New York:

General Learning Press.
4. Hirose, T., Tsutsui, S., Okudo, S. and Imanaka, K. (2004).
Effectiveness of the use of a learning model and
concentrated schedule in observational learning of a new
bimanual coordination pattern. International Journal of
Sport and Health Science, 2, 97-104.
5. Hodges, N.J. and Franks, I.M. (2002) Modelling coaching
practice: the role of instruction and demonstration. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 20 (10): 793-811.
6. Laguna, P.L. (2008). Task complexity and sources of taskrelated information during the observational learning
process. Journal of Sports Sciences, 26 (10): 1097-1113.
7. Lam, W. Maxwell, J.P. and Masters, R. (2009). Analogy
learning and the performance of motor skills under
pressure, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31
(3): 337-357.
8. Landers, D.M. and Landers, D.M. (1973). Teacher versus
peer models: Effects of models presence and
performance level on motor behaviour. Journal of Motor
Behaviour, 5: 129-139.
9. Lirgg, C.D. and Feltz, D.L. (1991). Teacher versus peer
models revisited: effects on motor performance and selfefficacy. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 62
(2): 217-224.
10. Masters, R.S.W., Polman, R.C.J. and Hammond, N. V.
(1993). Reinvestment: a dimension of personality
implicated in skill breakdown under pressure. Personality
and Individual Differences, 14 (5): 655-666.
11. McCullagh, P. and Caird, J.K. (1990). Correct and learning

models and the use of model knowledge of results in the
acquisition and retention of a motor skill. Journal of
Human Movement Studies, 18: 107-116.
12. McCullagh, P. and Meyer, K.N. (1997). Learning versus
correct models: influence of model type on the learning of
a free-weight squat lift. Research Quarterly for Exercise
and Sport, 68 (1): 56-61.
13. Newell, K.M. (1985) Coordination, control and skill. In
Differing Perspectives in Motor Learning, Memory, and
control. Goodman, D., Wilberg, R.B. and Franks, I.M. Eds.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science,. pp. 295-317.
14. Pollock, B.J. and Lee, T.D. (1992) Effects of the models
skill level on observational motor learning. Research
Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 63 (1) 25-29.
15. Poolton, J.M. Masters, R. and Maxwell, J.P. (2006) The
influence of analogy learning on decision-making in table
tennis: evidence from behavioural data. Psychology of
Sport and Exercise, 7 (6): 677-688.
16. Schmidt, R.A. and Wrisberg, C.A. (2000). Motor Learning
and Performance: A Problem-Based Learning Approach.
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
17. Weeks, D.L. and Regis, O. (1996). A comparison of
imitation strategies in observational learning of action
patterns. Journal of Motor Behaviour, 28 (4) 348-358.
18. Williams, M. and Hodges, N.J. (2004). Skill Acquisition in
Sport: Research, Theory and Practice. London: Routledge.
pp 207-228.
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TASS Olympic Weightlifting

for Sports Performance
Workshop Review
David OSullivan
This is a review of a workshop delivered by Tams

Fehr entitled Olympic Lifting for Sports Performance.
Fehr is currently the World Class Lifting Lead
Performance Coach. A Hungarian, Fehr has substantial
international experiences. He started weightlifting at
age 13 and participated in competitions, with small
interruptions, until 41 years of age (P.B. 155 & 175 in
91 kg cat.). He became a weightlifting coach at age 20
and received his first international coaching assignment
at age 29. The major international assignments of his
coaching carrier are as follows: National coach of
Honduras, 1989; National coach of the junior
Hungarian team, 19911992; Head coach of National
team of El Salvador, 19921994 and again in
19992000; Head coach of the National team of
Norway, 20032004.
The workshop was part of the TASS continued
professional development programme for its coaches.
Nick Ward, the Director of S&C for TASS, kindly offered
the UKSCA a free place on the course, which was taken
by David O Sullivan. The following report provides a
summary of the major points delivered during the
workshop.
Workshop Report
The initial part of the workshop involved an overview of
the Sports Adaptations to weightlifting.
Overcompensation was presented as the basis of
performance development, with the need to vary
loading phases in a structured and applied way. The
importance of constantly assessing the adaptation
levels via training tests, competitions and observation
of other signs, was stressed throughout this process.
The different types of contraction were then outlined
and probably the most significant aspect of this
portion, for me, was the emphasis put on the
importance of training the static contraction of the
erectors during the deadlift. Tams, for example,
always makes his athletes return the bar the way it
came up in his exercises (especially deadlifts), to
emphasise and train the static contraction of the
erectors, which he maintains are critical to successful
lifting.
Phases of Training
Tams went into great detail about his thought process
in developing programmes. He subdivided his training
programmes into:
Long Term Plans
Mid Term Plans
Cycle Plans
The long term plan itself was further subdivided into a:

1. Programme Plan
2. Performance Plan
3. Weightlifting Plan
4. Methodology Plan
Tams broke down his macro and micro cycles giving
examples of the intensities and loads he uses. These
were summarised effectively into charts of a typical 1
year and 4 year plan for his athletes. This also allowed
him to go into a little more detail of the preparatory,
competitive and transition periods and how they fit into
the overall plan.
Tams uses a preparatory period of 9-10 weeks, which
is divided into two subsets, consisting of a general
period of preparation for 4-6 weeks and what he
termed a shaping up period of 3-4 weeks, (which is
analogous to the specific preparation stage). Following
this is the competition period, which may itself be
broken up into two parts if the period is prolonged. This
is then followed by a transition period of 1-2 weeks.
Tams outlined 4 tasks that need to be developed in the
correct order for the development of physical abilities:
1. Max Strength (Developed in the 2nd half of the
preparatory period and whole of competitive period)
2. Dynamic Strength (Developed in the 2nd part of the
competitive period)
3. Strength Endurance (Developed in both parts of the
preparatory period)
4. Max Strength Endurance (Developed in the 2nd half
of preparatory period and whole of competitive
period. This was highlighted as being specific to
Weightlifting and High Class Athletes)
The sets and reps used for the above abilities were
outlined along with appropriate rest periods. Tams
emphasised the need for heavier athletes to have more
rest than lighter individuals. During maximal lifts the
heart rate rises to 180/190 bpm, and it was
recommended that a method of telling how much rest
time was needed, would be to let the HR return to 120
bpm. Tams emphasised that inadequate rest can kill
the speed and execution of the movement pattern.
Tams spoke of the importance of differentiating
between the biological age and the calendar age of
athletes. He suggested that the cheapest, (and best),
way to determine the biological age is with the coachs
eyes, observing visible signs such as height,
bodyweight, voice and hair! Tams then outlined the
differences he uses in his periodised method for the
different ages, and the different emphasis he has for
using each physical ability above.

34
Applied Exercise Selections.
Supplementary exercises
Tams uses the following classifications of exercises to

aid effective exercise selection:
Tams then outlined some supplementary exercises he

uses. These include:
Special Exercises for Snatch and Clean and Jerk

(Deadpulls, Highpulls, Powerlifts)
1. The Deadpull which then compliments the Highpull,

which in turn compliments the Power Clean or Power
Snatch. (This is how we structured our lifts in the
practical session).
General Exercises (Squats, Pushes etc)

Special Accessory Exercises (Jumps, Throws, etc)
Stretching Exercises (Always performed after
Weightlifting Exercises)
Accessory Sports (No weightlifting adequate effect)
Key Coaching Points

Start Position
Tams seemed mystified as to why athletes start with the
feet parallel, as he suggested it promotes poor lower limb
alignment later on in the lift. He saw this as an energy
leak, as the weight shifts forward causing the back to
increase its work capacity. Tams encourages the typical
5 to 1 or even 10 to 2 position. The start position is
extremely important, as it is the common point of gravity
between the athlete and the bar. This point of gravity will
be lost if the start position is not correct. The
precontraction of the trunk and erector spinae are
important elements in developing an effective start
position.
Differences between the start position for the clean and
the snatch include, the clean feet and grip width is
narrower than the snatch positions, while the body angle
is also more upright than the snatch starting position.
Tams noted that the narrower the grip position, the
lower down the thigh the bar will hit later on in the lift.
(This is also very important for determining the snatch
grip position, so as to sit nicely in the crease of the hips
just before the start of the second pull).Tams
recommended that the ball of the big toe should be
directly under the bar; which is slightly further than the
UKSCAs recommendation of the 1st eyelet of the lace.
1st Pull
The bar travels back to the athlete during the first pull.
The back, neck and head all move in the same plane as
the bar is lifted. The overpull (transition according to
the UKSCA terminology), puts the athlete in the perfect
position for the 2nd pull. Tams himself does not believe
that the double knee bend needs to be taught, as he
sees this is an unconscious movement.
2nd Pull/Explosion
Tams emphasised that during this phase, the thigh
should meet the bar, as opposed to the bar hitting the
thigh. Tams uses the analogy of two cars hitting into
each other and its effect on momentum if the latter is
allowed to happen. Tams emphasised keeping on the
toes as long as possible during the pull.
Tams doesnt like using boxes in start positions as he
finds that his athletes have difficulty getting the back and
erectors as tense as possible. Tams notes that hang lifts
suit athletes who are stronger in their lower backs than
quadriceps, as there is no starting speed from the floor
and so great acceleration is required in a shorter space of
time.
2. The Squat. Here it was emphasised that the start

position for the feet width should correlate with the
snatch feet width. Tams demands that his athletes
are as dynamic as possible on the ascent.
3. The modified Good Morning exercise which
required the athlete to go to 45 degrees hip flexion
keeping a neutral spine. Tams assured us that he
only makes his athletes go to 45 degrees as this
correlates with the static contraction for the starting
position of the clean or snatch in regards function of
the erector spinae muscles. Gill Stevenson pointed out
that the UKSCA do not recommend the Good Morning
exercise due to increased sheer forces on the lumbar
spine, but favour the Romanian Deadlift instead, which
Tams agreed was fine to use once the neutral lumbar
spine was kept.
Teaching effective technique

Tams debated using the global or partial methods for
teaching the two main lifts and gave advantages and
disadvantages of both. He then went over some practical
coaching tips, such as not trying to correct everything at
once, instead focussing on the key technical problems.
Tams presented the following method of teaching new
technique:
Short verbal explanation
Practical demonstration
Execution by the athlete
Corrections during execution
Short evaluation
Instruct for next set, reminding of new instructions if
necessary
Verbal instructions should be short, determined and
understandable. High and continuous concentration can
causes early psychological tiredness, which Tams claimed
can decrease an athletes ability to relax muscles, leading
to poor execution and practising poor movement patterns.
Summary
The workshop was an effective mix of theory and
practice. The principles and methodology underlying
Tams programmes were presented, along with practical
insights from a lifetime of coaching. This was
supplemented by time for the attendees to practice their
own techniques and to apply some of Tamss tips.
Overall it was an excellent weekend, and a first rate
professional development opportunity for coaches from a
range of ability and experiences.
I would like to thank TASS and Tams for organising this
great event and also the UKSCA for selecting me to go on
this informative and enjoyable course. I would also like to
thank Gil Stevenson for his patience in being my lifting
partner on the second day!!!
David OSullivan is the lead physiotherapist for Leeds Rhinos Rugby League Club. David is in pursuit of his accreditation
with the UKSCA, having completed three out of the four requirements to date. David also works with a wide range of
athletes through his private practice, Pro Sport Physiotherapy, and trains Gaelic Footballers and long distance runners.
David can be contacted at dave@prosportphysiotherapy.co.uk.

Journal 19

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ISSN 1757-5834

The journal of the UK Strength & Conditioning Association

No. 19 AUTUMN 2010

1 Woodville Terrace, Lytham,

Learning from the Boxer

Listening to experienced coaches talk about their programmes and

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Is it really time for the journal to go

coaches. In addition, we hope to

helping to make this so successful.

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

When designing and implementing a periodised training plan the ability to

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

resistance training programme. However, the ability to

Methods for Estimating Training

Therefore, it is generally accepted that while the repetition

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Table 1: Methods of Volume Conversions

Volume Load Metric Ton

Snatch Pull (from floor)

Snatch Pull (from knee)

Snatch Grip RDL

Training day totals=

Table 2. Comparison of the methods for calculating training intensity.

Behind Neck Press

Training day totals=

Another approach would be to calculate the

a potential error in the estimation of workloads

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

the dynamics of the lifting task including displacement,

research studies, as well as example training

If, for example this athlete were to lose 2 kilogrammes

The basic assumption that is made when dividing the

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Table 3: Comparison of Method for Calculating Training Intensity

Set 2 Set 3 Set 4

at 150 kg, the normalised volume index would be as

considered when attempting to evaluate training

Methods for Quantifying Training

(3 x 10 x 150 (kg)) = 4500 (kg) = 205.7

The ability to represent the training intensity of an

Volume load (kg)

Body mass (kg)

Body mass (kg)

For example, if an athlete were to perform three sets of

If, for example, the same lifter above moved the

Comparing the results of the volume load calculated

If the calculation was performed based upon the

Behind Neck Press

Training day totals=

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

UKSCA | Issue 19 | Autumn 2010 w: www.uksca.org.uk e: info@uksca.org.uk

Total Volume Load

and Training Intensity

Total Volume Load

Total Volume Load

RM and Equation 7 would be as

If you examine Table 3 closely, it is

UK STRENGTH AND CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION

Behind Neck Press

Training day totals/averages=