Agriculture and Forestry Notes by Ayesha Younas

NOTES
Agriculture & Forestry

Research Topics Only
Ayesha Younas
This document is compiled from numerous articles and research papers. Some of
the references are mentioned. I hope you make the best use of this hard work.
Wish you all Best of Luck!
Compiled by Ayesha Younas

AGRICULTURE & FORESTRY (100 MARKS)
Part-I: Agriculture (50 marks)
I. Concept of Integrated Agriculture: Components of natural resources as bases for agriculture
production (Land, Water, biological, Environmental, Solar, Energy)
II. Challenges in Pakistans Agriculture: Present scenario and future prospects. Analytical
overview: issues and strategies for improvement of crop management, livestock
management, fisheries, cottage industry, resource management and rural development.
Institutions and policies: issues and options.
III. Elements of Climate and their Relationship with Crop Growth: Farming Systems, biological nitrogen
fixation, soil profile, structure and texture, soil fertility, soil erosion and conservation, water logging
and salinity
IV. Genetic Improvement for Crop Production: GMO crops, Seed production technology.
V. Horticulture: Floriculture, landscaping, pests and diseases of agriculture crops and their control,
integrated pest management.
VI. Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture: Agriculture mechanization, land tenure and land
reforms, role of agriculture in national economy.
Part-II Forestry = (50 Marks)
I. Forest, rangelands and wildlife importance and significance
II. Forest management and utilization, wood based industries in Pakistan, silvi-culture
III. Range management and utilization
IV. National and international forest wealth statistics
V. Role of wildlife as value addition to forestry
VI. Forest based wildlife resources of Pakistan and their management, eco-tourism
VII. Forestry, agroforestry, social forestry and forest biometrics
VIII. Socio-economic and ecological impact of man-made forests
IX. Watershed Management and role of forests in prevailing climate change dilemma
X. National forest laws and policies at national level, biodiversity & environment

Part 1 Chapter 2: Challenges in Pakistans Agriculture
1) Introduction
I.
Agriculture is the largest sector in the Pakistan economy and accounts for 24% of gross
domestic product (GDP). Government figures show that average growth in the sector
during the past five years has been 4.6% per annum and, in 1998, a growth rate of
5.9% was a major contributor to the overall GDP growth rate of 5.4%.
II.
Approximately 70% of Pakistan's foreign exchange earnings come from the sale of
agricultural products (such as cotton, rice, fruits and vegetables etc) and this has
stimulated demand for the provision of raw materials, equipment (mostly second hand)
and services to agro-based industries, mainly in the cotton textile industry which is the
largest industrial sub-sector in the country.
III.
The sector is also the largest source of employment and accounts for over 50% of
Pakistan's labour force - nearly 2 million new jobs have been added since 1995 of
which 70% are estimated to be in rural areas.
2) Present Scenario (General Overview)
I.
The present and previous Government from time to time has introduced a range of
incentives to enable farmers to boost production and increase output by allowing
Foreign Direct Investment in the agricultural sector. New targets have been set for
different crops for the year 2000-2001 with special emphasis on cotton crop which is
estimated at 9.7 million bales of cotton, 51. 6 million tonnes of sugarcane, 5.1 million
tonnes of rice, 1.5 million tonnes of maize and 22 million tonnes of wheat during the
said period.
II.
In the foreign trade, it is agriculture, which dominates through exports of raw
commodities like rice, cotton and fruits, semi processed and processed products like
cotton yarn, cloth, carpets and leather products. Of the total export earnings of Rs
387.2 billion in 1998 - 99, the earnings from export of rice and cotton alone amounted
to Rs 26.3 billion or 7 percent of the total exports.
III.
Import of agricultural commodities contributes substantially to total Pakistan imports.
The major agricultural import categories are edible oils and grains, pulses and tea.
During 1998 - 99, the value of the former category is made up of about 73 percent
palm oil and the remainder is mostly soybean oil. The latter category is made up of
over 85 percent wheat imports. Together, these two import categories represents 13.5
percent of the total imports. However, expected wheat production targets (19.5 million
tonnes) in FY 99 - 00 was surpassed and the country for the first time exported US $
250 million worth wheat.
IV.
Agricultural Policy: The agricultural sector is highly politicised because the majority
of landowners have had considerable political influence. This has resulted in
agricultural policy being steered towards supporting the production of major cash
crops such as sugarcane, and exempting almost all agricultural income from taxes.
However, following recent discussions with the IMF and World Bank on revenue
collection in general, the present government is in the process of re-structuring the
system to try and increase agricultural taxation. In addition, successive governments
have extended considerable support to the sector by providing concessionary financing
to farmers for the purchase of agricultural equipment (mainly tractors) and for building
irrigation and drainage systems.
V.
Three year Strategy: The Ministry of Agriculture is preparing a new three-year
strategy. This will focus on the enhanced productivity of export oriented crops and
ensure better marketing of exportable crops to get maximum prices of the produce.
The new strategy will envisages to improve the performance of the agriculture sector
including
i. Higher growth rate of agriculture as compared to population growth
ii. Food security and self-reliance in food crops
iii. Enhancing the productivity of wheat, rice, oil seeds, cotton and sugarcane
iv. Land and water development for a sustained agricultural growth
VI.
VII.
v. Farm input supplies supported by appropriate technology to the farmers and at

the users' end, balanced emphasis on all aspects of agricultural production
including livestock, fisheries and forestry
vi. Improving marketing of agricultural commodities, emphasis on agricultural
research to generate innovative technology including biotechnology for raising
per acre yield of land.
vii. Improving the productivity of small farmers while encouraging the large
farmers for utilisation of modern technology.
Corporate Farming:
i. Agriculture Ministry and Small & Medium Enterprise Authority (SMEDA) are
preparing a policy package for Corporate Agriculture Farming (CAF). According
to the proposed package, the land to be used for the purpose of CAF will not be
included in any land reforms, undertaken by the government in future.
ii. A support committee will be created in Ministry of Food, Agriculture and
Livestock (MINFAL), comprising officials from the Federal and Provincial
Ministries of agriculture, Board of Investment (BOI), provincial boards of
revenue and farmers organisations to launch a campaign for attracting foreign
and domestic investment in the agriculture sector. All the proposals for
domestic and foreign investment for the CAF will be placed before the BOI,
which will finalise the case in consultation with the Agriculture Ministry.
iii. The Provincial Governments shall be tasked to identify lands in blocks greater
than 2000 acres, suitable for large-scale mechanised farming along with the
terms and conditions.
iv. The induction of corporate farms will bring modern production technology,
access to capital, direct access to domestic and foreign markets, and
professional management expertise. It will also generate opportunities for the
inputs industry, as the corporate farms will act as large consumers of farm
inputs. On the marketing side, these farms will generally undertake the
processing and grading and supply of raw material to agro industry.
Main Crops
i. Four crops dominate agricultural production: wheat, cotton, sugar cane and
rice. They account for around 39% of total agricultural output and nearly 10%
of GDP. This is despite the fact that crop yields in Pakistan are generally low
compared to international standards. For example, wheat yields are only 75%
of international standards, while rice yields are approximately 66%.
ii. Cotton - Pakistan is one of the largest cotton producing and exporting countries
in the world. Cotton and cotton related products make up 34% of Pakistan's
total exports. Cotton is used in the upstream spinning, weaving and textile
garments industries, which employ the bulk of the industrial labour force.
iii. Wheat - Wheat is Pakistan's largest food grain crop, and accounts for a large
proportion of the total area under cultivation. The majority of wheat is grown in
the Punjab. Despite increased fertiliser usage and the government's drive
towards self-sufficiency, local demand continues to outstrip supply, except for
the year 1999 - 2000 when wheat production was 21.1 million tons as against
17.9 million tones in 1998 - 99. The increase in wheat production was mainly
due to increase in area by 2% and yield 15%. Factors responsible for this
increase are:
1. Increase in support price of wheat by Rs 60 per 40 kg
2. Increased use of fertiliser by 9.5%
3. Improvement of seed supply
4. Favourable weather
5. Provision of training to farmers in wheat production technology
iv. Rice - Pakistan grows enough high quality rice to meet both domestic demand
and allow for exports of around one million tonnes per annum. Two varieties of
rice dominate the market: basmati, which is grown mainly in the Punjab and
irri, which is grown mainly in the Punjab and Sindh. Basmati accounts for

around 2% of exports and is of a higher quality than irri. Quantities of irri are
exported to Bangladesh and Africa. Production of rice during 1999 - 2000 was
5156 thousands tonnes, which is 10.3 percent higher than 1998 - 1999 as a
result of increase in the area, better yield, favourable climatic conditions and
less attack of insects, pests / diseases, on the crop during the year. It was
cultivated on an area of 2515 thousand hectares, which was 3.7 percent higher
as compared to 1998 - 99. The yield per hectare was also higher by 6.3
percent. However due to the less rains this year government is discouraging
the rice cultivation and instead encouraging the farmers to grow cotton which
consumes less water.
v. Sugar cane - Sugar cane is grown in abundance throughout Pakistan and is the
major raw material for the sugar refining and packing industries. Most sugar is
produced in the Punjab (57%) and Sindh (40%). Sugarcane has been cultivated
on an area of 1010 thousand hectares during 1999 - 2000, showing a decline of
12.5 percent over 1998 - 1999. The production during 1999 - 2000 remained
46363 thousands tonnes which is lower by almost 16 percent as compered
with 1998 - 1999. The yield per hectare has also declined by 3.9 percent.
Several factors are responsible for the sharp decline in sugarcane crop. Firstly,
the delay in payments by the sugar mills discouraged farmers to grow
sugarcane. Secondly, sugarcane is an intensive user of water relative to other
crops. The abolition of flat rates of electric tube-wells by the Water and Power
Development Authority (WAPDA) in Punjab also created water constraints. The
Government with its policy to cope up with the problem of water scarcity is
encouraging farmers to grow cotton instead of sugarcane.
VIII.
Mechanisation: Mechanisation of agriculture has played an important role in
increasing agricultural production. The policy has been framed to accelerate the pace
of agricultural mechanisation in the country. The sale of tractors for the period July March 1999 - 2000 is reported as 26313 or 47.1 percent higher than 17882 tractors
delivered during the same period last year. The increase in sale is largely attributed to
the availability of agricultural credit (by ADBP) and ensuring of tractor pricing within
the affordable limits of farmers. Messy Ferguson (UK) in Joint Venture with "Millat
Tractor" are producing tractors to meet the local demand. ADBP allocated funds to the
tune of Rs 7000 million for tractor financing during the year 1999 - 2000. Furthermore,
a sum of Rs 4510 million was disbursed during 1998-99 for purchase of 16,951 tractors
of various makes, including 2,562 tractors under Punjab Government subsidy and 791
tractors under Federal Government subsidy for Balochistan.
IX.
Characteristics of Market: Government of Pakistan has identified agriculture as one
of the priority sector productive for domestic and foreign investment. Recent
developments include the import of agricultural machinery at concessional customs
duty for non-corporate agriculture. Pakistan faces major difficulties with crop yields and
over use of pesticides when compared to other agricultural centres in the region. This
is compounded by dated infrastructure and farming techniques that have not changed
for decades and a lack of adequate irrigation and cold storage facilities.
3) Importance for the uplift of economy
I.
Increase in Per Capita Income
II.
Major Source of Employment
III.
Reduction in Poverty
IV.
Supply of Food
V.
Source of Forex Earning
VI.
Supply of Surplus Labour
VII.
Source of National Income
VIII.
Supply of Raw Material
IX.
Development of Industrial Sector
X.
Balance of Payment Position
XI.
Improvement in Living Standard

XII.
Extension in Market Size
XIII.
Capital Formation
XIV.
Increase in Investment
XV.
Economic Development
XVI.
Self Reliance Policy
XVII.
Direct Foreign Investment
XVIII.
Controlling Inflation
XIX.
Reduction in Regional Disparities
XX.
Demand for Industrial Goods
XXI.
Balanced Growth Economy
XXII.
Increase in Govt. Revenue
4) Crop Management
I.
Issues: TECHNO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Limited Cultivable Area: The total area of Pakistan is about 79.6 million
hectares, out of which only 23.7 million hectares (28%) area is used for
agricultural purposes. About 8 million hectares area is idle and un-utilized.
There is vast sub-division and fragmentation of land holdings, as a result
modern technology cannot be applied in agriculture sector.
ii. Water Logging and Salinity: Water logging and salinity are twin problems of
agricultural sector due to salinity, deposits of salt in land have appeared on the
surface of land and they have adversely affected the performance of
agricultural sector. Water logging and salinity affect about 0.10 million acre of
land in every year. It is not only waste of land but also reduction in productivity.
iii. Slow Growth of Allied Products: Allied products refer to those productions,
which are not agricultural but indirectly, help the farmer to improve his living
standard. Pakistan is in-sufficient in the production of fruits, milk, poultry,
fisheries, livestock and forestry. As a result not only our food quality is poor but
also industries such as furniture, textiles and dairy cannot be developed.
iv. Low Per Hectare Yield: The most important problem of agriculture is its low
yield per hectare for almost every major crop. 45.0% of labour force is engaged
in this sector in Pakistan while it is less than 5% in developed countries. But,
other countries of world are getting higher yield per hectare due to use of
modern technology and trained labour.
v. Inadequate Infrastructure: Rural infrastructure like, roads, storage facilities,
transport, electricity, education, sanitation and health facilities etc. is
inadequate to meet the requirement of growth of agriculture. Total length of
farm-to-market road is not only shorter but their condition is also poor. Many
villages have no metal-led road at all. Electricity is available to only 3/4 rural
populations.
vi. Uneconomic Land Holdings: Due to increasing population and division of
land under the law of inheritance, landholdings are subdivided over and over
again. The result is that very large number of farmers has less than 2 hectares
of area. Moreover holdings are scattered. It is difficult to use modern
machinery on small pieces of land.
vii. Old Methods of Production: No doubt, mechanization of agriculture is
increasing in Pakistan, but in most of the areas, the old implements are still
being used for agricultural production. Old and orthodox techniques of
production cannot increase the production according to international levels.
viii. Inadequate Supply of Agricultural Inputs: The supply of modern inputs
like high yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides,
mechanized machinery etc. not only costly but also inadequate and irregular in
Pakistan. Numbers of fertilizer producing units are just 10 in Pakistan.
ix. Lack of Irrigation Facilities: Shortage of irrigation facilities causes a serious
limitation in the expansion of crop area in Pakistan. The lower water supplies,
loses from water course in the fields are the serious problems of farm sector.
Actual surface water availability is 91.8 million acre feet.

x.
II.
III.
Inadequate Agricultural Research: The average crop yield in Pakistan is

very low as compared to the production levels of the advanced countries of the
world. In order to raise the potential of agricultural production, there should be
continuous improvement in the research for agricultural growth. Total
agricultural universities and colleges are only 16 in Pakistan.
xi. Problem of Land Reforms: Land reforms have been implemented against
the will of people. There is an urgent need to conduct a proper land reform for
improving agricultural growth. Due to this problem agricultural production
cannot increase to desired level.
xii. Defective Land Tenure System: Defective land tenure system is also
responsible for low yield per acre in agricultural sector. Landlords and feudallords live in posh urban areas while tenants and peasants have no or less
incentive for their hard work. So, the productivity in agricultural sector remains
low.
xiii. Subsistence Farming: Our farmer is attached with subsistence farming; a
huge of portion of production is consumed at farmers own house to support
large family. Hence, less portion of the production is available for market
supply. It causes low income of the farmers. Farming is not conducted at
commercial level in Pakistan.
xiv. Low Cropping Intensity: Cropping intensity means the number of crops
grown on a piece of land in one year. At the present stage of our development,
there is low level of cropping intensity as compared to advanced countries.
Cultivable area under double or multiple cropping is inadequate in Pakistan.
xv. Improper Crop Rotation: Proper turning round of crops is essential to reestablish the fertility of the land. The constant cultivation of one crop or two;
exhausts the fertility of the soil. Proper rotation of crops is necessary in order
to restore the fertility.
Issues: NATURAL PROBLEMS
i. Various Plant Diseases: Various agricultural crops like cotton, sugarcane,
tobacco, wheat and rice often come under attack of pests and insects. Pests
and plant diseases reduce the annual productivity of agriculture.
ii. Natural Calamities: Labour is in the hand of mankind but its result is in the
hands of ALLAH in agriculture sector. So, growth of agriculture is dominated by
nature. In case if there is too much rain, reduction in the productivity. There is
20% reduction in productivity due to unnecessary rain and unfavourable
climatic situations in Pakistan.
iii. Scarcity of HYV Seeds: Our poor farmers have to use lower quality seeds
due to non-availability of High Yielding Variety (HYV) seeds. On the other hand,
if seed is available they cannot be purchased due to low income. Agricultural
production is badly affected because of inferior quality of seeds.
iv. Under Utilization of Land: Mostly poor population is attached with
agricultural sector in Pakistan. They are using orthodox and traditional means
of cultivation. Our farmer is not interested to use the advanced and modern
means of farming, as a result area under cultivation remains under utilized, unutilized or mis-utilized.
Issues: SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
i. Consumption Oriented: Our farmers have no proper records of their incomes
and expenses. Mostly, they spend more when they have more due to illiteracy.
A huge part of the farmers income is consumed on occasions of marriage,
birth, death and several other rural ceremonies and festivals in Pakistan.
ii. Farmers Litigation: There are frequent and continuous litigations among the
farmers directly or indirectly. They are often seen in courts, police stations,
irrigation offices, revenue boards and other official problems. Due to
mentioned problems, our farmer cannot devote his time, energy, efficiency and
labour to agricultural productions.

iii.
IV.
V.
Joint Family System: Joint family system is also a big problem in agricultural
sector. Our farmer is poor; on the other hand he has to support his big family. It
creates deficiency in saving and investment. A huge part of farmers
productivity is consumed at his own house.
iv. Illiteracy and Ill-health: Most of the farmers, labourers and tenants in our
country are illiterate. They are untrained and inefficient to boost up the
agricultural productivity. On the other side, the health of our farmers is
improper due to rural backwardness. Literacy rate is only 57.7 % in Pakistan.
Economic Survey of Pakistan shows that literacy remains higher in urban areas
(73.2 percent) than in rural areas (49.2 percent).
v. Political Instability: Political instability has affected development in all
economic and social sectors. Unfortunately, the political situations in Pakistan
are not stable. It creates unrest among the farmers to sell the productions to
various industries as a raw material. On the other hand, people hesitate to
invest in agricultural sector due to political unrest.
Issues: FINANCIAL PROBLEMS
i. Lack of Credit: Basically our farmer is poor and he has low level of income.
Agricultural credit facilities are not common in Pakistan. Credit that can
facilitate agriculture is not available easily. Moreover non-institutional sources
are available but these are not reliable due to high rate of interest. About
50.8% poor borrow from landlords in Pakistan.
ii. Poor Financial Position of Farmers: It is a common saying about our farmer
that he borns in debts, grows in debts and dies in debts. It means that financial
position of Pakistani farmer is weak and poor. According to Pakistan Human
Development Report 2003 about 57.4% poor are working for feudal-lords
without wages.
iii. Instability in Market Prices: The price market of agricultural goods
generally remains unstable in the country. Cobweb theorem is very popular in
case of market prices; it means that a price of one commodity is much high in
this year and much low in the next year and vice versa. The farmers, do not
get due reward from the sale of their productions. So, they remain unsatisfied.
iv. Shortage of Agricultural Finance: Agricultural credit facilities are not
sufficient in Pakistan. Rate of interest on agricultural credit is high and loan is
not provided in time. According to Pakistan Human Development Report
2003 in Pakistan about 50.8% poor borrow from landlords at very high rate of
interest.
Strategies for improvement:
i. Government policies for Short term and long term:
ii. Supply of Agriculture Credit: Poor farmers cannot afford the expensive
technology from their own resources in Pakistan. So, supply of agriculture
credit at easy terms and conditions is very necessary. An amount of Rs. 85,177
million is disbursed by commercial banks in 2009 and Rs. 49 billion was
distributed by ZTBL. ZTBL issued credit or Rs. 37.4 billions during 2010-11.
iii. Water Logging and Salinity Control: Water logging and salinity destroys
about one million acre of land every year in Punjab and Sindh. It reduces our
cultivable area. For this purpose, installation of tube wells, repair of canal
banks and drainage of water etc. are needed. The Ministry of Agriculture
proposed to invest Rs. 18.5 billion with the objective of converting 2,00,000
acres of irrigated land to drip and shower irrigation system.
iv. Construction of Dams: Sometimes, due to heavy unwanted rains and floods
agricultural productivities destroys. To tackle this problem it is necessary to
construct dames and bands on rivers.
v. Provision of HYV Seed: High yielding variety seed is not available at suitable
price in Pakistan. So, farmers have to depend upon low quality of seeds that

causes 20% reduction in total production. Government should provide HYV
seed at minimum price in this case.
vi. Mechanization: Farm mechanization is necessary to remove the problems to
agriculture sector. Sowing, cultivation and harvesting of crops through
agricultural machines increase the productive quality and quantity.
vii. Agricultural Research: Agricultural research is compulsory to remove the
backwardness of agriculture sector. Major agricultural colleges and universities
are only about 16 in Pakistan. Government should increase the research work
in the field of agriculture.
viii. Agro-based Industries: Agro-based industries like poultry, fisheries, dairy
and livestock should establish. These industries indirectly lead to improve the
agricultural sector.
ix. Tax Concessions: Mechanization is necessary to remove the problems of
agriculture sector. Government should give tax concession on imports of
agricultural technologies to enhance the process of farm mechanization.
x. Training of Farmers: Our farmers are illiterate and ill trained so, their
efficiencies are poor. Government should start special education programme
for farmers and give them training about farming.
xi. Prices of Agricultural Productivities: Sometimes, our farmers receive low
prices of their crops. There is no proper effective price policy of government.
Government should set reasonable prices of agricultural productions to
develop the living standard of farmers.
5) Livestock Management
I.
Status:
i. Livestock is an important sector of agriculture and occupies a unique position
in the National Agenda of the economic development of the present
government. The sector meets the domestic demand of milk, meat and eggs.
ii. It also provides net source of foreign earnings. More than 8.0 million rural
families are involved in raising livestock. It is central to the livelihood of the
rural poor in the country and can play an important role in poverty alleviation
and can uplift the socioeconomic conditions of our rural masses.
iii. Livestock contributed to agriculture value added stood at 56.3 percent while it
contributes 11.8 percent to the national GDP during 2014-15 compared to 55.6
percent and 11.8 percent during the same period last year, respectively. Gross
value addition of livestock has increased from Rs. 778.3 billion (2013-14) to Rs.
801.3 billion (2014-15), recorded an increase of 3.0 percent as compared to
previous year.
iv. The major products of livestock are milk and meat which for the last three
years
v. The population growth, urbanization, increases in per capita income and export
opportunities are few of the main factors to fuel the demand of livestock and
livestock products in the country. The overall livestock development strategy
revolves to foster "private sector-led development with public sector providing
enabling environment through policy interventions and play capacity building
role to improve livestock husbandry practices". The emphasis will be on
improving per unit animal productivity and moving from subsistence to market
oriented and then commercial livestock farming in the country to meet the
domestic demand and surplus for export. The objective is to use livestock
sector as engine for economic growth and food security for the country and
further leading to rural socioeconomic uplift.
vi. Government Policy Measure: Livestock Wing with its redefined role under
18th Constitutional Amendment continued regulatory measures that included
allowing import of high yielding animals, semen and embryos for the genetic
improvement of indigenous dairy animals, allowing import of high quality feed
stuff/micro ingredients for improving the nutritional quality of animal & poultry

feed and allowing duty free import of veterinary, dairy and livestock machinery
/ equipment in order to encourage establishment of value added industry in
the country. Livestock insurance scheme for farmers having 10 animals or
more have been introduced during 2014-15. Zero rating on processed valued
added chicken products has been withdrawn. Livestock Wing also provided
facilitation for export of red meat. A total of 49.5 thousand tons of red meat
was exported from July-March 2014-15. The export of meat fetched US$ 145.6
million. This meat was exported from 29 private sector slaughterhouses.
During same period export facilitation was also provided for livestock byproducts like animal casing, bones, horns and hooves, gelatin. Efforts are on
way to access new markets like Russia, China, South Africa, and Indonesia for
export of our meat and meat products.
II.
Issues
i. Nutrition: Adequate nutrition is a major problem in livestock production in
Pakistan. Without providing the required nutrition for the animal the genetic
potential cannot be exploited. It is yet to be decided that how much nutrients
our animals need to express their full genetic potential of productivity. To
develop feeding standards of buffaloes, cattle, sheep and goat, no serious
effort have been made. It is difficult for extension workers to recommend
accurately to livestock farmers that what standard he has to follow to feed his
cow for cost-effective milk and meat production. Some advancement has been
made in this regard however there is a lot need to do for revolution in animal
nutrition. The availability of green fodder is not sufficient.
ii. Health: Livestock health is a limiting factor to productivity. A major problem is
the lack of proper knowledge and awareness about the productive benefits of
disease control. Those farmers, who are aware of the benefits, have limited
access to appropriate vaccines and therapeutic drugs. Animal production
systems are affected by different types of diseases with varying capacity like
mastitis, foot and mouth, helminthosis, parasites and tick-borne are most
important regarding animal productivity. In short the diseases seriously affect
productivity and profitability. Vaccination and treatment for the animals was
usually ignored by farmers which fallout to huge losses regarding productivity
and the number of heads. Farmers use to practise traditional methods for
animal care which exacerbate the problems for animal health. Lack of
diagnosis of diseases is a major factor in low productivity. In Pakistan, quacks
are very active in curing animals in the rural areas. These non-technical
persons often treat animals with hit and trial methods which some time cause
even death of the animal.
iii. Animal Productivity/Genetic Potential: Pakistan has bred with low genetic
potential Sire (bull). The breed with best potential such as Sahiwal cow and
Nili-Ravi buffalo are rarely found on the farms of small and medium farmers
who contribute a bigger share of heads. These pure breeds are in fact in
danger. There is need to save and exploit the genetic potential of the high
yielding breeds. It is common observation that there is a tendency among
farmers to cross the animals by imported semen. This practice is a big threat
to our local and potential breeds. It is interesting to say that Australia had
demanded the 100 pure Sahiwal breed and Pakistan could not provide. It
shows that the country is being lost to the breed.
iv. Lack of Livestock Credit: To establish the modern livestock farms, it needs huge
capital. Unlike crop sector, livestock sector required more investment. The
absence of credit disbursement to small and medium-scale farmers the
involvement of poor farmers in the commercialization of livestock production is
restricted.

v.
Deprived livestock extension activities: Livestock extension wing in the country

is inadequately performing and partial toward large farmers tending to neglect
poor rural livestock-keepers. Public sector follows a top-down transfer of
technology approach. It is now universally accepted that this approach is not
result oriented instead bottom up approach should be adopted in which the
participation of the livestock farmers should be ensured. In extension
programs, only large ruminants are focused and the other species are almost
excluded which need to be addressed. The extension services are concentrated
in the areas where potential for livestock is high. The services should be evenly
provided to the farmers, and neglected areas in fact deserve more. The
extension messages are not frequently disseminated through print and
electronic media. There is a dire need to educate the farmers as without
educating there the dream of high productivity cannot be realized.
vi. Poor Marketing System: Proper marketing system encourages the animal
productivity. Poor marketing system is also a noteworthy limitation in the
animal productivity. The private sector has organized the farmers association
for their own interest. These associations collect milk for the organizations.
Regarding marketing farmers are at the mercy of milkmen and commission
agents (middle man). These market players utilize the poor farmers. There
should be a systematic marketing system which could ensure the profit share
of the farmers.
III.
Strategies for improvement:
i. Improving the genetic potential of native livestock through selection,
crossbreeding and Artificial insemination.
ii. Quality of poor fodders and straws can be improved with treatment of urea and
molasses. The urea is an economical source of nitrogen while molasses offer
ample energy to the ruminants.
iii. Good, economical, efficient and flexible housing strategies should be
developed through animal production experts or any other feasible and
sustainable sources.
iv. Enforcement of vaccination schedules beside proper and timely veterinary
cover.
v. Control of ecto and endo-parasites through proper dipping and drenching with
suitable chemicals. Response of proper feeding and improved nutritional
management is much lower if animals are infested with the parasites.
vi. Upgrading of breed potential and high-quality management will increase
conception rate, growth rate, and milk yield and diminish calving interval.
vii. Price stability in livestock production is a must for avoiding great seasonal
fluctuations. Implementation of sound policies can bring the livestock economy
to a great assurance.
viii. Preservation of spare milk in winter by converting it into powder and saving
massive amounts of foreign exchange being spent on the import of dry milk.
ix. Replacing draught animals to beef route through fattening and finishing
programs. A feedlot system for cattle, male buffalo calves, sheep, goats and
other culled animals should be encouraged.
x. Proper pricing system is also the need of the hour. Meat grading, preservation
and suitable marketing are required.
xi. Commercial producers should be encouraged by providing incentives and
services.
xii. Manure should be handled properly along with its preservation, timely
application for increasing soil fertility and keeping pollution under control.
6) Fisheries
I.
Status:
i. Fishery plays an important role in Pakistans economy and is considered to be a
source of livelihood for the coastal inhabitants. A part from marine fisheries,
inland fisheries (based in rivers, lakes, ponds, dams etc.) is also very important
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
activity throughout the country. Fisheries share in GDP although very little but
it adds substantially to the national income through export earnings.
During 2014-15 (July-March), total marine and inland fish production was
estimated 499,000 m. tonnes out of which 365,000 m. tonnes was marine
production and the remaining catch came from inland waters. Whereas the
production for the period 2013-14 (July-March), was estimated to be 494,000
m. tons in which 345,000 m. tons was for marine and the remaining was
produced by inland fishery sector.
Pakistans major buyers are China, Thailand, Malaysia, Middle East, Sri Lanka,
Japan, etc. During 2014-15 (July-March), a total of 100,321 m.tonnes of fish and
fishery products were exported earning US$ 253.625 million. Whereas the
export for 2013-14 (July-March), was 102,967 m.tonnes of fish and fishery
products were exported earning US$ 254.728 million. The export of fish &
fishery products has been decreased by 2.57 percent in quantity and in value
have been decreased by 0.43 percent during 2014-15 (July-March).
Government of Pakistan is taking a number of steps to improve fisheries sector
which includes inter alia strengthening of extension services, introduction of
new fishing methodologies, development of value added products,
enhancement of per capita consumption of fish, up-gradation of socioeconomic conditions of the fishermens community.
Biological and Hydrological Research: During July-March 2014-15, sample
of seawater collected from coastal areas were analyzed to determine
parameters which affect fish distribution. Fish samples of different species
were examined for study of length-weight relationship, sex ratio, maturity, food
and feeding habit and fecundity etc. Monitoring for fish landing to determine
stock position was also carried out at Karachi Fish Harbour.
Quality Control Services: Marine Fisheries Department is responsible to
regulate quality and promote export of fish and fishery products and to prevent
export of substandard quality of seafood products and for matters connected
therewith and ancillary thereto. During July-March 2014-15, the Quality Control
Section of MFD has issued 12,555 certificates of Quality & Origin and health for
seafood commodities exported from Pakistan.
Accreditation of Quality Control Laboratories Under ISO / IEC-17025
International Standards: Two (02) laboratories (namely Microbiology and
Chemical) of MFD achieved international accreditation under ISO / IEC -17025
international standards. Thus the MFD has fulfilled the requirements of EU and
other importing countries and now, the test reports issued by these
laboratories are acceptable all over the world.
Extension in Accreditation of Testing Laboratories: The Biochemical
laboratory of MFD is planned for achievements of accreditation under
ISO/17025 International Standards.
Marine fisheries in Pakistan is being carried out on two distinct grounds i.e.
coastline covering Mekran (Balochistan) as well as the coast of Karachi (Sindh).
Sindh and Balochistan coasts comprise of many widely dispersed, small
landing places utilized by small craft equipped with sails and/or outboard
engines. The marine fish are marketed as fresh, freezing, canning for local
consumption. Karachi and Mekran being the most important fishing ports are
being developed by the Government of Pakistan as a fishing centre.
Inland fisheries are getting much popularity. Some inland resources include
small rivers, dams (Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma), lakes (Haleji, Keenjhar and
Manchhar), barrages, reservoirs, ponds and canals.
The major marine harbors of Pakistan are:
1. Karachi Fish Harbor handles about 90% of fish and seafood catch in
Pakistan and 95% of fish and seafood exports from Pakistan.

2.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
Karachi Fisheries Harbor is being operated by Provincial Government of

Sindh.
3. Korangi Fish Harbor is being managed by Federal Ministry of Food,
Agriculture and Livestock.
4. Pasni Fish Harbor being operated by Provincial Government of
Balochistan.
5. Gwadar Fish Harbor being operated by Federal Ministry of
Communication.
Aquaculture: In Pakistan farming of different kinds of fishes is practiced in the
Punjab, North West Frontier and Sindh provinces but on limited scale.
Aquaculture is receiving increasing attention as it appears to have a good
profit potential for small and medium sized investors. Government has
established several fish hatcheries and training facilities for fish farmers.
Fish Marketplace: Pakistan has a domestic and an international market for fish,
shrimps and fish products.
Domestic Market: At domestic level the catch from marine fisheries is supplied
to the local fish markets. Frozen or processed fish is supplied to only a few
large departmental stores in some cities.
International Market: At international level Pakistan has a market for fish and
fish products. Pakistan exports reasonable quantity of shrimp, fish and its
products and earns a substantial amount of foreign exchange. Fish and fish
products are processed and exported to many countries, European Countries
being at the top. Major markets for export are: Canada,USA Denmark , Japan,
Holland, Norway, Iceland, Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore Malaysia, Gulf
The organizations that are part of different projects or research and
development for industry, fisheries and aquaculture are:
1. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Fisheries Department
2. The Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) is carrying out the
research of the industry.
3. Aquaculture Technologies Pakistan
4. Many universities are also involved for research and development of
the industry.
II.
Issues
III.
Strategies for improvement
7) Cottage Industry
I.
Status
i. Surgical manufacturers. This type of business requires stainless steel which
can only acquired through imports. However, its end product is exported. The
Lahore and Sialkot cater to surgical manufacturers.
ii. Metalworking. In Peshawar area of Pakistan metalworking is done, it is famous
for copper and brass. The items produced include tins, trays, cans, plants.
iii. Ceramics. Ceramic painting and manufacturing is a famous cottage industry of
Pakistan. A well known example of ceramic painting is Pakistani piggy banks
called Gallas. Children use Gallas to save their money. Gujrat, Bahawalpur,
and Rawalpindi are areas where ceramic manufacturing is aesthetically done.
The items usually produced are crockery items like pots, mugs, cups and more.
iv. Jewelers. The level of perfection with which the jewellery is manufactured in
the cottage industry is to be praised, albeit, they are hand made but the
perfection with which it is made makes it commendable.
v. Textiles. The intelligence of report of ECONOMIST in August 2003 claims,
Despite Government efforts to diversify exports and widen the industrial base,
the industrial sector remains dominated by the Textile sector. Textile Sector still
represents 46% of total manufacturing and provides 68% of Pakistans Export
receipts. The items produced through textile industry of Pakistan include
Chiffon, Georgette, Lawn, Linen, Silk, and Taffeta.

vi.
vii.
Carpets & Rugs. The Quetta is known for selling the best rugs in the country.
The customers can get Moroccan rugs, Persian rugs, Turkish rugs, Afghani rugs,
and Russian rugs. These carpets and rugs have hand-knotted materials which
have a demand globally.
The President of ICCI claimed that Cottage industry has provided employment
to almost 80% of industrial workers.
II.
Issues
i. Lack of Finance :The cottage and small scale industry is facing the problem of
capital shortage. The financial institutions are not ready to provide the credit
on low rate of interest. It is an obstacle in the ways of small scale industry
development.
ii. Competition : There is a stiff competition between the large scale industry and
small scale industry and usually small scale industry suffers a loss.
iii. Import Policy : The import [policy of the government is also not favorable for
the small scale industry. It discourages the small scale industry.
iv. Smuggling : Smuggling of large scale consumer goods from Russia, Iran and
Singapore has also discouraged the small scale industry.
v. Problem of Raw Material : The owner of the small scale industry can not get
enough raw material what he wants. Poor quality of raw material is provided on
higher prices to the small industry.
vi. Old Methods of Production : Small industries use old machines and old
methods of production. Due to this the quality of small scale industries product
is very poor. So they are helpless to sell the product at low rate.
vii. Lack of Marketing Facility : The marketing facilities are inadequate in the
country. The small and cottage industries are selling their product at the low
prices in the hands of middleman. Even they can not advertise their product on
T.V because they have not sufficient capital for this purpose.
viii. Lack of Qualified Staff : The cottage industries can not employ the qualified
engineers and economists. It reduces the quality of product.
ix. Shortage of Electricity : There are a large number of villages where electricity
is no available. The non availability of electricity is an obstacle in the way of
small scale industries.
x. Breakdown of Electricity : The regular break down of electricity has also
affected the production of small scale industry adversely. Prices of electricity
are also rising day by day. Higher prices has increased the cost of production.
xi. Lack of Standardization : The mixing of good and bad product creates problems
of marketing inside and outside the country. The product is not standardized.
xii. High Cost of Production : The mostly cost of cottage industry is very high.
Because the process of production is very slow and raw material is also bought
at higher prices. Rates of electricity charges are also increasing.
xiii. Entrepreneur is Uneducated : Mostly cottage industries are owned managed
and controlled by literate people. They follow the old methods and production
remains very low.
xiv. Lack of Roads and Transport Facilities : There is a lack of roads, transport,
water supply, electricity and telephone facilities for the small scale industry.
When infrastructure will not be available how those can flourish.
xv. Lack of Storage Facilities : The small scale industry in particularly in villages is
lacking storage facilities. A huge product is wasted due to the problem.
III.
8) Resource Management and Rural Development
I.
Status
i.
Rural development is a total process of economic, social and human
development. Development programmes have different connotations in
different political and social systems, but common to all is the need to reduce
unemployment, poverty and inequality with the participation of the masses.

ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
II.
Despite the rhetoric and insistence on local or popular participation in decision

making, all development models had the same up-down relationship, but
with full government support to safeguard rural Pakistan from the clutches of
stagnation and poverty. The programmes were expected to raise agricultural
productivity, improve marketing infrastructure, provide welfare services,
develop cottage industry and other income/employment generating activities.
These development paradigms improved the rural scene somewhat, but the
available commentaries and statements on the performance of these
programmes are highly contradictory. However, the available information
reveals that each programme achieved a limited success with little tangible
benefits to the real clientele.
Since its independence, Pakistan has embarked upon a number of rural and
agricultural development programmes to increase the productivity and quality
of life of rural people.
These programes were Village Aid Programme, Basic Democracies system,
Rural Works Programme,Integrated Rural Development, Peoples Works
Programme, Local Govt. and Rural Development,Peoples Programme, Tameere-Watan, Social Action Programmes, Khushal Pakistan, Tameer-ePakistan and
Khushal Pakistan Programme-1.
These programmes were partially or fully extended to all parts of the country.
The overall objectives of these programmes were the social welfare,
improvement in quality of life and agricultural development. These
programmes did not achieve the desired results because the objectives of one
programme conflicted with those of others, and there was no institutional
mechanism for reconciling them.
Consequently, many programmes not only failed to produce the intended
benefits, but also caused harm to other programmes.
Common causes of failure of these programmes were loose and uncoordinated
institutional framework; lack of mutual understanding and collaboration within
the nation-building departments and with the departments of rural
development; absence of efforts to help evolve rural leadership from the grass
roots; lack of proper supervision, follow-up, research and evaluation of
projects.
Issues
i. Rural development policy always had a heavy bias towards large farmers,
whereas small landholders making more than 90 percent of total farms were
ignored along with landless labor community.
ii. Rigid cropping pattern prevailing in the country results in lack of intensification
and diversification of agriculture sector, thereby increasing unemployment in
rural areas.
iii. Natural resource base is deteriorating overtime. Due to inappropriate
agricultural practices and climate change, land degradation is more and land
productivity is declining. Almost 40 percent of land in Sindh alone has turned
saline. The rangelands on which 70 percent of local livestock thrives have been
degraded and no rehabilitation plans are in place (Baig and Khan, 2006).
iv. Literacy rate is very low in these areas and illiterate farmers cannot realize the
benefits of modern, scientific and technical know-how in farming business.
Moreover, rural areas are deprived of schools. In case, if schooling facilities are
available, then qualified staff is not available. Basic health care is the prime
need of every individual. Unfortunately, this component is totally ignored by
the Govt. Most villages in Pakistan still are lacking in hospitals, dispensaries
and other health centers. According to an estimate 70-80 million people do not
have requisite access to education and health services (Pirzada, 1999).

v.
Poor health, malnutrition and high population growth rates are widespread in
rural areas, badly affecting productivity. According to an estimate, 30-50
million people are malnourished (Pirzada, 1999).
vi. Water supply and sanitation condition is not satisfactory in rural areas.
Population having access to safe water is 87 percent and 35 percent of total
population has access to sanitation (ADB, 2005).
vii. Appropriate facilities for healthy activities are not available in rural areas. So,
the frustrated young people indulge in obnoxious activities such as drug
addiction, rape, robbery, murder, etc.
III.
i. The rural poor (small landholders and landless class) need to participate in the
development and implementation of the relevant policies and programs. It
requires institutional and technological reforms.
ii. For sustainable rural development, conservation and development of natural
resources, focusing on protection of environment and biodiversity must be
undertaken.
iii. Strengthening rural institutions in the country can satisfy the thrust for rural
development.
iv. There is a need to address the issues of inequality in terms of resources along
with the innovation and adoption of cost saving technologies.
v. There is a strong need to develop and promote agro-based industry in rural
areas to create employment opportunities through private-public interventions.
This will definitely help in reducing the rural urban migration on one hand and
rural poverty on the other. It could be achieved by promoting savings in rural
areas, thereby increasing investment opportunities for overall improvement in
the income of the rural communities.
vi. Proper monitoring and evaluation of rural development programmes must be
carried out to ensure successful implementation of programme activities and
those who are responsible for not achieving the results must be accounted for.
vii. Initiatives must be taken to address the problems of public health and
education for fast growing population. This demand for establishment of
schools and health facilities on modern lines. Such facilities would provide
productive, healthy and educated labour force to agriculture in particular and
to the economy in general
9) Institutions and Policies
I.
General Overview of MAJOR INSTITUTIONS PROVIDING EXTENSION/ADVISORY SERVICES
i. Public Institutions
1. Provincial Directorates General of Extension : In spite of devolution, the
Directorate-General of Agriculture and Applied Research still exists.
This office carries out various duties including advice on agriculture
sector to the provincial government, implementation of provincial
projects and maintenance of links with the district governments for
agricultural extension matters. The responsibility for livestock
extension lies with the Veterinary Officers and Veterinary Assistants of
the provincial Livestock and Dairy Department. A Directorate-General
for On-Farm Irrigation exists at provincial level. But like the DirectorateGeneral of Extension, it also provides policy advice to the provincial
government.
2. District level extension organization: Under the District Coordination
Officer are a number of Executive District Officers (EDO), and one of
them is for agriculture, called Executive District Officer for Agriculture
(EDOA). The EDOA coordinates agricultural activities with other
departments at district level. Under the EDOA is a District Officer for
Agriculture (DOA) who is also based at district level, and is responsible
for overall agricultural extension work in the particular district. At
ii.
iii.
iv.
district level, the Livestock and Dairy Department has more or less the
same structure as the Department of Agriculture, staffed by District
Livestock Officers, Veterinary Officers and Veterinary Assistants. The
Irrigation and On-farm Water Management Directorate provides
extension advice on relevant matters mainly through Water Users
Associations. Within the districts, extension offices are located at the
following lower layers of bureaucracy:
3. Tehsil level extension offices: Under the DOA are many Deputy District
Officers for Agriculture (DDOA), based at tehsil level. Their number
corresponds with the number of tehsils in the particular district. The
DDOAs handle agricultural extension activities in their respective
tehsils.
4. Markaz level extension offices: Under the DDOA, there are many
Agriculture Officers (AOs) based at markaz level. These numbers
correspond with the number of markaz in the particular tehsil. The AOs
are responsible for carrying out agricultural extension responsibilities
in their respective markaz.
5. Union Council level extension offices: Under each AO are several Field
Assistants (FA) based at Union Council level. Their number corresponds
with the number of Union Councils in the particular markaz. The FAs
are frontline agricultural extension workers. Extension advice is
provided in the areas of crops, fruit, vegetables, livestock, fisheries,
and marketing. Under each FA are two Beldars who are fieldworkers.
They are more laborers than technical persons, and help the FA in daily
agricultural activities.
Pakistan Agricultural Research Council (PARC) http://www.parc.gov.pk
1. Although PARC is essentially apex agricultural research body, it has a
social sciences wing, which is engaged in policy level activities in
marketing and extension. Statutory functions of PARC are to aid,
promote and coordinate agricultural research, expedite utilization of
research results, establish research facilities, train high-level scientific
human resources, generate, acquire and disseminate agricultural
information, and establish a research library. The PARC sets national
agricultural research agenda, maintains national and international
coordination and conducts in-house strategic research on national
issues. Pakistans national agricultural research system (NARS) consists
of 20 federal research establishments for basic and applied research,
10 provincial research institutes for applied research, 14 agricultural
universities and colleges for basic research, and private agro-industry
research organizations for applied research on pesticides, fertilizers,
seed and machinery, and it is PARC which provides strategic thinking
and orientation to the entire NARS.
Number of Key Agricultural Extension Staff in Provinces of Pakistan as in 2011
1. Province/Number of Agriculture Officers/ Number of Field Assistants:
Punjab/763/3,264, Sindh/573/1,026, Balochistan/586/1,016, KhyberPakhtunkhwa/222/539, Gilgit and Baltistan/ 180/673: Total/2,324/ 6,518
Public universities
1. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad (in Punjab province)
2. Arid Agriculture University (also known as Barani University),
Rawalpindi
3. Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam (Sindh province),
4. Agricultural University, Peshawar (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province)
5. All these universities have agricultural extension departments which
offer degrees up to Doctorate. University of Agriculture at Faisalabad is
the oldest and largest institution in Pakistan among agricultural
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
academic institutions. Besides a Directorate of Extension, the

university has six faculties covering disciplines of agriculture,
agricultural economics and rural sociology, agricultural engineering
and technology, animal husbandry, veterinary science, and basic
sciences.
Non-Public Institutions
1. Private sector
a. Syngenta (sells both pesticides and seed),
b. Fauji Fertilizer Company
c. Lakson Tobacco Company
d. Pioneer Pakistan
e. METRO and MACRO
f. Nestle
g. Seed Association of Pakistan
2. These companies work in most cases with only those farmers who have
signed contracts with them or have informally agreed to follow their
instructions in crop production. They do not charge any fee to their
farmers. Motives behind extension support by the private companies
are either to obtain good quality raw materials from growers, and/or to
enhance the sale of companies products. Of course, farmers also
benefit in many ways such as gaining technical knowledge and skills
and enjoying satisfaction of a guaranteed market for their harvest at
reasonable prices. The extension support by private companies
excludes those farmers who do not join their programs.
3. Subjects of extension advice include plant protection, plant nutrition,
introduction of new and improved varieties, entire crop production
cycle (sugarcane covered by sugar mills; tobacco covered by national
and multi-national tobacco companies; maize by seed and cornprocessing companies; oil seed by edible oil processing companies and
Oil Seed Development Board; and milk by national and multi-national
companies), and credit (covered by micro-finance institutions and
commercial banks).
4. The companies maintain well-equipped, well-educated, experienced
and mobile staff in the field, and are apparently popular among
farmers. Their extension methods include demonstrations, field days,
and visits to individual farmers, farmers group meetings, training of
farmers, tours to model farms, phone calls, and published materials.
The staff usually works through progressive farmers who are in most
cases large landholders.
Non-governmental organizations
1. National Rural Support Program (NRSP), Islamabad
2. Rural Development Foundation, Islamabad
3. CABI South Asia, Rawalpindi
4. Kashf Foundation, Lahore
5. Plan Pakistan, Islamabad
Farmers-based organizations and cooperatives
1. Pakistan Agriculture & Dairy Farmers Association,
2. Farmers Associates Pakistan
3. Livestock Farmers & Breeders Association
4. Dairy Association of Pakistan
5. Farmers Association of Pakistan
6. Mango Growers Association Pakistan
7. Poultry Farming Association
TRAINING OPTIONS FOR EXTENSION PROFESSIONALS
1. Pre-service education of would-be extension professionals takes place
at the agricultural universities located at Faisalabad, Peshawar,
Rawalpindi, and Tandojam (mentioned in a previous section) which
ix.
offer academic degrees in a number of agricultural disciplines including

extension. These universities also offer short training courses on
regular basis.
2. For the purpose of in-service training, the following institutes are used
by agricultural staff:
a. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Sargodha
b. Barani Agricultural Training Institute, Dahgal, Rawalpindi
c. In-service Agricultural Training Institute, Rahim Yar Khan
d. Pak-German Institute of Co-operative Agriculture, Multan
e. Extension Services Management Academy (ESMA), Garhi
Dopatta, Azad Jammu & Kashmir
INFO-MEDIARIES AND INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
FOR AGRICULTURE AND EXTENSION
1. Pakistan has a National Information and Communication Technology
Strategy developed by the Ministry of Education. It has National ICT
R&D Fund established in 2007. The ICT expenditure (% of GDP) in
Pakistan was reported at 4.37 in 2008. Recently, the ICT sector has
been deregulated by the government. In spite of all this, the use of ITC
in support of extension is quite limited. Several cellular phone
companies launched Interactive Voice Response based agricultural
services in the Punjab Province but were discouraged due to lack of
revenue. While urban areas have been increasingly adopting modern
ICT, most rural areas are still behind due to low literacy and poor
infrastructure not to mention the absence of electricity and frequent
lengthy power outages. In cities and in some villages especially those
close to major cities, the use of the Internet is becoming common as
indicated by the presence of Internet cafes. The cellular phone though
is prevalent in both urban and rural areas. There are hundreds of call
centers at private shops in mostly cities but some located in rural
areas are also available to the public for making international
telephone calls.
2. According to the World Bank, in 2010, the number of mobile cellular
subscriptions (per 100 people) in Pakistan was 57.13. The number of
Internet users (per 100 people) in the country during the same year
was 16.78.
3. The Punjab province has a Directorate of Agriculture Information, which
has established a help line for farmers. However, its use has been
very limited as most farmers are unaware of this facility. The country
has been having radio and television programs for farmers for several
decades. An NGO, Pakistan Social Association (PSA), has started a
project under the title of E-Village with the objective of reaching rural
population through the Internet.
II.
Issues
i. Human Resources Issues
1. Pay structure & career opportunities
2. Research managers selection
3. Training opportunities
ii. Research Efficiency Issues
1. Priority setting
2. Collaboration / Linkage with external agencies
3. Funding for research to action
iii. Functional Issues
1. Funding and funding patterns
2. Facilities and equipments
3. Mobility
III.
Options/ Future Prospects
10) Way Forward/General Strategy

I.
II.
Government Policies Short Term

Government Policies Long Term
i. Federal Authority
ii. Provincial Authority
iii. Division Authority
iv. District Authority
v. Tehsil Authority
11) Conclusion
Part 1: Chapter 4: Genetic Improvement for Crop Production

1) Introduction
I.
Biotechnology can be described as any technology that uses living organisms to make
or modify a product for a practical purpose. Some traditional techniques have been
used for thousands of years. Natural yeasts, for instance, have been used to make
bread, beer, and wine through a process called fermentation.
II.
In the last century, more sophisticated techniques have used other micro-organisms to
make antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, and other useful products. Modern
biotechnology, developed during the past 30 years, usually makes changes to the
hereditary material of a living organism by a technique called genetic engineering or
genetic modification.
III.
In crop plant breeding, biotechnologies are used to develop plants resistant to pests,
diseases, drought, heat, or cold, as well as to improve the nutritional content of plant
food.
2) Genetic Engineering
I.
The code which regulates all biological processes is stored in the DNA present in every
cell of living organisms. Only a small share of the DNA in a cell actually makes up
genes, which contain coded information. The cells use this information to produce
proteins, the basic building blocks and tools for running biological processes. An
organism's entire set of chromosomes, and thus its entire set of genetic information, is
called the genome.
II.
Genetic engineering differs from conventional plant breeding. In conventional plant
breeding half of the genes of an individual come from each parent, whereas in genetic
engineering one or a few specially selected genes are added to the plant genome.
III.
Method of Genetic Engineering: GM crops are made through a process known as
genetic engineering. Genes of commercial interest are transferred from one organism
to another. Two primary methods currently exist for introducing transgenes into plant
genomes. The first involves a device called a gene gun. The DNA to be introduced
into the plant cells is coated onto tiny particles. These particles are then physically
shot onto plant cells. Some of the DNA comes off and is incorporated into the DNA of
the recipient plant. The second method uses a bacterium to introduce the gene(s) of
interest into the plant DNA.
IV.
A number of economically valuable characteristics have been introduced into plants by
genetic engineering. Most of the genetically modified crop plants used so far have
transgenes that provide resistance to herbicides or insects. To improve crop production
and soil management, research is now exploring how to increase the variety of
transgenic characteristics to include resistance to drought, heat, cold, acid soils, and
heavy metals. These characteristics will increase the range of soils and climates that
are able to support agriculture.
V.
A GM or transgenic crop is a plant that has a novel combination of genetic material
obtained through the use of modern biotechnology. For example, a GM crop can
contain a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of the plant acquiring it
through pollination.The resulting plant is said to be genetically modified although in
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
3) GMO
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
reality all crops have been genetically modified from their original wild state by
domestication, selection, and controlled breeding over long periods of time.
In 1994, Calgenes delayed-ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr) became the first genetically
modified food crop to be produced and consumed in an industrialized country. Since
the recorded commercialization of GM crops in 1996 to 2013, several countries have
contributed to 100-fold increase in the global area of transgenic crops.
The area planted to GM crops shot up from 1.7 million hectares in 1996 to 175.2 million
hectares in 2013, with an increasing proportion grown by developing countries. In
2013, there were 27 biotech countries, 19 of which growing 50,000 hectares or more,
20 developing countries and 8 industrial countries; they were, in order of hectarage:
USA, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, South Africa, Pakistan,
Uruguay, Bolivia, Philippines, Australia, Burkina Faso, Myanmar, Spain, Mexico,
Colombia, Sudan, Chile, Honduras, Portugal, Cuba, Czech Republic, Costa Rica,
Romania, and Slovakia.
In the developed world, there is clear evidence that the use of GM crops has resulted in
significant benefits. These include:
i. Higher crop yields
ii. Reduced farm costs
iii. Increased farm profit
iv. Improvement in health and the environment
Potential risks
i. The danger of unintentionally introducing allergens and other antinutrition
factors in foods
ii. The likelihood of transgenes escaping from cultivated crops into wild relatives
iii. The potential for pests to evolve resistance to the toxins produced by GM crops
iv. The risk of these toxins affecting nontarget organisms.
crops
Genetically modified crops (GMCs, GM crops, or biotech crops) are plants used in
agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques.
In most cases the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur
naturally in the species.
Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, or environmental
conditions, reduction of spoilage, or resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance
to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food
crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially
useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2013, the total
surface area of land cultivated with GM crops increased by a factor of 100, from 17,000
square kilometers (4,200,000 acres) to 1,750,000 km2 (432 million acres).
10% of the world's croplands were planted with GM crops in 2010. In the US, by 2014,
94% of the planted area of soybeans, 96% of cotton and 93% of corn were genetically
modified varieties. In recent years GM crops expanded rapidly in developing countries.
In 2013 approximately 18 million farmers grew 54% of worldwide GM crops in
developing countries.
There is general scientific agreement that food on the market derived from GM crops
poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food. GM crops also provide a
number of ecological benefits. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se
on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from
GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and
economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual
property law.
Gene Transfer: DNA transfers naturally between organisms. Several natural
mechanisms allow gene flow across species. These occur in nature on a large scale
for example, it is one mechanism for the development of antibiotic resistance in
bacteria. This is facilitated by transposons, retrotransposons, proviruses and other
mobile genetic elements that naturally translocate DNA to new loci in a genome.
VII.
VIII.
Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.The introduction of foreign

germplasm into crops has been achieved by traditional crop breeders by overcoming
species barriers. A hybrid cereal grain was created in 1875, by crossing wheat and rye.
Since then important traits including dwarfing genes and rust resistance have been
introduced. Plant tissue culture and deliberate mutations have enabled humans to alter
the makeup of plant genomes
Types of Modifications
i. Transgenic plants have genes inserted into them that are derived from another
species. The inserted genes can come from species within the same kingdom
(plant to plant) or between kingdoms (for example, bacteria to plant). In many
cases the inserted DNA has to be modified slightly in order to correctly and
efficiently express in the host organism.
ii. Cisgenic plants are made using genes found within the same species or a
closely related one, where conventional plant breeding can occur. Some
breeders and scientists argue that cisgenic modification is useful for plants
that are difficult to crossbreed by conventional means (such as potatoes), and
that plants in the cisgenic category should not require the same regulatory
scrutiny as transgenics.
iii. Subgenic: In 2014, Chinese researcher Gao Caixia filed patents on the creation
of a strain of wheat that is resistant to powdery mildew. The strain lacks genes
that encode proteins that repress defenses against the mildew. The
researchers deleted all three copies of the genes from wheat's hexaploid
genome. The strain promises to reduce or eliminate the heavy use of
fungicides to control the disease. Gao used the TALENs and CRISPR gene
editing tools without adding or changing any other genes.
Traits:
i. Lifetime: The first genetically modified crop approved for sale in the U.S. was
the FlavrSavr tomato, which had a longer shelf life.
ii. Nutrition
1. Edible oils: Some GM soybeans offer improved oil profiles for
processing or healthier eating. Camelina sativa has been modified to
produce plants that accumulate high levels of oils similar to fish oils.
2. Vitamin enrichment: Golden rice, developed by the International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), provides greater amounts of Vitamin A
targeted at reducing Vitamin A deficiency.
3. Toxin reduction: A genetically modified cassava under development
offers lower cyanogen glucosides and enhanced protein and other
nutrients (called BioCassava). In November 2014, the USDA approved a
potato, developed by J.R. Simplot Company, that prevents bruising and
produces less acrylamide when fried.
4. Stress resistance: Plants engineered to tolerate non-biological stressors
such as drought, frost, high soil salinity, and nitrogen starvation were
in development. In 2011, Monsanto's DroughtGard maize became the
first drought-resistant GM crop to receive US marketing approval.
iii. Herbicides
1. Glyphosate: As of 1999 the most prevalent GM trait was glyphosateresistance. Glyphosate, (the active ingredient in Roundup and other
herbicide products) kills plants by interfering with the shikimate
pathway in plants, which is essential for the synthesis of the aromatic
amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan.
2. Bromoxynil: Tobacco plants have been engineered to be resistant to
the herbicide bromoxynil.
iv. Pest resistance
1. Insects: Tobacco, corn, rice and many other crops have been
engineered to express genes encoding for insecticidal proteins from
4) Seed
I.
II.
III.
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been

engineered to resist viral pathogens such as cucumber mosaic virus
which, despite its name, infects a wide variety of plants.
2. Viruses: Virus resistant papaya were developed In response to a
papaya ringspot virus (PRV) outbreak in Hawaii in the late 1990s. .
They incorporate PRV DNA. By 2010, 80% of Hawaiian papaya plants
were genetically modified.
v. By-products
1. Drugs: In 2012, the FDA approved the first plant-produced
pharmaceutical, a treatment for Gaucher's Disease. Tobacco plants
have been modified to produce therapeutic antibodies.
2. Biofuel: Algae is under development for use in biofuels.
3. Materials: Companies and labs are working on plants that can be used
to make bioplastics. Potatoes that produce industrially useful starches
have been developed as well. Oilseed can be modified to produce fatty
acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.
vi. Bioremediation
1. Scientists at the University of York developed a weed (Arabidopsis
thaliana) that contains genes from bacteria that can clean TNT and
RDX-explosive soil contaminants.
vii. Asexual reproduction
1. Crops such as maize reproduce sexually each year. This randomizes
which genes get propagated to the next generation, meaning that
desirable traits can be lost. To maintain a high-quality crop, some
farmers purchase seeds every year.
production technology
Introduction
i. Seed is a mature integumented megasporangium or mature ovule consisting of
embryonic plants together whit store food material covered by a protective
coat (mega sporangium i.e. female gametophyte the pistils are the female
reproductive organs called megasporophylly in the flowering plants) the ovary
of the carpel contains ovules (megasprorangia)
ii. Seed technology is the science dealing with the methods of improving physical
and genetical characteristics of seed.
iii. The various aspects coming under seed technology are seed production, seed
processing, seed certification, seed testing, seed storage, seed biology, seed
entomology, seed pathology and seed marketing.
iv. Cowan (1973): Defined as That discipline of study having to do with seed
production, maintenance, quantity and preservation.
v. Feistritzer (1975): Defined seed technology as the method through which the
genetic and physical characteristic of seeds could be improved.
vi. Prerequisite for any seed production program is to maintain genetic purity and
other characteristics of seed. Therefore seed production should be conducted
with some underlying principles.
Objectives or Goals or Aims of Seed Technology
i. Supply high quality seeds, means seeds of high yielding varieties, varieties
with resistance to diseases and pests.
ii. To increase agricultural production by supply of quality seed.
iii. To assure rapid seed multiplication of desirable varieties.
iv. Timely supply of seeds, i.e. well before the sowing season.
v. Supply of seeds at reasonable prices.
Hybrid Seed Production
i. In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is seed produced by cross-pollinated
plants. Hybrid seed production is predominant in agriculture and home
gardening. It is one of the main contributors to the dramatic rise in agricultural
output during the last half of the 20th century. The alternatives to hybridization
are open pollination and clonal propagation.

ii.
IV.
V.
VI.
All of the hybrid seeds planted by the farmer will produce similar plants while
the seeds of the next generation from those hybrids will not consistently have
the desired characteristics. Controlled hybrids provide very uniform
characteristics because they are produced by crossing two inbred strains. Elite
inbred strains are used that express well-documented and consistent
phenotypes (such as high crop yield) that are relatively good for inbred plants.
iii. Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants, such
as better yield, greater uniformity, improved color, disease resistance. An
important factor is the heterosis or combining ability of the parent plants.
Crossing any particular pair of inbred strains may or may not result in superior
offspring. The parent strains used are therefore carefully chosen so as to
achieve the uniformity that comes from the uniformity of the parents, and the
superior performance that comes from heterosis.
Role of Seed Technology
i. A carrier of new technologies: The introduced of quality seed of new verities
and combined with other inputs significantly increased yield level e.g. in
cereals, yield increased up to 112%, in potato 24% & sugar beet - 142% in U.
S. A. & central Europe.
ii. A basic tool for secured food supply:The successful implementation of the high
yield verities programme in India has led to a remarkable increase the
production.As a result, food imports from other countries have been
substantially brought down in spite of the rapid population increase.
iii. The principle means to secure crop yield in less favorable area of production:
The supply of good quality seed of improved verities, suitable to these areas is
one of the crops. Immediate contribution that seed technology can make to
secure higher crop yield
Classes of Seeds
i. Nuclear seed : This is the hundred percent genetically pure seed with physical
purity and produced by the original breeder/Institute /State Agriculture
University (SAU) from basic nucleus seed stock. A pedigree certificate is issued
by the producing breeder.
ii. Breeder seed : This is also hundred percent physical and genetic pure seed for
production of foundation seed. A golden yellow colour certificate is issued for
this category of seed by the producing breeder.
iii. Foundation seed : The progeny of breeder seed produced by recognized seed
producing agencies in public and private sector, under supervision of seed
certification agencies in such a way that its quality is maintained according to
prescribed field ad seed standards. A white colour certificate is issued for
foundation seed by seed certification agencies.
iv. Certified seed : The progeny of foundation seed produced by registered seed
growers under supervision of seed certification agencies t o maintain the seed
quality as per minimum seed certification standards. A blue colour certificate is
issued by seed certification agency for this category of seed.
Basic Seeds Vs Certified Seeds
i. The seeds which seeds companies sell in the market and our farmers grow are
commonly certified seeds. The certification of seeds is a legally sanctioned
system for quality control of seeds that are used to cultivate crops. The
certified seeds are grown under stringent production requirements and they
have improved traits such as better yield, pest resistance, drought tolerance,
herbicide tolerance etc.
ii. The certified seeds are outcome of few years of research and development to
get these improved traits.
iii. This R&D is done on their parent plants. On this basis, there are five different
categories viz. Nucleus Seeds, Breeders Seeds, Foundation Seeds, Registered
Seeds and finally certified seeds. The Offspring of breeder seeds is foundation

seeds to registered seeds to certified seeds. Further, each of the breeders,
foundation, registered and certified seeds are certified and labelled with a
different colour tag as per Section 5 of the Seeds Act, 1966. Thus, they are
also called as Labelled Seed. The Breeder seeds have golden yellow tag,
Foundation seeds have white tag, registered seeds have opal blue tag and
certified seeds have green tag.
5) Implementation in Pakistan
Part 1 Chapter 6: Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture

1) Introduction
2) Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture
I.
The term Rainfed agriculture is used to describe farming practises that rely on rainfall
for water. It provides much of the food consumed by poor communities in developing
countries. For example, rainfed agriculture accounts for more than 95% of farmed land
in sub-Saharan Africa, 90% in Latin America, 75% in the Near East and North Africa;
65% in East Asia and 60% in South Asia.
II.
Levels of productivity, particularly in parts of sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, are
low due to degraded soils, high levels of evaporation, droughts, floods and a general
lack of effective water management. A major study into water use by agriculture,
known as the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture,
coordinated by the International Water Management Institute, noted a close correlation
between hunger, poverty and water. However, it concluded that there was much
opportunity to raise productivity from rainfed farming.
III.
The authors considered that managing rainwater and soil moisture more effectively,
and using supplemental and small-scale irrigation, held the key to helping the greatest
number of poor people. It called for a new era of water investments and policies for
upgrading rainfed agriculture that would go beyond controlling field-level soil and
water to bring new freshwater sources through better local management of rainfall and
runoff.
IV.
The importance of rainfed agriculture varies regionally but produces most food for poor
communities in developing countries. In subSaharan Africa more than 95% of the
farmed land is rainfed, while the corresponding figure for Latin America is almost 90%,
for South Asia about 60%, for East Asia 65% and for the Near East and North Africa
75% (FAOSTAT, 2005). Most countries in the world depend primarily on rainfed
agriculture for their grain food. Despite large strides made in improving productivity
and environmental conditions in many developing countries, a great number of poor
families in Africa and Asia still face poverty, hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition
where rainfed agriculture is the main agricultural activity. These problems are
exacerbated by adverse biophysical growing conditions and the poor socioeconomic
infrastructure in many areas in the semi-arid tropics (SAT). The SAT is the home to 38%
of the developing countries poor, 75% of whom live in rural areas. Over 45% of the
worlds hungry and more than 70% of its malnourished children live in the SAT
V.
There is a correlation between poverty, hunger and water stress (Falkenmark, 1986).
The UN Millennium Development Project has identified the hot spot countries in the
world suffering from the largest prevalence of malnourishment. These countries
coincide closely with those located in the semi-arid and dry subhumid hydroclimates in
the world (Fig. 1.1), i.e. savannahs and steppe ecosystems, where rainfed agriculture is
the dominating source of food and where water constitutes a key limiting factor to crop
growth (SEI, 2005). Of the 850 million undernourished people in the world, essentially
all live in poor, developing countries, which predominantly are located in tropical
regions (UNSTAT, 2005).

VI.
Since the late 1960s, agricultural land use has expanded by 2025%, which has
contributed to approximately 30% of the overall grain production growth during the
period (FAO, 2002; Ramankutty et al., 2002). The remaining yield outputs originated
from intensification through yield increases per unit land area.
VII.
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in
the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of
disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall. Additionally,
irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants
against
frost,
suppressing
weed
growth
in
grain
fields
and
preventing
soil
consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as

rain-fed or dryland farming
VIII.
Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in
mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or
artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area.
IX.
In the mid-20th century, the advent of diesel and electric motors led to systems that
could pump groundwater out of major aquifers faster than drainage basins could refill
them. This can lead to permanent loss of aquifer capacity, decreased water quality,
ground subsidence, and other problems. The future of food production in such areas as
the North China Plain, the Punjab, and the Great Plains of the US is threatened by this
phenomenon.
X.
At the global scale, 2,788,000 km (689 million acres) of fertile land was equipped with
irrigation infrastructure around the year 2000. About 68% of the area equipped for
irrigation is located in Asia, 17% in the Americas, 9% in Europe, 5% in Africa and 1% in
Oceania. The largest contiguous areas of high irrigation density are found:
i.
In Northern India and Pakistan along the Ganges and Indus rivers
ii.
In the Hai He, Huang He and Yangtze basins in China
iii.
Along the Nile river in Egypt and Sudan
iv.
In the Mississippi-Missouri river basin and in parts of California
v.
Smaller irrigation areas are spread across almost all populated parts of the
world
XI.
Only 8 years later in 2008, the scale of irrigated land increased to an estimated total of
3,245,566 km, which is nearly the size of India.
XII.
TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEMS

i.
Ditch Irrigation: Ditch Irrigation is a rather traditional method, where ditches

are dug out and seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by
placing canals or furrows in between the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used
to move the water from the main ditch to the canals. This system of irrigation
was once very popular in the USA, but most have been replaced with modern
systems.

ii.
Terraced Irrigation: This is a very labor-intensive method of irrigation where the

land is cut into steps and supported by retaining walls. The flat areas are used
for planting and the idea is that the water flows down each step, while
watering each plot. This allows steep land to be used for planting crops.
iii.
Drip Irrigation: This is known as the most water efficient method of irrigation.
Water drops right near the root zone of a plant in a dripping motion. If the
system is installed properly you can steadily reduce the loss of water through
evaporation and runoff.
iv.
Sprinkler System: This is an irrigation system based on overhead sprinklers,

sprays or guns, installed on permanent risers. You can also have the system
buried underground and the sprinklers rise up when water pressure rises,
which is a popular irrigation system for use on golf courses and parks.
v.
Rotary System: This method of irrigation is best suited for larger areas, for the
sprinklers can reach distances of up to 100 feet. The word Rotary is
indicative of the mechanical driven sprinklers moving in a circular motion,
hence reaching greater distances. This system waters a larger area with small
amounts of water over a longer period of time.
vi.
Center Pivot Irrigation: This is a form of overhead irrigation. Steel or aluminum

pipes are joined together, supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers.
The sprinklers are situated on the length of the tower and they move in a
circular motion.
3) Agriculture Mechanization
I.
Mechanization is defined as the art of using machineries to hasten production,
accomplish task and reduce fatigue and human labor in order to produce better quality
goods and services. Agricultural mechanization is the process whereby equipments,
machineries and implements are utilized to boost agricultural and food production.
II.
It is the application of machineries, equipments and implements in the day to day farm
activities to increase marginal output in food production and poverty eradication.
Agricultural mechanization reduces drudgery which hitherto makes it difficult for large
scale food production.
III.
Equipments, Machineries and Implements required for Land Preparation
i. Tractor: Farm Tractor is a self propelled machine or equipment that pulls or
pushes tools or implements over the land. It is equipment designed and used
for farm operations for the purpose of land preparations, cultivation and
harvesting of crops. A tractor is sub-divided into three (3) major parts namely
(a) engine system (b) transmission system and (c) hydraulic system
1. Engine Generally a tractor makes use of four (4) stroke cycle, internal
combustion, compression ignition (diesel), thermosyphon cooling, heat
engine of various cylinders depending on the horsepower of the
engine.
2. Transmission: The transmission system of the tractor consists of the
clutch assembly, gear train, final drive etc.
3. Hydraulic system: The hydraulic system of a tractor consists of
hydraulic fluid, Armshaft, three (3) point linkage i.e. lower links and top
link, hydraulic pump, selectmatic valves, quick coupling point, draft
control, control valve.
ii. Rotary Power Tiller: Rotary power tiller also known as two wheeled tractor is
light duty agricultural equipment used for tilling operation. It is affordable in
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
price when compared with the four wheeled tractors, for the small and medium
scale farmers. It could be used on undulating terrain and fragile soil. It is
portable and can be used or taken to the interior farmlands where there is no
access road for big tractors.The affordability of this equipment in terms of low
price to local farmers will make food production to increase considerably. The
rotary power tiller, apart from tilling operation could also perform the following,
these are: ploughing, wet pudding, ridging, cultivating, water pumping,
cassava planting and weeding operations making use of appropriate
implement. The equipment in conjunctions with the trailer could be used to
transport the appropriate implement to be used to the field and could also be
used to bring or conveyed farm produce from the field to the barn. The
equipment is economical, safe and efficient in use than manual operation. It
can perform tilling operation of about 1.25 hectares of land per day. The
equipment is sub-divided into (3) three major parts, these are:
1. Engine
2. Transmission
3. Implement
iii. Other equipments or machines in this category are:
1. Track laying tractor
2. Crop thresher
3. Combine harvester
iv. The implements are:
1. Disc plough and moldboard plough
2. Disc Harrow and moldboard Harrow
3. Disc Ridger and mouldboard Ridger
4. Boom Sprayer and Gun Sprayer
5. Seed Planter and Cassava Planter
6. Fertilizer Spreader
7. Mower
v. All these aforementioned machineries, equipments and implements plays vital
role in the enhancement of sustainable food production, if properly utilized and
made affordable within the reach of small and medium scale farmers.
vi. Food production stages: The food production stages consist of the followings:
1. Land clearing
2. Planting and weeding
3. Harvesting
4. Transportation
5. Processing
6. Storage
7. Consumption
Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanise the
work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity. In modern times,
powered machinery has replaced many jobs formerly carried out by manual labour or
by working animals such as oxen, horses and mules.
The history of agriculture contains many examples of tool use, such as the plough.
Mechanization involves the use of an intermediate device between the power source
and the work. This intermediate device usually transforms motion, such as rotary to
linear, or provides some sort of mechanical advantage, such as speed increase or
decrease or leverage.
Current mechanised agriculture includes the use of tractors, trucks, combine
harvesters, airplanes (crop dusters), helicopters, and other vehicles. Modern farms
even sometimes use computers in conjunction with satellite imagery and GPS guidance
to increase yields.
Mechanisation was one of the factors responsible for urbanization and industrial
economies. Besides improving production efficiency, mechanisation encourages large
scale production and improves the quality of farm produce. On the other hand, it
VIII.
IX.
X.
4) Land
I.
II.
displaces unskilled farm labor, causes environmental pollution, deforestation and

erosion.
New Technology and the Future: The basic technology of agricultural machines has
changed little in the last century. Though modern harvesters and planters may do a
better job or be slightly tweaked from their predecessors, the US$250,000 combine of
today still cuts, threshes, and separates grain in the same way it has always been
done. However, technology is changing the way that humans operate the machines, as
computer monitoring systems, GPS locators, and self-steer programs allow the most
advanced tractors and implements to be more precise and less wasteful in the use of
fuel, seed, or fertilizer. In the foreseeable future, there may be mass production of
driverless tractors, which use GPS maps and electronic sensors.
Open Source Agricultural Equipment: Many farmers are upset by their inability to fix
the new types of high-tech farm equipment. This is due mostly to companies using
intellectual property law to prevent farmers from having the legal right to fix their
equipment (or gain access to the information to allow them to do it). This has
encouraged groups such as Open Source Ecology and Farm Hack to begin to make
open source agricultural machinery. In addition on a smaller scale Farmbot and the
RepRap open source 3D printer community has begun to make open-source farm tools
available of increasing levels of sophistication. In October 2015 an exemption was
added to the DMCA to allow inspection and modification of the software in cars and
other vehicles including agricultural machinery.
Notable Manufacturers
i. AGCO
ii. Art's Way
iii. Kubota
iv. John Deere
v. Claas
vi. CNH Industrial
vii. Mahindra & Mahindra
viii. Minsk Tractor Works
ix. JCB
x. Mirrlees Blackstone
Tenure and Land Reforms
Land reforms are basically required for redistribution of land which could have several
benefits that could be social, economic and administrative. There is always inverse
relationship of large land holding and productivity therefore land reforms are always
treated as strategy for better production. However the traditional large land holdings
hardly concentrate on productivity. The population all over the world as a whole is on
rising trend; especially in developing and under developed countries fewer efforts have
been made for birth control Pakistan is one of the populous countries in the world with
180,808,000 populations. The entire population requires fulfilling the need for food, a
dwelling to live and economic activity to survive. For such activities land is very much
required, this aspect of importance of land have already been discussed at the
beginning of this essay.
Rapid population growth, widespread poverty, persistent food insecurity, and alarming
rate of environmental degradation have fuelled an increasing debate on land tenure
systems and land reforms. More equitable access to land is important in combating
rural poverty. Under these circumstances Land Reforms undoubtedly are regarded as
an important factor to alleviate poverty and increase economic development. Since
there is always a relationship between land reforms and growth, therefore land reforms
were central to strategies to improve the asset base of the poor in developing
countries. But in Pakistan their effectiveness has been hindered by political constraints
on implementation. For the land reforms it requires political will and determination of
the governments, not only this but appropriate laws need to be formulated with their
ensured implementation.

III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
Land Reforms inviting involvement of international donor agencies, different

governments at different times, NGOs, environmentalists, and economists. Globally,
land reforms have been introduced for a mixture of political, economic and egalitarian
motives, often resulting from political upheavals, and changing the distribution of land
in favour of small farmers. Land reform is also treated with a view of Human Rights
issue as it involves survival of people and livelihood of poor peasants. More equitable
access to land is important in combating rural poverty to overcome the menace of
poverty.
LAND reforms in Pakistan have a long and somewhat chequered history. The British
had less of an interest in the matter as they relied on the support of several influential
landlords. Although there had been some limited reforms in the years leading up to
1947, all major reforms date from the years after independence. Almost immediately
the various provincial legislatures passed several statutes whereby the jagirdari
systems were abolished and tenants protected. The major reforms, however, came in
three stages: the first during Ayub Khan`s martial law in 1959; the second and third
during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto`s rule in the 1970s.
Ayub Khan`s government passed the first major piece of legislation concerning land
reforms in Pakistan. This legislation was the West Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation
1959 (Regulation 64 of 1959). The salient features of this regulation included a ceiling
on individual holdings. No one individual could own more than 500 acres of irrigated
and 1,000 acres of unirrigated land or a maximum of 36,000 Produce Index Units (PIU),
whichever was greater. It further allowed that land be redistributed amongst tenants
and others. In addition, the regulation contained provisions which provided for security
of tenants as well as for preventing the subdivision of land holdings.
These land reforms stayed in force until 1972 and the next great wave of land reforms.
Bhutto, despite being a major landowner himself, was determined to institute reforms,
having been a minister under Ayub Khan. Bhutto, seeing the former`s land reforms as
inadequate, was responsible for two major land reform regimes. The first was by way
of a martial law regulation, the Land Reform Regulation 1972 by which the West
Pakistan Land Reforms Regulation 1959 was repealed through paragraph 32.
As per paragraph 8(1) no individual holdings were to be in excess of 150 acres of
irrigated land or 300 of unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated land the
aggregate area of which exceeded 150 acres of irrigated land (one acre of irrigated
land being reckoned as the equivalent of two acres of unirrigated land), or an area
equivalent to 15,000 PIU of land, whichever was greater. Paragraph 18(1) of the
regulations also provided for excess land to be surrendered and utilised for the benefit
of tenants shown to be in the process of cultivating it.
By 1977, the country had an elected parliament. It would be this body which passed
the last major piece of legislation dealing with land reforms; the Law Reforms Act 1977
(Act II of 1977) and the only one ironically which came the way of a democratically
elected legislature as opposed to a military junta. It did not repeal the 1972
regulations, but was designed to operate concurrently with the same.
The most important and relevant change it made was that individual holdings,
including shares in shamilat , if any, in excess of 100 acres of irrigated land or 200
acres of unirrigated land, or irrigated and unirrigated land the aggregate of which
exceeded 100 acres of irrigated land (again, one acre of irrigated land being reckoned
as equivalent to two acres of unirrigated land). Furthermore, notwithstanding the
above, no land holding could (per section 3) be greater than an area equivalent to
8,000 PIU of land calculated on the basis of classification of soil as entered in the
revenue records for kharif.
The end of the Bhutto era also signalled the end of the era of statutory land reform in
Pakistan.
During Ziaul Haq`s reign only major new laws were passed. Only two amending
ordinances came into being. The first in 1979 declared that where the provincial
government had decided to lease out surrendered land, the person who surrendered it
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
would have first priority, and the second allowed the federal government to exempt
any educational institution or cooperative farming society from the operation of the
1977 act.
Land reforms were always controversial. It was alleged by opponents that they were
un-Islamic and that they infringed on the right to own, use and enjoy property as
protected by the constitution. Matters finally came to a head before the Supreme Court
in the case of Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner in which both the 1972
regulations were attacked as being against Islamic injunctions and unconstitutional.
The Supreme Court agreed.
Of the 1972 regulations, the Supreme Court declared that paragraphs 7, 8, 9, 10, 13
and 14 and thus consequently 18 were unconstitutional as being against Islamic
injunctions. The striking down of paragraphs 8 and 18 overturned the main reforms
achieved.
Similarly in the same case the Supreme Court overturned the entire sections 3, 4, 5,
6, 7(5), 8, 9, 10 and consequently sections 11-17 of the act as being
unconstitutional and against Islamic injunctions. The striking down of sections 3 and 17
undid the main reforms promulgated in the act. The laws stated to be unconstitutional
ceased to have effect on March 23, 1990 (the day the judgement was handed down).
The net result of the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner is that land reforms in
Pakistan are now at the same level as they were in 1947, as the 1972 regulations and
the 1977 act have seen their main provisions being struck down and the 1959
regulations have been repealed.
To commence land reforms and to ensure they contain at least the same measure of
reforms as the 1972 regulations and the 1977 act did will at the very least require a
constitutional amendment which allows parliament to enact legislation regarding land
reform notwithstanding the relevant constitutional provisions.
Failing the above, any proposed reforms would have to be more limited in their ambit
than the previous reforms to avoid unconstitutionality or their lordships would have to
overrule the judgment in the Qazalbash Waqf v Chief Land Commissioner in another
case.
It is very difficult for people to reconcile to the fact that the dose of 'Islamic welfare'
that they have been taught largely ends at zakat and while there are promises of huge
rewards on helping the needy, Islam is very much pro-capitalistic and opposes ceilings
on wealth accumulation
The politics of land reform have always been tenuous in this country, the populist
rhetoric very much opposed to the reality. In the latest series of mere rhetoric on the
issue, the MQM has set up a 'think tank' that will table parliamentary legislation for
land reforms in the country. However, these statements of ending feudalism and
bringing land reforms not only ignore the legal challenges that such reforms face in
the wake of the Qazalbash Waqf case that declared a ceiling on landholdings as
opposed to shariah but also serve nothing but the appetites of the urban middle
class masses who are too keen to blame feudalism for all ills. Needless to say, land
reforms are very much supported by the masses but their vocal proponents amongst
the urban middle classes fail to understand the history, politics and legal perspective
associated with such a change.
The basis of land reform has always been to abolish the stratification of society based
on the concentration of land in the hands of a select few. This monopolisation of
landholdings leads to the denial of political rights to a large percentage of the
population in an agrarian economy like ours.
Feudalism is a tribal notion that hampers social progress and is combined with the fact
that landlords have social, political and often religious and legal power in their regions.
However, urban upper middle and middle classes have crafted a narrative that blames
all national problems on feudalism. This notion is devoid of reality since feudalism has
transformed over the past 63 years and, contrary to popular perception, landlords
cannot continue to suppress their subjects and still expect to remain politically popular.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
An oversimplification of the reality that ignores changes in patterns of landholdings

and associated socio-political power in the country and what feudalism means in an
era of urbanisation and modernity hampers intellectual progress itself.
The history of land reforms in this country started in 1949 with the Agrarian Reforms
Committee of the Muslim League proposing short- and long-term measures to address
the issue. The short-term measures were incorporated in the Tenancy Acts that were
promulgated in Punjab, Sindh and NWFP between 1950 and 1952. The long-term goal
of imposing a ceiling on landholdings never saw the light. Meanwhile, the East Bengal
Land Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950 transformed the eastern wing of the country
and imposed a 33-acre ceiling on landholding. Never a strongly feudal society, by 1954
the situation was such that none of the East Bengal Constituent Assembly
representatives was a landlord compared to the 70 percent landlord-legislators from
West Pakistan.
The martial law government of Ayub Khan brought forward the country's first major
land reforms in 1959. The ceiling on landholdings was imposed at 500 acres for
irrigated and 1,000 acres for un-irrigated land. 2.5 million acres of land was resumed,
2.3 million was distributed amongst 183,271 tenants (in reality the distribution was
skewed and only 59,906 tenants below the subsistence level of 12.5 acres received
any benefit). Only 35 percent of the holdings that exceeded the ceiling were taken
over.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto had promised land reforms under his Islamic socialism agenda and,
in 1972, a stricter ceiling was imposed at 150/300 acres for irrigated/un-irrigated lands
and land was resumed without any compensation. In 1977, it was further lowered to
100/200 acres. In total, 3.1 million acres of land was resumed and 1.8 million was
distributed amongst 89,143 beneficiaries. Due to various reasons, only 42 percent of
the holdings in excess of the ceilings were taken over in Punjab and 59 percent in
Sindh. The reforms failed to bring the expected results.
Ziaul Haq's Islamisation and creation of shariat courts gave the opponents of land
reforms including the religious establishment a golden opportunity to challenge
them. In Haji Niamatullah v. NWFP government, the imposition of a ceiling on
landholdings was declared un-Islamic. In December 1980 the Federal Shariat Court
decided petitions against land reforms in Muhammad Ameen v. Islamic Republic of
Pakistan (PLD 1981 FSC 23). It declared that it did not have the sufficient rights to
declare it unconstitutional and even then it was not un-Islamic in any way to impose a
ceiling on landholdings.
Appeals were filed and the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court delivered its
final judgment on the issue on August 10, 1989 in Qazalbash Waqf v. Chief Land
Commissioner (PLD 1990 SC 99). The lead judgment, written by Mufti Taqi Usmani,
held that the right to land in Islam is absolute, that Islam has imposed no quantitative
ceiling on land or any other commodity that can be owned by a person, that any such
limits are prohibited by shariah, that a temporary limit may be imposed in times of
emergency, that illegitimately acquired land is illegitimate and that forceful acquisition
of land is haram. In short, ceilings on landholdings imposed by the Land Reforms
Regulation, 1972 and Land Reforms Ordinance, 1977 were un-Islamic and acquisition of
land under the said laws was ab initio illegal.
With this case, the classic definition of land reforms in the form of ceilings on
landholdings came falling down and the doors for reform were closed forever. The
judges who dissented with the majority opinion based their opinion on the Islamic
notion of social welfare and necessity to alleviate poverty.
While the future of land reforms looks bleak, it is certainly not unrealisable. One option
lies in the form of analysing the shady origins of landholdings and land grants given by
the colonialists as illegitimately acquired. However, not only is this tenuous and
complex, it must therefore be extended to the vast urban and agricultural lands
acquired largely by the military, but also by other state functionaries. The other option

remains the very abolition of the Federal Shariat Court and the associated 'Islamic'
provisions from the constitution, paving way for the old-style reforms again also
unrealisable and politically unfeasible.
XXX.
With increasing religiosity part of urbanisation, and in our case strongly linked with an
urban middle class identity, it becomes laughable that the demon of 'feudalism' that
should be tackled through the populist argument of 'land reforms' is not being tackled
because of 'Islamic laws', which are the slogan of a large percentage of disillusioned,
apoliticised urban middle class youth today. It is very difficult for people to reconcile
the fact that the dose of 'Islamic welfare' that they have been taught largely ends at
zakat and while there are promises of huge rewards on helping the needy an
obligation defined by Islam as social responsibility Islam is very much pro-capitalistic
and opposes ceilings on wealth accumulation. Reflective of the inner contradictions of
our society is the fact that secular ideals of social reform brought forward land reforms
(even if supported by Islamic rhetoric) and were thrown into the dustbin of history on
the basis of religion. Demonisation of feudalism not necessarily wrong but ignoring
the legal realities, especially how they were struck down by an 'Islamic' court, is
convenient and tailor-made to satisfy the conscience of a society that seems to find it
difficult to balance religion, its role in society, its role in politics and its intrusion into
governing laws.
XXXI.
The future of land reforms
i. In the mode of the classical application of land reforms vis a vis ceiling on land
holdings, the door for reform is pretty much closed unless the state wishes to
undertake the thorny issue of the nature of land ownership at the time of
Independence.
ii. Given the colonial history of the region, it is a known fact that modern property
laws were introduced and recognized in this region by the British by virtue of
the capacity of the local individuals to extract revenue for the colonial state.
Some of these individuals had already been collecting revenues for the Mughal
state as jagirdars, but their rights over the land were not recognized in manner
as they were recognized by the British (the exclusive right of enjoyment etc.,
for example). Many, who acquired title through settlements, did so for the first
time by virtue of their ability to coerce the local population and collect
revenue.
iii. If we are to review that situation and perhaps deem land granted by British (for
services to the crown) as illegitimately acquired owing to their shady origins,
then we are looking at a wholly different scenario. That will also raise questions
as to whether land grants post-Independence in the form of huge agricultural
and urban land grants largely to military officers, but to bureaucrats and other
state functionaries as well are illegitimately acquired. Certainly, this is far from
realizable. However, it still remains a possibility for future legislators.
iv. Another possibility that lays at the doors of the legislators, is to review the
existence of the Federal Shariat Court (and the Shariat Appellate Bench) itself
and there-after re-introduce legislation along the lines of the 72 and 77
reforms. Certainly, this too is a non-realizable one at least in the short term
considering the power of the religious groups and the right wing, both street
power and their vocal power. If such a radical step were to be taken, it would
not be surprising that the legislators would be declared enemies of Islam,
traitors, agents and the usual labels.
v. The door for land reforms is not closed, yet, but there are huge challenges in
pursuing such an agenda.
5) Role Of Agriculture In National Economy
I.
Increase in Per Capita Income: Per capita income is the annual average income of
the individuals of a nation. We derive it by dividing national income on total population.
Agricultural sector provides more jobs to unemployed people. It increases the
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
individuals as well as national income. Agricultural sector is essential to increase the

PCI, which is $ 1254 at present.
Major Source of Employment: Agriculture sector provides employment to major
portion of our labour force. More than 45.0% of our labour force is directly involved in
agriculture sector, while 66.7% of our rural population is dependent on agriculture. This
is the major sector, which provides employment to a large portion of our population.
Agriculture sector is helpful to reduce the unemployment and disguised
unemployment.
Reduction in Poverty: Agriculture development has significant impact on rural
development. If productivity increases in agriculture it reduces poverty and stimulates
non-farm employment, too. They are able to get basic services of life such as water
supply, sanitation, provision of health and educational facilitates. About 21.0%
population of Pakistan is much poor.
Supply of Food: Food is the first in basic necessities of the life. The agriculture sector
is the sole provider of all type of food like wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane vegetables and
fruits etc., to the population engaged in various sectors of the economy. Agricultural
sector also provides food to those animals that provide milk, cheese, butter and meat
to population to maintain the efficiency. According to economic survey of Pakistan,
exports of food group are $ 2007.3 million.
Source of Forex Earning: Agriculture sector is the main source of foreign exchange
(forex) earning which is used to import capital goods. Total forex resources of Pakistan
is $ 17.1 billion out of which share of agriculture is $2007.3million. Major cash crops of
Pakistan are cotton, rice, tobacco etc. that is helpful to correct the balance of payment.
Supply of Surplus Labour: About 61% population is living in more than 50,000
villages in Pakistan. This sector is the major source for supply of labor force to
industrial sector due to farm mechanization and disguised unemployment. In this way
an increase in the income of the people leads to improved living standard.
Source of National Income: At the time of partition, contribution of agriculture
sector to GNP was 60%, which decreased to 29.4% in 1980-81. Now its share to GDP is
20.9% in 2010-11. Accordingly, agricultural sector is the major contributor to Pakistans
national income.
Supply of Raw Material: Agricultural sector provides not only food but also provides
cotton, sugarcane, tobacco, rice, oil-seed, meat and milk to various agro-based, small
scale and large-scale industries as a raw material.
Development of Industrial Sector: There is inter-dependence and inter-relationship
between agricultural and industrial sector, both are helpful to develop each other. Due
to use of modern techniques of production in agricultural sector, when income of the
agriculturists increases, they will demand for industrial articles, like threshers,
harvesters, tractors, tub-wells and various other consumer goods, which results in
industrial growth and development.
Balance of Payment Position: Promotion of agriculture sector will provide surplus
production for exports and our foreign exchange reserves will be increased. This will be
helpful in the improvement of balance of payment. At present Pakistan is facing a
deficit of $ 8.3 billion in its balance of payment.
Improvement in Living Standard: There is an increase in the income of the farmers
due to development of agricultural sector. It will improve their living standard by
constructing better houses, demanding luxuries of life, television, computer, mobile,
motor-cycles and a lot of other items. So, growth of agricultural sector will cause to
improve the standard of living of the population.
Extension in Market Size: There is more output in agricultural sector due to farm
mechanization. It enlarges the size of market. If there is more production, then surplus
production can be export to the other countries of the world. So, agricultural sector
expands the market at national and international level.
Capital Formation: Role of agricultural sector in capital formation cannot ignore. It
increases the incomes of the people that lead to more saving and more investment.

Here, more investment leads to rapid capital formation. Capital formation rate in
Pakistan is 5%.
XIV.
Increase in Investment: Total investment is only 13.4% of GDP in Pakistan. This low
investment is mainly due to low income and low savings. Agricultural sector increases
the income of people that caused in more saving and more investment. Accordingly,
agricultural sector is helpful in increasing the investment.
XV.
Economic Development: Economic development, progress and prosperity cannot
achieve without agricultural sector. It provides employment opportunities to a lot of
people. It produces exportable items, which increases the foreign exchange resources.
So, agricultural sector is helpful to make rapid economic development. Real GDP
growth rate is 2.4%.
XVI.
Self Reliance Policy: Agriculture sector is helpful to achieve the self-sufficiency. Our
country will not only become self-sufficient in food but supply of raw materials for
industries will also expand our industrial sector.
XVII.
Direct Foreign Investment: Now a day, use of advanced technologies in farming is
common. It boost-up the industries like tractors, harvesters, thrashers, chemicals etc.
It has increases the foreign direct investment in our country. It provides employments
to our population and also increases the national income. Foreign investment is $ 1.8
billion in Pakistan.
XVIII.
Controlling Inflation: Inflation refers to the increase in general price level. It may be
due to increase in demand and shortage in supply. Agricultural sector is very helpful to
control the inflation. It produces more goods and maintains the equilibrium in demand
and supply. Rate of inflation is 14.1% in Pakistan.
XIX.
Reduction in Regional Disparities: Agriculture sector is the life-blood of our
economy. Development of agriculture sector will increase the living standard of the
rural population. This leads to reduce the urban and rural differences in the country.
XX.
Demand for Industrial Goods: As the agriculture productivity increases, the income
of farmers goes up. With the rise in income the demand for both agricultural goods
(tractor, fertilizer, pesticides, tube-wells etc.) and industrial goods (television, mobile,
computer etc.) will increase in rural areas.
XXI.
Balanced Growth Economy: There exists close inter-dependence between
agricultural sector and industrial sector. Agricultural sector will develop the industrial
sector also. Income received by cultivator will develop the demand for the industrial
goods. Its results are in balance growth of the economy.
XXII.
Increase in Govt. Revenue: There is no direct tax on the agricultural income. But
indirectly government receives a huge amount of tax form agricultural sector. It
imposed some duties on imported technologies applied in farming. It imposes tax on
chemicals etc. So agriculture sector is also a source of income for the government.
6) Impact of Feudalism on the agriculture of Pakistan
Part 2: Chapter 2 Forest Management and Utilization

Forestry is the study of this complex interaction, the management of the various components of the
forest, the preservation of its' natural balance (of forests and the life forms they support) as well as the
care of it to ensure its' wellbeing. Good forestry programs also make it possible for humans to get
some economic value from it, without hurting the forests in anyway. This way of using the forest is
known as Sustainable Forestry.
Sustainable Forestry

In sustainable forestry, efforts are put into replacing almost all the resources we get from the forests,
whiles extra care is taken to ensure that there is very little damage to wildlife and the natural
environment. Example: only old trees may be cut down, allowing younger trees to grow to ensure
continuity, and trees are planted to replace the ones cut down.
Sustainable Forestry activities
Unfortunately, environmental issues cannot be separated from politics and economics (peoples life)
This is why effective sustainable forestry comes in two approaches. These are:
Forests and Forests related Industries
Here, the attention is on the natural resource itself and the timber companies that harness resources
directly from the forests. In this approach, there are usually very strict rules and consequences with
the way resources are extracted from that forest. It is usually enforced by laws, hefty fines and
effective monitoring efforts. In recent time, the use of technology is helping authorities see more about
what is going on in the forests. This means items made from resources that come from forests will cost
a lot in the shops, so consumers also need to be prepared.
Here, campaigns are developed to educate consumers (industries and individuals including you) on the
value of forests resources and the dangers forests face. Efforts are directed to make people become
more environmentally aware and friendly. Example, people are encouraged to recycle more, to use
paper products from recycled pulp, and to encourage everyone to join the fight to save our forests.
Importance of Forests
Forests and biodiversity is key to all life forms. The richer the diversity of life, the greater the
opportunity for medical discoveries, economic development and adaptive responses to such new
challenges as climate change.
Watershed
Forests serve as a watershed. This is because almost all water ultimately comes from rivers and lakes
and from forest-derived water tables. Some rivers running through forests are also kept cool and from
drying out. "The Amazon is by far the largest watershed and largest river system in the world
occupying over 6 million square kilometers. Over two-thirds of all the fresh water found on Earth is in
the Amazon Basin's rivers, streams, and tributaries." - RainTree
Forests and biodiversity
Habitat and Ecosystems
Forests serve as a home (habitat) to millions of animals. Think of the many types of reptiles (snakes
and lizards) wild animals, butterflies and insects, birds and tree-top animals as well as all those that
live in the forest streams and rivers.
Animals form part of the food chain in the forests. All these different animals and plants are called
biodiversity, and the interaction with one another and with their physical environment is what we call
ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters such as
floods and wildfires.
Economic benefits
Forests are of immense economic importance to us. For example, plantation forests provide humans
with timber and wood, which is exported and used in all parts of the world. They also provide tourism
income to inhabitants (people living in or close to forests) when people visit to see the best of nature.
economic importance of forests
Climate Control
Climate control and atmosphere purification is key for human existence. Trees and soils help regulate
atmospheric temperatures through a process called evapotranspiration. This helps to stabilize the

climate. Additionally, they enrich the atmosphere by absorbing bad gases (example CO2 and other
greenhouse gases) and producing oxygen. Trees also helps to remove air pollutants.
Did you know: In many developing countries more than 80% of total energy (fuel wood and charcoal)
consumed by people and industry is derived from forests. Trade in timber and other forest products is
estimated at almost 330 billion US Dollars /year. Its' value multiplies as it is processed into a range of
products used globally every day. Uses of genetic diversity within forests enable the development of
new medicines; progress in health care and science
Forest Management
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with the overall administrative, economic, legal
and social aspects and with the essentially scientific and technical aspects, especially silviculture,
protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for aesthetics, fish, recreation, urban
values, water, wilderness, wildlife, wood products, forest genetic resources and other forest resource
values. Management can be based on conservation, economics, or a mixture of the two. Techniques
include timber extraction, planting and replanting of various species, cutting roads and pathways
through forests, and preventing fire.
The forest is a natural system that can supply different products and services. The working of this
system is influenced by the natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also by human
action. The actions of man in forests constitute the forest management. In developed societies this
management tends to be elaborated and planned, in order to achieve the objectives that are
considered desirable.
Some forests have been and are managed to obtain the traditional forest products such as fire wood,
fiber for paper, building timber, with little thinking for other products and services. Nevertheless, as a
result from the development of ecology science and environmental awareness, management of forests
for multiple use is becoming more common
There has been an increased public awareness of natural resource policy, including forest
management. Public concern regarding forest management may have shifted from the extraction of
timber for earning money for the economy, to the preservation of additional forest resources, including
wildlife and old growth forest, protecting biodiversity, watershed management, and recreation.
Increased environmental awareness may contribute to an increased public mistrust of forest
management professionals. But it can also lead to greater understanding about what professionals do
re forests for nature conservation and ecological services
The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife are affected by
strategies and types of forest management.
Forest management varies in intensity from a leave alone, natural situation to a highly intensive
regime with silvicultural interventions. Management is generally increased in intensity to achieve
either economic criteria (increased timber yields, non-timber forest products, ecosystem services) or
ecological criteria (species recovery, fostering of rare species, carbon sequestration).
Sustainable Forest Management
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of
sustainable development. Sustainable forest management uses very broad social, economic and
environmental goals. A range of forestry institutions now practice various forms of sustainable forest
management and a broad range of methods and tools are available that have been tested over time
and space.[citation needed]

The "Forest Principles" adopted at The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 captured the general international understanding of sustainable
forest management at that time. A number of sets of criteria and indicators have since been developed
to evaluate the achievement of SFM at both the country and management unit level. These were all
attempts to codify and provide for independent assessment of the degree to which the broader
objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the United
Nations General Assembly adopted the Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests. The
instrument was the first of its kind, and reflected the strong international commitment to promote
implementation of sustainable forest management through a new approach that brings all
stakeholders together.
Forest Management Basics
Forests are an important part of our states environment and economy. When they are well managed,
forests provide clean air and water, homes for wildlife, beautiful scenery, places for recreation and
more than 5,000 products we all use every day. When they are not well managed, forests are often
unhealthy and unproductive because of overcrowding, disease, insects, and competition for light,
water and nutrients. To maintain or improve the health and productivity of a forest and to achieve the
landowners objectives for the property, foresters use a number of management techniques, including
harvesting, prescribed burning and reforestation.
Harvesting Trees
In forest management, trees are harvested for a variety of reasons including improving the health of
the forest; controlling the types of trees that grow on the site; attracting certain wildlife species;
providing a source of income for the landowner; producing paper, lumber and numerous other forest
products; and improving access to the area for hikers, hunters and other recreational users.
Just as there are many reasons for harvesting trees, there are many different harvesting methods.
Each method has its benefits, drawbacks and conditions under which it is the most suitable way to
harvest trees. No one harvesting method is ideal for all situations.
Thinning Harvest
When trees are crowded together, they are in greater competition for sunlight, nutrients and water. As
a result, they tend to be less healthy and to grow less vigorously. To improve the health and
productivity of the forest, forest managers may remove a portion of the trees in the early stages (1015 years) of a growing stand of trees so there is less competition for sunlight, water and nutrients. The
forest is thinned by taking out a certain percentage of the trees. The remaining trees will grow faster,
stronger and larger. The thinning also improves the growth of the forests understory such as
wildflowers and native weeds by increasing the amount of sunlight that reaches the forest floor. This
growth provides more food and cover for animals such as quail and rabbits.
This type of harvest is typically referred to as a pre-commercial harvest since the costs associated
with the forest management (road maintenance, harvesting, etc.) often equal or outweigh the money
earned on the harvested trees for the landowners. These type of harvests result in pulpwood size
trees, which are smaller in diameter than trees that would be made into lumber.
Clearcut Harvest
Clearcutting removes all the trees in a given area, much like a wildfire, hurricane or other natural
disturbance would do. It is used most frequently in pine forests, which require full sunlight to grow, and
in hardwood forests with yellow poplar, sweetgum, cherry, maple and other species that require full
sunlight.

Clearcuts are an efficient way to convert unhealthy stands to healthy, productive forests because they
allow forest managers to control the tree species that grow on the site through natural or artificial
regeneration.
While a clearcut removes all canopy cover and is unattractive for a short period of time, it is an
effective method for creating habitat for a variety of wildlife species. Animals that eat insects, such as
turkeys and quails, and those that eat annual and perennial plants, such as bears and deer, thrive in
recently clearcut areas. Many creatures also find shelter from weather and predators in the low
growing grasses, bushes and briar thickets that follow this type of harvest. In addition, clearcutting is
an important forest management tool because it can be used to create edges areas where two
habitat types or two ages of the same habitat meet. Because edges provide easy access to more than
one habitat, they usually have more diverse wildlife communities than large blocks of a single habitat.
A clearcut harvest will produce a mixture of pulpwood and sawtimber products for the forest products
industry based on the size of the trees and whether the trees are softwood (pine) or hardwood (maple,
oaks, etc.). Loggers sort the trees onto different trucks for their different locations. The smaller
diameter trees, typically called pulpwood, will head to a paper mill or energy facility. The larger
diameter trees, typically referred to as sawtimber, will be sent to a sawmill.
Again, different tree
species (whether softwood or hardwood) are sent to specific markets.
Shelterwood Harvest
In a shelterwood cut, mature trees are removed in two or three harvests over a period of 10 to 15
years. This method allows regeneration of medium to low shade-tolerant species because a shelter is
left to protect them. Many hardwoods, such as oak, hickory and cherry, can produce and maintain
seedlings or sprouts in light shade under a partially cut stand. However, the young trees will not grow
and develop fully until the remaining overstory trees are removed.
One benefit to shelterwood harvests is that they provide cover and early successional food sources for
wildlife. However, this method of harvest is not recommended for trees with shallow root systems
because the remaining trees are more susceptible to wind damage after neighboring trees are
removed. Another disadvantage to shelterwood cuts is that they require more roads to be built through
the forest, and increase the risk of soil disturbance and damage to the remaining trees during
harvesting.
Seed Tree Harvest
In a seed tree harvest, five or more scattered trees per acre are left in the harvested area to provide
seeds for a new forest stand. These trees are selected based on their growth rate, form, seeding
ability, wind resistance and future marketability.
Wildlife benefit from seed tree harvests in much the same way as they do from a clearcut harvest,
except that they also reap the benefits of the seed trees themselves. If left on site indefinitely, seed
trees eventually may become snags or downed logs, which are important habitat components for
woodpeckers and many other species. Seed trees are also excellent food sources and nesting sites for
hawks and other birds.
One disadvantage to seed tree harvests is that the remaining trees are at increased risk of damage
from wind, lightening, insect attack and logging of nearby trees. This type harvest may also require the
landowner to make future investments in thinning and competition control because of uncontrolled
reseeding.
Group Selection Harvest
Group selection is essentially a small-scale clearcut where groups of trees in a given area are
harvested over many years so that the entire stand has been cut within 40 to 50 years. This method is

used primarily on bottomland hardwood stands to harvest high-quality, top dollar logs. The size of the
group cut determines the tree species that are likely to return after the harvest. Openings that are less
than one-fourth acre favor shade-tolerant species, and larger openings favor sun-loving species.
Group selection provides ideal pockets of young vegetation for grouse, deer and songbirds. But
because it requires intensive management and frequent access to all areas of the property, it can be
an expensive forest regeneration method.
Single-Tree Selection Harvest
Single-tree selection removes individual trees that are ready for harvest, of low value or in competition
with other trees. With single-tree selection, the forest continuously produces timber and constantly has
new seedlings emerging to take the place of harvested trees. Single-tree selection maintains a late
succession forest that benefits many wildlife species such as squirrels and turkey.
Single-tree selection harvesting is best in small or confined areas for a variety of reasons. One is that
this harvesting method requires more roads. In addition, surrounding trees can be damaged during
harvests, and frequent use of logging equipment in a given area may compact the soil. Sun-loving
trees, which are an important source of food for wildlife, do not regenerate well with single-tree
selection, so forest managers must use mechanical or chemical controls to prevent shade-tolerant
species from taking over the site.
Prescribed Burning
Prescribed burning is a forest management practice that benefits certain forests by reducing the
amount of leaves, branches and dead trees accumulated on the forest floor that could fuel a wildfire. In
addition to helping control the spread of wildfire, removal of this litter layer also promotes the
growth of new forage and succulent plants, which are important sources of food for many wildlife
species including rabbits and deer. And the increase in available insects and seeds following a
prescribed fire is good for turkeys and a variety of nongame species.
While improving wildlife habitat, prescribed fire also promotes the health of the forest by controlling
the spread of disease and insect infestations, and reducing plant competition for nutrients, water and
sunlight.
This management technique is commonly used in Longleaf, Shortleaf and Loblolly pine forests because
these trees are naturally resistant to fire. In fact, the Longleaf Pine requires fire for its seeds to
germinate.
Reforestation
Trees are a renewable resource. This means that they can be grown, harvested, replanted and
harvested again and again in a never-ending cycle to provide clean air and water, habitat for wildlife,
beautiful views and thousands of products both today and in the future. The process of growing trees
on an area that previously has been harvested or cleared is called reforestation.
The two basic methods of reforestation are natural regeneration and artificial regeneration.
Natural regeneration relies on nature to return an area to forestland after trees are harvested. Through
natural regeneration, new trees grow from seeds that are carried by the wind, transported or buried by
animals, or that are simply dropped on site by mature trees. In addition to producing seedlings from
seeds, hardwood trees regenerate naturally by sprouting new growth from the stumps of cut trees.
Artificial regeneration involves human intervention in sowing seeds or planting seedlings. This method
of forest renewal has several advantages over natural regeneration. It provides better control over tree
spacing, more control over the species present in the new forest, the opportunity to plant genetically

improved seeds or seedlings, and a higher rate of tree survival. Although artificial regeneration is more
expensive than natural regeneration, the result is usually a more productive stand in a shorter period
of time.
Forest Succession
Each stage of succession provides different benefits to a variety of wildlife species. In fact, many
species need more than one forest type to meet their needs. Rodents and rabbits prefer early
successional forest where there are plenty of grasses and shrubs for food and shelter. Deer also need
food found in early succession, but require the denser cover of middle and late succession for shelter
and escape from danger. Birds of prey nest in mature forests, but feed on rodents and snakes found in
early succession. Other wildlife, such as squirrels, find both their food and shelter in mature trees.
Forestry in Pakistan
The forestry sector of Pakistan is a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as
food and provide ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Less than 4% of land in Pakistan is
covered with forests.
Statistics
Total forest area coverage (source)
Parameter
Pakistan
Asia
Total forest area in 2000 (000 ha)
Natural forest area in 2000 (000 ha)
Plantations area in 2000 (000 ha)
Total dryland area in 1981 (000 ha)
Percentage of forests ~3%
~20%
World
2,361
1,381
980
72,524
~29%
504,180
375,824
110,953
1,078,121
3,869,455
3,682,722
186,733
5,059,984
Types
1) The coniferous forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Chitral, Swat, Upper Dir, Lower
Dir, Malakand, Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Azad Kashmir and
Rawalpindi district of the Punjab are the main areas covered with coniferous forests. Pindrow
Fir(Abies pindrow), Morinda spruce (Picea smithiana), deodar (Cedrus deodara), blue pine
(Pinus wallichiana), chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) are the most common varieties. The Coniferous
forests also occur in Balochistan hills. Chilghoza pine (Pinus gerardiana) and juniper (Juniperous
macropoda) are the two most common species of Balochistan.
2) The sub-tropical dry forests are found in the Attock, Rawalpindi, Islamabad, Jhelum and Gujrat
districts of the Punjab, and in the Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan, Peshawar and Kohat districts
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa up to a height of 1,000 m. In Balochistan, they are confined to the
Sulaiman Mountains and other hilly areas. Dominant tree species are phulai (Acacia modesta),
kau (Olea cuspidata) and hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa).
3) The tropical thorn forests are dominated by xerophytic scrubs. They are most widespread in
the Punjab plains but also occupy small areas in southern Sindh and western Balochistan. They
are mainly used for grazing purposes, watershed protection and fuelwood. Common species
are vann (Salvadora oleoides), khejri (Prosopis cineraria), kair (Capparis aphylla), etc.
4) The irrigated plantations were first developed in 1866 at Changa Manga in Lahore. Today they
occupy about 226,000 ha. Sheesham (Dalbergia sissoo), mulberry/Shahtoot (Morus alba),
babul (Acacia nilotica) and species of Eucalyptus and Populus are the common tree species
grown in the irrigated plantations.
5) The riparian forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of River Indus and its tributaries.
They are more commonly found in Sindh and to some extent in the Punjab. Babul (Acacia
nilotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax dioica are the most common species. Khejri
(Prosopis cineraria) and Populus euphratica are some other species. They are mainly used for
lumber.

6) The mangrove wetlands are located in the Indus River Delta. Other saltwater wetlands are
located on the coast of Balochistan such as at Sonmiani and Jiwani. These support mangrove
forestry, mainly of species Avicennia marina as well as bamboo species and marsh grasses of
Apluda and Cenchrus.
Ecosystems area by type in 1993 (source)
Ecosystem typePakistan
Asia
World
Shrublands, woodlands and grasslands 36%
Sparse or barren vegetation; snow and ice
Cropland and natural vegetation mosaic
Wetlands and water bodies
1%
2%
37%
34%
28%
3%
37%
10%
34%
16%
20%
Uses
The forests of Pakistan are a main source of lumber, paper, fuelwood, latex, medicine as well as human
and animal food. Other minor products include resin (a fluid in tissue of Chir pine plant that becomes
solid on exposure to the air) and 'mazri' (used for making baskets). The forests also provide for
ecotourism and wildlife conservation purposes. Forests have also been planted in some areas like Thal
Desert to avoid soil erosion and further desertification. Riparian zone along the river Indus have been
managed to avoid excess flooding.
Annual production, 1996-1998 (source)
Parameter
Pakistan
Asia
World
Total production (000m)
31,528 1,111,958
3,261,621
Fuelwood production (000m) 29,312 863,316
1,739,504
Industrial roundwood production (000m)
2,217 268,470
Paper (thousand metric tons) 619
88,859 313,206
1,522,116
Deforestation
The Federal Bureau of Statistics provisionally valued this sector at Rs.25,637 million in 2005 thus
registering over 3% decline of forests in Pakistan since 2000. The main reasons of deforestation are
urbanization, farming, overgrazing, global warming, and tourism development. This has led to severe
consequences desertification, flooding and endangering of wildlife.
As a consequence to deforestation and changing land use patterns, the most critically affected
ecosystems of Pakistan are:
Juniper forests of northern Balochistan, have been heavily harvested for timber and fuelwood.
Indus River riparian zone is the other such area where ecological changes have drastically affected the
'Riverain Forests'. Large tracts have been cleared for agriculture.
The Himalayan temperate forests are also under severe pressure from logging for timber and firewood
and making clearings for agriculture and the increasing population pressure.
Conservation
The protected areas serve the purpose of conserving the forests and wildlife of Pakistan. National
Conservation Strategy of 1993 was a major landmark of start of conservation of natural resources and
wildlife in Pakistan. Resource-managed man-made forests like Changa Manga, Kamalia plantation and
Chichawatni plantation have also been planted to serve purpose and conserve forests. Through
conservation, a large region of Thal desert has been afforested.
Natural protected forests
Birir Valley Coniferous Forest in Chitral District (also called 'Deodar Chilghoza Oak Forest')
Jhangar Scrub Forest in Chakwal District

Sulaiman Coniferous Forest in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (also called 'Sulaiman Chilgoza Pine Forest')
Ziarat Juniper Forest in Ziarat District
Artificial resource managed forests
Changa Manga Forest in Lahore District
Chichawatni Plantation in Sahiwal District
Khipro Reserve Forest in Sanghar District
Research institutions
Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Sheringal, Dir Upper, KPK, DIR
Agricultural Research Institute, Quetta
Punjab Forest School (profile), Bahawalpur
Pakistan Forest Institute (profile), Peshawar
The university of agriculture, Peshawar (http://www.aup.edu.pk/
Sindh Agriculture University, Hyderabad
University of Agriculture (profile), Faisalabad
University of Haripur, Haripur Hazara (khyber pakhtunkhwa) (Pakistan)
Silviculture
Introduction:
Silviculture pertains to the raising, development, care, reproduction and overall management of forest
crops.
Definition: If has been defined variously as follows:
By Toumey and Korstain:
Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and
reproduction of stands of timber.
By Champion and Seth:
The terms silviculture, in English refers only to certain aspects of the theory and practices of raising of
forests crops.
By Iffprt (IFR Dehradun)
The art and science of cultivated forests crops. On the other hands, silvics is the study of trees and
forests and biological entities, the laws of their growth and development, and impact of environment
on them. Thus, silviculture can be described to include all practical and theoretical aspects of silvics.
Objects of Silviculture:
Study of silviculture helps to attain the following object:
1) To derive environmental benefits: Soil and water conservation, control of air and noise
pollution, wild life conservation, regulation of climatic condition, regulation of water cycle.
2) Raising species of more economic value: Industrial and economic growth through.
3) Production of high-quality timer: Silviculture techniques help of avoid the problem of crooked,
malformed, disease or defective timber and thus help to produce goods quality timber.
4) Production of more volume per unit area: Unmanaged forests may be too dense or too open,
less production, premature death of trees silviculture helps to solve these problems.
5) Reduction of rotation period: In Unmanaged forests the rotation tends to be longer.
6) Afforestation of blank areas: Waste lands can be used for forests
7) Creation of plantation: Man made forests or plantations may be created in placed of natural
forests.
8) Introduction of exotics: Successful introduction of exotic species is possible.

9) Employment potential: In any plantation operation, the labour component account for 60 to
70% of the total financial input.
10) Increase in the production of fuel and fodder: In development countries like India it is important
aspect.
11) Forest Industries: Resin for resin and turpentine industry, pulp wood for paper industry,
industrial wood for match and timber industry, railway, etc, minor forests product based
industries.
Silviculture
Silviculture is an important subject of forestry. It is tie forestry as Agronomy in to agriculture, in that it
is concerned with the technology of crop production. It has been defined in a number of ways.
Following are the accepted definitions of silviculture.
1. Silviculture is that branch of forestry which deals with the establishment, development, care and
reproduction of stands of timber. By Tourney and Karstien
2. Silviculture is the art and science of cultivating forest crops. By Indian Forest and forest products
Teminology (1957)
3. Generally, The science and art of cultivating (e.g. growing and tending) of forest crops, based on a
knowledge of silvios. More particularly, the theory and practice of establishment, composition,
constitution and growth of forests. By Society of American Foresters (1983)
4. Silviculture refers to certain aspects of theory and practice of raising forest crops, methods of raising
tree crops, their growth and after care up to the time of final harvesting. By Rao (1987)
In simple words, Silviculture is the growing and tending stands of trees. Silva is the Latin word for
forest and culture for cultivation. Therefore, without exaggeration, Silviculture is the Real art of forest.
Silviculture is very important and essential when human beings wish to manage the forests.
a. To accelerate the wildlife, timber and forage production.
b. To increase the Recreation values and Watershed values.
Silvicultural Systems
Silvicultural system is defined as (Prakash and Khanna 1979) method of silvicultural procedures
workout in accordance with accepted sets and silvicultural principles by which crops constituting
forests are tende, harvested and replaced by new crops of distinctive forms or a planned Silvicultural
treatment which is applied to a forest crop, through-out its life, so that it assumes a distinctive form.
As silvicultural systems deals with the removal of a forest crop, its replacement by a new crop and
distinctive form and its tending, it has following essential characteristics
1) The pattern of felling to be adopted in harvesting a mature crop to be regenerated.
2) The method of regeneration to be adopted.
3) The tending of new crops.
Silvicultural System is special tool or technique for achieving the objects of Forest Management
Object of Silviculture
Silviculture is improved limitation of nature. In nature, we find a large number of species coming up at
one place. Some individuals die out of competition, some attain top canopy while others remain at
lower levels. Silvicultural factors are usually controlled by economic considerations. If there are a large
number of species, perhaps a forester would select some of them which are economically more

important. Also the forester may remove the trees which are likely to die out of suppression. Since our
knowledge of economic and natural factor is not perfect, it is not always possible to determine how far
to divert from purely natural course. In nature, succession is a process in which one species or group of
species is replaced by another species or group of species and a stage comes when more stable
species appears. The study of silviculture enables the foresters to know the whole course of natural
succession on a given site and also the manner and the speed of existing crop being replaced or
altered. This knowledge helps the foresters to determine where and how to control the succession.
The important objectives of silviculture can be summarised as under:
1. Control of Crop Composition and Production of Species of More Economic Value:
Under natural conditions, a large number of species form the crop inferior or less valuable species may
flourish at the expense of the desirable species. The control is exercised by two ways:
i. By removing or cutting inferior species
ii. By creating more favourable conditions for the regeneration and growth of desirable species.
2. Control of Stand Density, for Production of Maximum Volume:
In the natural forests, trees are likely to grow either too dense or too open. If the trees are too densethe wood production is distributed over large number individuals and none of them grow to the
optimum size. If the trees are too less, the production would be less, though individual trees may grow
sufficiently with higher dimensions. If the trees are too less, they will not be able to utilise the site,
effectively and may be even inadequate to regenerate the area. Both these conditions are not good for
maximum wood production. Silviculture helps to maintain or retain sufficient number of trees per unit
area so that by optimum use of soil, maximum wood production is ensured. Substantial increase in
production can be ensured by thinning dense prop through salvaging the trees otherwise these trees
would have died.
3. Afforestation of Blank and Under Stocked Areas:
There is a large area of forests which is blank or under stocked due to fire, encroachments, illicit
fillings, or some natural causes. These areas are however, suitable to bear tree growth. Silviculture
helps us to afforest these areas with suitable trees by planting or by seedling. Silviculture guides to
know the best period of seed collection, nursery technique, plantation details, etc. to complete
afforestation.
4. Production of Quality Timber:
In unmanaged forests, because of intense competition or little competition, quality timber is not
produced. A large number of trees are malformed, defective and sometimes diseased. Proper control
of damaging agencies can increase the production. Insects,fungi,fire,wind, grazing,lopping, etc. which
affect the quality of the timber are controlled by suitable Silvicultural techniques and methods.
5. Control on Rotation Period:
Rotation is counted period in years from regeneration to harvesting. In unmanaged forests, if there are
more number of trees, the growth of individual tree is slow consequently, they take longer period to
reach to harvestable size. The knowledge of silviculture helps to regulate the density of the crop at
various sizes / ages which helps to reach exploitable size much faster. Thus, rotation of a crop can be
reduced by regulating the density of the crop. It also helps in identifying short rotation crops.
6. Facilitate Management and Use of Forests:
In unmanaged forests, good forests exist in difficult areas, where it is difficult to manage and harvest
the timber. In managed forests, it is easy to plant the growth and distribution of forests so that the
produce is used efficiency and economically. It is possible to arrange the forest in different localities in
such age classes and species composition that management becomes easy.

7. Creation of Man Made Forests and Introduction of Exotics:
Silvicultural techniques help us to replace wholly or partly, natural forests by man mad forests of the
same species or by other species. If the existing, forest does not contain valuable and the desirable
species. It can be planted with such important species. If the forest consists of desirable species but it
is not regenerating properly, it can be harvested and regenerated artificially. Identification of suitable
exotics depending upon geographical location, raising trail, plantations, selection of suitable exotics
species, perfecting the nursery and plantation techniques of the exotics are some of the silvicultural
techniques which help in introduction of exotic species on a large scale.
8. Protection of Site and Intangible Returns:
The main object of silviculture is to provide maximum protection to the site so that intangible returns
from the forests are ensured. Important intangible returns include, moderating climate, increasing
precipitation, reducing soil erosion and floods conserving soil and water increasing water yields
providing shelter to a large number of wild animals, etc. Silviculture helps to understand the
requirement of a tree and its effect on the site. The species, which are likely to deteriorate the site, are
discarded. Only such species which afford complete protection to the site and ensure continuous flow
of intangible benefits are preferred.
Problems and Constrains in Forest Development
i. Loss of forest areas for different purposes.
ii. Encroachment of people on forest land.
iii. Cutting due to heavy demand for wood, industry, home fuel
iv. Excessive grazing of animals
v. Fires - incidences / attacks / problems
vi. Shifting cultivation - Tonguya etc.
vii. Inadequate finance
viii. Non - involvement of people
ix. Different projects - irrigation / power / thermal / canals
x. Ecological balance
xi. Man hindrance
Wood-based Industries of Pakistan

Wooden furniture industry in Pakistan: Bright scope for further expansion By Dr. Noor Ahmed Memon
The wooden furniture market is generally divided into the home-use and contract markets. The
contract market represents a significant part of it. And when built-in furniture, which is sold in a
package with new homes and condominiums, is included, the contract market is thought to be huge.
Hotels, restaurants, and public facilities represent the backbone of the contract market for wooden
furniture. The office furniture market consists largely of metal furniture and some wooden, thus office
furniture cannot be included in the contact furniture market.
Wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan by a large number of cottage industries spread over
rural areas, small towns and cities. Pakistan's tradition of wood carving has been considerably enriched
by the continuing addition of new furniture designs in vogue overseas. Furniture markets keep
themselves well acquainted with the latest design kits. The fast growing furniture industry is aiming at
developing a system designed to incorporate its tradition with modern functional demands, coupled
with a feeling for the quality of the material and of aesthetic values.
The export of furniture which was worth US $3.46 million in 1995-96 decreased to US $3.33 million in
1997-98. Today a large quantity of wooden furniture is manufactured in Pakistan at the cottage level.

The environment and conditions being favourable, the wooden furniture industry holds out a bright
scope for further expansion.
Furniture items produced in Sindh comprise ordinary chairs, tables, musical instruments and other
items like doors and windows. Since most of the furniture product in this province is simple and heavy
in weight, it is crude from the export point of view, and therefore sold locally especially in areas close
to the production centers. Tastefully designed furniture items, made of superior quality wood, which
are light in weight and in knocked-down conditions, are more suitable for export purposes and for
supply to distant markets within the country. But, production of such furniture requires installation of
modern machinery and plants.
The wood furniture industry in Pakistan can be divided into two main types: cottages and small-scale
industry. These units which are not mechanised, use out-dated tools and employ manual labour for
production of furniture. There are about 700 registered units in the country. These units are operating
on a single shift/300 day's per annum basis.
A number of families in Hala, Kashmore, Khanewal and Dera Ghazi Khan have stuck to the traditional
workmanship, despite sharp fluctuations in the taste of customers. The wood carvers skill is
predominantly visible in furniture making apart from carving wooden ceilings, wooden panels, doors
and windows. The oldest single style evolved in NWFP, where craftsmen design massive pieces, beds,
desks chairs, stands, lamps etc. Swati furniture has basically broad seats, heavy legs (chairs) and
geometric floral designs carved in various patterns. A similar but equally vigorous style of wood work
has been developed in the Peshawar Valley. Traditional Peshawari furniture is still liked for its sturdy
look and bold ornamentation.
Unlike the Swati and Peshawari furniture, which is made from oak, deodar and partial wood, the woodcarvers of Azad Kashmir and some parts of the Frontier province use walnut wood. Kashmiri craftsmen
are famous all over the world for producing a number of elegant furniture items.
Carved shisham tables come in numerous shapes; the tops may be rectangular, square, circular,
polygonal or palm shaped; which rest on four straight legs or on a single pillar. These are the
specialties of the craftsmen of Chiniot (Punjab).
Jacquard work is a popular traditional craft of Sindh. The articles such as table lamps, chairs, and sofa
sets, produced by the lacquer industries of Hala in Hyderabad district and Kashmore in the Jacobabad
district, are very popular. There was a time when lacquer work furniture was used by villagers only bed legs, low chairs, into the modern homes of the rich in cities.
Export of furniture decreased to US $3.33 million in 1997-98 from US $3.46 million in 1995-96, thus
showing decline of 4 per cent. Country-wise export of furniture is given in table. Pakistan's wooden
furniture industry has a great export potential and in quality is inferior to none. The domestic markets
is very vast and varied. However, export to Japan's markets has great potential. No tariffs are levied on
furniture or furniture components. The largest obstacle to imports of furniture into Japan is size.
Western furniture is often rejected because it is too large for Japanese consumers.
Traditionally, Japan's furniture market has been heavily dependent on the so-called box furniture. This
type of market, however, is gradually fading away. Instead, the focus of home-use furniture demands
shifting to furniture sets for reception rooms. The increasing adopting of western housing and interior
designs will further accelerate this trend. Many single family dwellings and condominiums come with
built-in furniture such as walk-in closets. On the other hand, Japanese consumers have a traditional
attachment to wood. They dislike the presence of knots in the furniture surface, and expect from
manufacturers to perform careful finishing of all parts, even those that cannot be seen. Hence,
products that emphasises the beauty of the woodgrain will be an important key to success.

Although the wooden furniture industry is cottage based, a few units have recently established modern
automatic plants for furniture making. Success in the contract market requires the ability to propose
interior design concepts and design furniture that matches these concepts. The ability to manufacture
products with extremely short lead times is also a necessity. Moreover, since unit prices are much
lower in the contract market than in the home-use market, only the larger manufacturers are able to
tender bids for large projects. These manufacturers, with their accumulated expertise, advanced
design skills, ability to propose total interior concepts, and mass production facilities, have an
overwhelming competitive advantage over small businesses in the field.
The demand for furniture has been rising constantly for domestic as well as export purposes, and it has
been estimated that it is likely to maintain a growth rate of approximately 10 per cent annum by the
end of 2003. To meet the growing demand, improved designs and by suing seasoned wood has good
prospects in the domestic as well as foreign markets.
Forestry's Importance in National Economy

Forests are valuable assests to the nation. They provide timber, fire-wood, forage and medicinal plants.
These help in conservation of soil fertility and thus enhance its productivity. They also provide the vital
coverage to the country's water sheds and regulate supply of water. They also sustain the country's
wild life and provide recreational facilities. These materials support and sustain such important
industries as paper, news prints, match, plywood, hardboard, pulp rayon, sports goods and a host of
cottage industries. Forests also induce better rainfall in arid regions.
Man's dependence on trees for the essential of his existence has been of paramount importance in his
life since the human race began. To-day almost all the necessities of life are in one way or the other
connected with the forest wealth. Besides glorifying the beauty of nature, the trees prove to be helpful
to the economy. The economic growth of an agricultural country like ours is dependent on heavy plant
production and its wide distribution. The trees help the industrial revolution in a big way and provide
excellent raw materials for industry. The wooded area in our country is 4.5 percent of the total which is
very insufficient. The universally desirable standard is 20 percent. Our annual requirement of wood is
about 22 million cubic feet of timber and we hardly produce 11 million cubic feet and the balance has
to be imported in foreign exchange. The total area of the country is 197 million acres, of which forest
area constitutes only about 72 lakh acres. Moreover, only 47 lakh acres or 2.4 percent of the total has
been classified as productive forests. It is estimated that with an increase of 50,000 acres per year in
future afforestation programme, it will required about 100 years to raise the present meagre forest
area by about another 2.5 percent. Trees are beneficial to mankind in many ways. They help to
improve the environment. Trees can help to control water and wind erosion, serve to regulate
temperatures in the cropping zone, supply wood, influence the cycling of nutrients significantly, fix
atmospheric nitrogen, compete with crops for light, water and nutrients, influence biological equlibria
involving pests and their natural enemies. Some woody plants such as Acacia arabica, Azadirachta
indica, Dalbergia sisso and Zizyphus mauritiana are grown in or on borders of the cultivated fields,
which have come economic values. As regards fruit bearing trees, we have the example of our
neighbouring country India. A large number of these trees live at public roads and highways. Perhaps
the tradition emanates from the earliest grand trunk road, where shaddy trees, laden with fruit, were
planted along the road for the benefit of mankind. To plant trees is to ensure for the community
unending social, economic and environmental advantages. It is bequeath what our Holy Prophet
(peace be upon him) described as Sadqa-i-Jariya.
Unfortunately, ours is wood deficit country. Although, our efforts over the past four decades have
enabled us to increase the forest area from 2 to 5 percent, our wood resources still lag far behind our
requirements. We have to spend Rs.1.75 billion every year on imports. Trees are like jewels strung

around the earth. They add to the beauty and glitter of our planet on the one hand and fulfil our
innumerable needs on the other. They add fragrance and colour to enliven the environment which
motivates man towards creativity. Like all other living beings, trees, too bow to Allah Almighty in prayer
and praise. It will, therefore, be sinful to pluck even one leaf unnecessarily. That would affect the
enviornmental balance of our planet.
No serious effort was made in the past to increase the number of trees. A larger number were cut
down, while fewer were planted. To-day, only five percent of our land is dotted with trees. It is not
enough to merely plant trees in fields and gardens and on farms and orchards and along roods and
canals. They have to watered, nursed and protected till they are full grown trees. Many species are
planted as ornamentals or shade trees such as cordia obliqua, Acacia nilotica, Albizia lebbeck, Morus
alba, Tamarix ophylla and Dalberyia sissoo, mangifera indica, Tamarix aphylla, Zizyphus nummularia.
Some of the important trees species grown in Pakistan are poplar, mulbery, Eucalyptus, Pinus radita,
hard and soft wood tree species. Other trees are deodar, Fir, Chir Spuree, Keo, Phulai, pine, Babool,
Shisham, Lignum etc.
The average annual per hectare yield for the wooded forest are in Pakistan is 0.21 cum. as compared
to 1.65 cum. in case of UK and 1.19 cum. in USA. For increasing potential yield and area the plants
based on realistic strategy evolved are: Management of forests on scientific basis, introduction of
social forestry, Planning of waste and denuded lands in high rainfall areas, raising industrial wood
species on suitable soil.
Raising and extension of nurseries to provide adequate plants to planting agencies and farmers have
been considered as essential attributes which need to be implemented under strong and vigilant
insight. Forests make an enormous contribution to the environmental stability on the one hand and
play a very significant role in food security for millions of people on the other. A very important link
between food production and forest is the role of trees in keeping intact the fragile eco-system in the
watersheds as well as the low rainfall zones of a country. Excessive deforestation not only causes soil
erosion and disappearance of rich agriculture land but also because of its effect on the water regime, is
a major drought threat to the agriculture in the areas situated downstream. Keeping in view so much
significance it would be appropriate to say that forest play an important role in the economy of the
country. However, Pakistan is extremely deficient in forest resources. The forest area for the last four
decades has remained almost static. Pakistan has nearly 4.5 percent of the area under forest. This
percentage is too low as compared with an optimum desired level of 20 to 25 percent.
A tree cover breaks the velocity of the raindrops before falling on the ground, this substantially
reducing the kinetic energy which is otherwise so great that soil many times the volume of raindrop
would be disrupted and eroded. Of all the natural resources gifted to the mankind, sunlight, soil and
water are the most important ones. These resources have sustained the existence of man from the
very beginning but in recent years with increasing population, the demand of food has increased
enormously. Out of the total earth are of 510 million square kilometers, water is spread over 360
million square kilometers making 150 million square kilometers of land available for man's use. The
earth receives about 10 million kilocalories of solar energy per square meter per year. Out of this only
1 to 2 percent is absorbed by the plants and in turn, the net plant production is about 0.3 percent of
the light reaching the land surface. The optimum utilization of natural resources in general and effect
of forests in particular are of vital importance to mankind.
In earlier times, when the rate of growth of population was very low, man was free to utilize the natural
resources wastefully. With the increase in population and society becoming more industrialized and
urbanized, man has no other alternative but to put greater demands on natural resources, including
water, land, vegetation, animals, etc. causing cutting and encroaching of forests, increasing pollution
and this disturbing the ecological system. Although, Pakistan's forested areas are relatively small
compared to the land under cultivation and desert, the forests are of vital importance. Pakistan's
forests are of basic natural resource which provides food, fodder for cattle, fuel wood, wood for

building and other materials; they provide shelter and protection, and are source of income and
employment, providing oxygen to the air we breath and influencing the climate. They protect the soil
against erosion and help to prevent flood and desertification.
Wood is an important source of energy and in Pakistan the shortage of fuel wood alone presents an
energy crisis for rural population which may be as profound and intractable than that connected with
oil. To day, Pakistan has only 4.75 percent of the area under forests as compared to a desired level of
20-25 percent. There is a great need for increasing forests for the betterment of the country. Wood is at
present, mainly used for construction, timber and fuel wood purposes. Only a small quantity is used for
manufacturing industrial carriages, boat building, pencils, coal mine timbering products e.g matches,
sport goods, plywood, particle board, bus and truck body buildings, railways etc. However forestry as it
exists today in Pakistan is generally characterized lack of adequate area under forests, very low per
capita consumption of wood and use of outdated forest technology in planting and harvesting
operations. There are a number of factors responsible for this state of affairs. Firstly, Pakistan inherited
a very small forest area at the time of independence. Secondly, most of the land area in Pakistan is
arid and received low precipitation on which natural tree growth is not possible without artificial
irrigation. Further, in view of importance of agriculture, forestry development was given low priority
despite the fact that population has increased three-fold with the concomitant rise in living standard of
the people during this period. Research is essential for the development of technology in any field
which is suitable for local conditions.
Part 2: Chapter 7&8 Types of Forestry
Forestry - Definition and Types of Forestry
Forestry is defined as the theory and practice of all that constitutes the creation, conservation and
scientific management of forests and the utilization of their resources (Anon, 1966). It includes all
thinking and all actions pertaining to creation and management of forests, including harvesting,
marketing and utilization of all forest products and services. It includes not only management of
existing forests but also the creation of new forests.
National Forest Policy of 1952, recommended that on the basis of Functions, all forest lands may be
classified into:
A. Protection Forests
B. National Forests
C. Village Forests
C. Tree Lands
National Commission of Agriculture (1976) proposed that forests can be classified into:
A. Protection Forests:
The practices of managing the forests for their protection function are called Protection forestry. In
protection forestry, the object is to protect the site due to instability of terrain, nature of soil,
geological formations, etc. Such areas where manipulation of the forest cover is not desirable may be
classed as protection forests. The forests located on higher hill slopes, national parks and sanctuaries,
preservation plots, biosphere or nature reserves and wilderness areas may be included under
protection forests. The practice of forestry with a view to conserving flora, fauna, soil and water,
increasing water yields, reducing floods and droughts, amelioration of climatic conditions, etc. is called
Protection Forestry.
B. Production Forests:
The practice of forestry with object of producing maximum quantity of timber, fuel wood and other
forest produce is called Production Forestry. The production forestry can be further classified into:
(i) Commercial Forestry: Commercial forestry aims to get maximum production of timber, fuel wood
and other forest products as a business enterprise.
(ii) Industrial Forestry: Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. In
Production forestry, there is a greater concern for the production and economic returns.

(iii) Mixed Quality Forests
(iv) Valuable Forests
(v) Inaccessible Forests
C. Social Forests: Social Forestry is the practice of forestry which aims at meeting the requirement of
rural and urban population. The object of social forestry is to meet the basic needs of community
aiming at bettering the conditions of living through:
(i) Meeting the fuel wood, fodder and small timber requirements
(ii) Protection of agricultural fields against wind
(iii) Meeting recreational needs and
(iv) Maximizing production and increasing farm returns
Various forms of Social forestry are:
a) Community Forestry: The practice of forestry on lands outside the conventional forest area for the
benefit of local population has been called Community forestry. Community forestry seeks the
involvement of community in the creation and management of such forests.
b) Farm Forestry: Farm Forestry is defined as the practice of forestry in all its aspect on farms of village
lands generally integrated with other farm operations.
c)Extension Forestry: Extension forestry which includes the activity of raising trees on farm lands,
villages wastelands and community forest areas and on lands along the sides of roads, canal banks
and railway lines (Anon., 1976). More recently, there has been emphasis on dynamic land use planning
and efforts are made to maximise production on farmlands under agroforestry.
d) Agro-Forestry: Agro-forestry has been defined as a sustainable land management system which
increases the yield of the land, combines the production of crops and forest plants and/or animals
simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of land and applies management practices that are
compatible with the cultural practices of the local population.
e) Recreational Forestry: More recently, there has been considerable demand for Recreational forestry,
which is defined as the practice of forestry with the object of developing and maintaining forests of
high scenic value. Recreational forests are being developed near towns and cities. The areas are being
planted with flowering trees, shrubs and creepers to provide forest atmosphere near towns and cities.
Branches of Forestry
Mainly, the forestry has been grouped as follows:
1. Basic Forestry
2. Applied Forestry
1. Basic Forestry: Basic Forestry deals with the theory and practice of constitution and management of
forests and utilization of their products. Agriculture is the study of science and art of production of
plants and animals used by man In India, the geographical, areas is about 32,80,500 km2. The forests
occupy about 7,50,000 km2. (22.9% approximately) whereas agricultural (cultivated) area is about
46% However, agriculture is the largest enterprise in India. Nearly, 70% of the population is employed
in this profession. But unfortunately, in spite of this, it is not able to meet the requirements of everincreasing population. Forestry, just like agriculture, is a good professional with the difference of long
life-span.
Basic Forestry has the following Branches:
A) Silviculture: This refers to certain aspects to theory and practise of raising forest, crops, methods of
raising tree, their growth and after-cares up to the time of final harvesting. However, in simple words, it
is the cultivation of forest trees.

B) Forest Mensuration: In simple language, it is the measurement of forest produce. However, it is
defined as the determination of dimensions (e.g. height, diameter, volume, etc.) from, volume, age
and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods, either standing or after felling. It concerns with
linear area, volume and weight measurements.
C) Silvicultural Systems: A Silvicultural system can be defined as a method of Silvicultural procedure
worked out in accordance with accepted sets of Silvicultural principles by which crops constituting
forests are tended, harvested and replaced by new crops of distinctive forms.
D) Forest Management: It is the practical application of science, technique, and the economics to a
forest estate for the production of some wanted results. In actual sense, it is the application of
business methods to the operation of a forest estate. The Society of American Foresters (SAF) has
described it as an application of business methods and technical forestry principles to the operation of
a forest property.
E) Forest Utilization: It is a branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, conversion, disposal and
use of forest produce (British Common Wealth Forest Terminology, 1953.).According to SAF (1983) it is
a branch of forestry concerned with the harvesting, any necessary processing, and delivery to the
consumer of forest produce.
F) Forest Law: Law includes any rule of action. The rules and law imposed by the state up on the
actions of its citizens for the breach of which they are punishable. Forest law is classified as:
a) Constitutional laws
b) Public laws
c) Private laws; Very essential for protection of forest; Some terms - Forest offence / Forest right /
Forest settlement
d) Forest wild life Act WL (protection ) Act 1972 Animals / bird.
G) Forest Policy: Branch of forestry concerned essentially, with social and economic aims underlying
forest management and forestry development (SAF - 1983)
2. Applied Forestry: This includes those subjects which how the references to other subject but make
the essence of, forestry
Dendrology, Forest Ecology, Forest Economy, Forest Entomology, Forest Fire, Forest Genetics, Forest
Pathology, Forest Seed technology, Forest soils, Forest statistics, Forests surveying, Remote sensing
Social Forestry-Social Resent
i. Agroforestry
ii. Forestry Extension
iii. Afforestation
iv. Recreation Forestry etc.
Some Other Forestry Branches:
1. Aesthetic forestry
2. Commercial Forestry
3. Community Forestry
4. Extensive Forestry
5. Farm Forestry
6. Extensive Forestry
7. Multiple use Forestry.
Introduction to Agroforestry

Social forestry pertains to those areas and forest which are manmade. Agroforestry is conspicuously
and important part of Social forestry and is it a dual system of production i.e. production of forest crops
and food crops, fodders or medicinal plant becomes possible. It meets simultaneously at least two
requirements of the participating persons. Agroforestry is defined as a sustainable land management
system which increase the overall yield of land, combined with the production of crops (including tree
crops) and forest plants and animal simultaneously or sequentially on the same unit of applies
management practices that are compatible with the cultural practice of the local population. Thus in
Agroforestry co-existence of farm and forestry is adopted on a scientific basis and consequently, the
total yield of land is raised significantly.
Agro-forestry is an old concept. Trees, crops and animals have traditionally been raised together on
small farms throughout the World. This concept first derived in the temperate zone due to the small
family farms, as a result trees, crops and animals become separately managed on a large scale in
modern agriculture and forestry.
In our country the functional allocation on land is 46.4% for Agriculture and 22.7% area for forestry is
not sufficient for meeting the multi ferrous requirement of growing population for food, fodder and fuel
and other raw materials. The only answer appears to be to integrate the land used for agriculture and
forestry in such a way as to maximize production of foods and services for diverse requirements rural
communities.
Modern Agro-forestry establishes a symbiosis among agricultural crops tree species and livestock
rising. In other words, these are complementary and beneficial to each other.
In short conventionally there had been separation between Agriculture and Silviculture. From
immemorial on a limited scale a combination of food crops and forest crops had been adopted in land
management by the farmers throughout the world, however due to steep rise in the demand for fuel
wood and food, due to increase of population, present and early and urgent necessity to adopt the
scientific approach on a large scale to the dual system of production or co-existence of forestry and
farm council of research for FAO set Agroforestry in 1878 and it is a landmark in history in Agroforestry. Growing of forest crops along with food grains in dual system has been extensively being
adopted world over by the farmer.
Agro-forestry is defined as an efficient, integrated and sustainable land use system that combines
Agricultural crops, Forest corps and / or Livestock together on the unit of farmland at the same time or
in sequential manner. In an Agroforestry there are both ecological and economical interactions
between the various components.
Agro-forestry is collective name for land used systems involving trees combined with crops and / or
animals on the same unit of land.
It combines production of multiple outputs with protection of resources.
It places emphasis on the use of multiple indigenous trees and shrubs.
It is particularly suitable for low input conditions and fragile environment.
It is structurally and functionally more complex than mono culture (single crop culture) the cycle of
Agroforestry system is always more than one year.
Objectives of Agro-forestry
1) To manage land efficiently so that its productivity is increased and restored.
2) To use available resources efficiently and economically
3) To generate employment opportunities for rural peoples.
4) To provide raw material for small cottage industries in rural areas.
5) To raise the supply of fuel in the rural areas at convenient distance for consumer. In India 70 million
tons of dried cow dung is used every year, which can be diverted for natural organic fertilizer moreover
undue pressure is on traditional forest for obtaining fuel wood.

6) Agro-forestry aims to raise the supply for small timber used by villages for agricultural implements,
house construction and other domestic purposes. In this way Agroforestry can meet this requirement
of the rural population and reduce pressure on forest.
7) One of the main objectives of Agroforestry is to raise the production of food crops, legumes and
tuber to meet the rapidly growing food requirements of the Indian population.
8) Agroforestry aims at promoting production of, vegetables, pulses, milk and meat. Thus it can raise
the Nutritional value of food, which is urgently, require for mankind in our country. Average Indian gets
2000 calories when 3000 calories require per day.
9) Agro-forestry program helps in obtaining an ecological balance in rural areas and thus it may be
consider a matter of great significance for a country like India.
10) Preservation of humidity in cultivable lands and check soil erosion. Increase productivity of land. In
drought prone areas Agroforestry reduces insecurity of the agriculture; in such areas the dual system
of production of tree and grasses ensures stability with productivity of land.
11) Supply of fodder for vast population of livestock. For proper feeding to livestock increase supply of
fodder is urgently required. Large supply of milk and meat is achieved from livestock and poultry when
fodder and feeding is proper.
Benefits from Agro-forestry
Combining trees with food crops on cropped farms yield certain environmental benefits such as,
1. Reduction of pressure on Forrest.
2. More efficient recycling of nutrients by deep rooted trees on the site.
3. Better protection of ecological systems.
4. Reduction of surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil erosion.
5. Improvement of microclimate, such as lowering of soils surface temperature and reduction of
evaporation of soil moisture due to mulching and shading.
6. Increment in soil fertility through addition and decomposition of litter fall.
Economical Benefits:
Agro-forestry brings significant economic benefits to the farmers, the community, the region and the
nation such as:
1. Increment in outputs of food, fodder, fuel wood, timber and organic matter.
2. Reduction in incidence of total crop failure.
3. Increase in levels of farm incomes due to improved and sustained productivity.
Social Benefits:
1. Improvement in rural living standards from sustained employment and higher income.
2. Improvement in nutrition and health due to increased quality and diversity of food.
3. Provides stability to rural peoples.
4. Ecological balance.
5. Pollution reduction.
Limitations of Agro-forestry
Agro-forestry does have Certain Negative Aspects:
1. Possible competition of trees with food crops for space, sunlight, moisture and nutrient which may
reduce crop yield.
2. Damage to food crops during harvesting of trees.
3. Potential of trees is serving as hosts to insects and birds.
4. Rapid regeneration of profile trees may displace food crops and take over entire fields.
Through skilled management practices any or all these aspects can be controlled. For example, once it
is known that trees complete with food crops and may reduce food yields, it is easy to adopt some of
the following strategies.

1. Select legume trees that have small or light crowns so that sunlight will reach the food crops.
2. Select trees that are deep-rooted so that they will also absorb moisture and nutrients from the
deeper subsoil.
3. Space the trees further apart to reduce their competitive effect on the food crop.
Other Agroforestry System
In which following systems are included,
a) Horti-pastoral System: Cultivation of Horticultural crops plus pastures.
b) Agri-Horti-Pastoral System: In this system, in the marginal lands the fruit crops like Mango, Ber,
Anona, Jamun, Tamrind, Wood apple etc. are taken along with forest trees and the food grains like,
Peas, Gram, Wheat, Rice, Vegetables are taken.
c) Apiculture with Trees: In this system, the flowering trees like Kanchan Jacaranda Spathodia,
Erythrina, Krate sawar, Palas are planted for producing the honey in addition to Jamun, Mahuha,
Ecualyptus like trees are also planted for honey collection.
d) Aqua Forestry: Plants grown on the boundary around fish ponds like Casuriana, Coconut, Arecanut,
Kokum, Babhul, Bamboo, etc.
e) Multipurpose Wood Lots: The specific multipurpose trees are grown mixed or separately on the
farm like Australin babhul, Euclayputs, Subabhul, Bakan, Bamboo etc.
Kinds of Land and Site for Agro and Farm Forestry
The following type of land and sites can be assigned for Agroforestry
(I) Field boundaries
(II) Along with farm roads
(III) Along with nala sites
(IV) Land on which cultivation is difficult
(V) Old fallow lands
(VI) Cultivable wasteland
(VII) Site of cattle shade, kitchen farm, farms of house etc.
Introduction to Social Forestry
Social forestry may be defined as the science and art of growing trees in and outside traditional forest
areas and managing like existing forest with intimate involvement of the people and more or less
integrated with other operation resulting in balanced and complementary land used with view to
provide wide range of goods and services to the individual as well as to the society. It is also called as
Community forestry. The term social forestry was first used by a forest scientist named Westoby in
1976. Social forestry is the greatest instrument of land transformation. Consider the number of trees,
which we have if each farmer raises even 10 trees on his farmland. The figure and yield will be colossal
and its effect on economy will be very impressive. If each tree is harvested say at the 10th year, the
farmer having 10 trees will earn nearly Rs.400 at Rs.40 a tree. This is with an initial expenditure of
about Rs. 10 only. This increases the area under trees for the benefit of community as a whole and
rural community in particular.
Development of trees on agricultural and other waste lands has tremendous effect. The trees control
sheet, rill and gully erosion, they retain moisture in soil, provide the farmer with fuel and timber for
agricultural implements, improve the climate, provide recreation to people, save cow dung for manure
and wood required for cremation which is scarce sometime. Fuel alone to the extent of 90 million tones

is consumed annually and it is estimated that more than 180 million tons of fuel will be needed. Again,
it is said that about 400 million tons of cow dung equivalent to about 60 million tons of fuel wood are
burnt annually in or country. That means the total fuel wood requirement will be to the order of 240
million tones. With forest yield being diverted for industrial purposes and their extent dwindling year
by year, the only possible recourse for us will be make the farmer to grow trees on his farms.
Social Forestry Practices
The Social Forestry Practices Include:
1) Raising wind breaks on the dry farm lands
2) Planting shelter belts
3) Planting along road sides intensively
4) Planting up the village common lands and wastelands
5) Planting along railway lines and canal banks
6) Planting small wood lots on the farm if it is large
7) Planting of grooves near villages and along highways for recreation and rest
8) Planting foreshore areas of irrigation tanks
9) Planting of saline and calcareous soils unsuitable for agriculture
10) Reclamation of waterlogged areas or areas susceptible to inundation by planting trees
11) Planting of river and stream banks and training the rivers
12) Reclamation of highly eroded lands and controlling erosion
13) Raising of trees on soil conservation bunds
14) Planting of trees in urban areas - environmental planting
15) Raising of irrigated plantation of teak and mulberry
16) Afforestation of command areas of irrigation projects.
Methods of Practice of Social Forestry:
Social forestry may sub divided into farm forestry, extension forestry and urban forestry. Practice of
forestry on farm lands is farm forestry. Practice of forestry outside the farm lands and outside the
reserve forests is extension forestry.
Farm Forestry: Includes, rising of wind breaks, shelter, belts, and farm wood kots, raising trees in
village common land etc
Extension Forestry: Includes raising tree crops on canal banks, railway lines- and road sides, under
high tension electric lines, afforestation of foreshore areas of tanks and reservoirs, reclaiming lands
unsuitable for agriculture under tree crops.
Urban Forestry: Rising of tree crops in urban, areas L as a forest or for amenity planting, to prevent
and minimize pollution.
By now it is well appreciated that there is essential need for social forestry programme and farm
forestry development.
Benefits of Social Forestry
1) Betterment of environment
2) Reduction of pollution
3) Providing the basic needs of rural and urban people for fuel, small timber, manure leaf and other
economic products nearer to home
4) Providing raw materials for industries such as wood, wool, packing cases, slate frames, fibre,
tamarind extract, oil seeds, pulping and husking material
5) Provide shelter for insectivorous birds on the farms
6) Protection from wind
7) Conservation of moisture
8) Prevention of soil erosion
9) Fullest utilization of land unsuitable for cultivation
10) Employment opportunities in rural and urban area

11)
12)
13)
14)
15)
Reduction of noise
Recreation
Reduction of pressure on national forests
Achievement of self-sufficiency by the villages
Improvement of rainfall by induction precipitation
Types of Forests
Tropical rainforests
Hugely dense, lush forest with canopies preventing sunlight from getting to the floor of the forest
All year high temperatures and abundant rainfall
Located near the equator
A vital storehouse of biodiversity, sustaining millions of different animals, birds, algae and fish species
Sub-tropical forests
Located at the south and north of the tropical forests
Trees here are adapted to resist the summer drought
Mediterranean forests
Located at the south of the temperate regions around the coasts of the Mediterranean, California, Chile
and Western Australia
The growing season is short and almost all trees are evergreen, but mixed with hardwood and
softwood
Temperate forests
Located at Eastern North America, Northeastern Asia, and western and eastern Europe
Mix of deciduous and coniferous evergreen trees
Usually, the broad-leaved hardwood trees shed leaves annually
There are well-defined seasons with a distinct winter and sufficient rainfall
Coniferous forests
Located in the cold, windy regions around the poles
They come in both hardwoods and conifers
The hardwoods are deciduous
The conifers are evergreen and structurally adapted to withstand the long drought-like conditions of
the long winters
Montane forests
Known as cloud forests because they receive most of their precipitation from the mist or fog that
comes up from the lowlands
Usually found in high-elevation tropical, subtropical and temperate zones
Plants and animals in these forests are adapted to withstanding the cold, wet conditions and intense
sunlight
Trees are mainly conifers
Plantation forests
Has around 7% of global forest cover (140 million hectares)
Produces more sustainable timber and fibre than natural forests
Plantations produce around 40% of industrial wood
Plantation forests are on the increase
Regeneration of Forest

The renewal of a forest by some means (e.g. natural or artificial) is known as regenerations. The
regeneration has been defined in a number of ways by several workers.
1) "The renewal of a forest crops by natural or artificial means; also the new crop so obtained".
2) Regeneration as, "The renewal by self-sown seed or by vegetative means." It is of two types viz.,
Natural regeneration and Artificial regeneration.
Methods of Regeneration:
There are following methods of regeneration of forest:
A) Natural Regeneration,
B) Artificial regeneration and
C) Natural regeneration supplemented by Planting.
However, first two methods are most important in regeneration of forests.
A) Natural Regeneration: The renewal of a forest crop, by self-sown seed, or by coppice or root-suckers,
also the crop so obtained or also it can be defined as Reforestation of a stand by natural seeding.
B) Artificial Regeneration: It is defined as the renewal of a forest crop by sowing, planting, or other
artificial methods; also the crop so obtained or the renewal of a tree crop by direct seeding, or
planting.
Part 2: Chapter 10: National Forest Policy

I.
Preamble
National Forest Policy (NFP) provides a framework for the sustainable management of forests and
allied natural resources, namely watersheds, rangelands, wildlife and associated biodiversity. The
policy seeks to launch a process of addressing fundamental causes of forest depletion through active
participation of all stakeholders, particularly local communities, to maintain and improve ecosystem
functions and services of forests and allied natural resources. It is an umbrella policy providing
guidelines to the Federal and Provincial Governments, Government of Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK)
and administrations of Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Gilgit Baltistan territories for
protection, conservation, and sustainable management of Renewable Natural Resources (RNR) for
devising policies, strategies and action plans specific to their priorities, needs, socio-economic and
ecological conditions.
II.
Goal
The policy aims at restoration, development, conservation and sustainable management of forests and
allied natural resources to ensure sustainability of ecosystem functions, services and benefits for
present and future generations of Pakistan.
III.
Objectives
The following basic objectives shall govern achieving goal of the National Forest Policy:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Restoration and maintenance of natural forests to preserve ecological cycles, functions and
services.
Increasing productivity of forests to meet requirements of timber, fuel wood, fodder and nonwood forest products and to promote sustainable natural resource based livelihoods.
Encouraging efficient utilization of wood and non-wood forest products, maximizing wood
substitution and development of alternative renewable energy resources.
Development of forest resource base to enhance carbon sequestration capacity and mitigation
of climate change effects, through massive afforestation programmes, especially on all
denuded, degraded and unproductive lands.
Mainstreaming sustainable forest management into sectoral policies, plans and programmes,
ensuring effective inter-provincial and inter-ministerial coordination at Federal and provincial
levels.

6.
Conservation of biological diversity, protection and sustainable use of indigenous flora and
fauna.
7. Fostering public-private partnerships to enhance forest cover and promote commercial forestry
in private sector and encouraging role of civil society organizations.
8. Strengthening forestry education and research institutions to cope with the emerging
challenges of deforestation and climate change.
9. Creating mass awareness and involving local communities in sustainable natural resource
management.
10. Meeting national obligations under Multilateral Environmental Agreements especially CBD,
UNCCD, UNFCCC and UNFF.
IV
POLICY MEASURES
The objectives of this policy shall be achieved through following measures:

1.
1.1
Reducing Adverse Impacts of Socio-Economic Causes

Protection of Forest Lands from Encroachments
A GIS/Remote Sensing based system shall be developed to establish and monitor boundaries of
forest lands and changes in tree cover in the country, in order to address issues of deforestation and
changes in land use. The Provincial Governments shall ensure mutation of state forestlands,
maintenance of proper revenue record, demarcation and establishment of permanent boundary pillars.
1.2
Transfer of Forest Land to Non-Forestry Uses: Federal, Provincial and territorial

governments will ensure that no forest land shall be converted to any non-forestry uses. In
case such conversion is inevitable, permission for transfer shall be granted by the Federal
Government on the recommendation of the respective provincial/ territorial government,
subject to the condition that proper arrangements are made for provision of alternate land and
funds for compensatory afforestation. Any diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes
should be subject to most careful scrutiny by specialists from the stand point of social and
environmental costs and benefits. Necessary legislation to curb the practice of forest
conversions to non-forestry uses shall be promulgated.
1.2.1 Control of Encroachments : Forest encroachments are on the increase and this trend has to
be curbed through effective legislation and law enforcement. There should be no regularization of
existing encroachments.
1.2.2 Forest Fire Management: The incidence of fires in mountain forests is high leading to
enormous damage to the growing stock and natural regeneration. Special precautions and improved
management practices should be adopted to deal with forest fires.
1.2.3 Regulating Mining and Quarrying: Mining and quarrying in designated forest lands and
lands covered by trees should be allowed only after ensuring that the beneficiaries shall repair and revegetate the area in accordance with established forestry practices. No mining lease should be
granted, private or public, without proper EIA and management plan, appraised from the
environmental angle and enforced by adequate set-up.
1.3
Bringing Additional Land under Tree Cover: The concept of social forestry, farm forestry,
agro-forestry will be promoted by providing appropriate incentives to the farmers. Tree
planting, soil stabilization and watershed management will be an integral component of all
Federally funded projects for construction of new dams, water reservoirs, roads, railways,
canals, industrial estates, housing schemes, etc. The corporate sector shall be motivated to
participate in afforestation campaigns under Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and under
obligation to sequester green house gases emitted from the industrial processes.
1.4
Firewood Substitution: In order to reduce pressure on natural forests, alternate energy

resources including energy plantations, micro-hydro power generation, bio-gas, solar and wind
energy, Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) and natural gas shall be promoted in critical mountain

ecosystems. Fuel efficient cooking stoves and energy efficient houses shall be promoted
throughout the country.
1.5
Sustainable livelihoods through Integrated NRM
Government of Pakistan shall assign high priority to development programmes aiming at sustainable
livelihood for local communities through integration of forestry component with
projects and
programmes of other economic sectors including agriculture, water, tourism, housing, communication.
1.6
Transparency and Good Governance: National, provincial and local governments shall
ensure adequate institutional mechanisms for ensuring career protection and safety of Forestry
professionals in the discharge of their official duties, keeping in view transparency and
accountability at different levels.
1.7
Wood Substitution and import liberalization: In order to reduce pressure on natural
forests, use of solid timber of precious tree species like deodar and shisham for construction and
furniture should be discouraged in government buildings. A programme for promotion of composite
wood, non-wood and synthetic wood products in construction of government buildings may be
launched. As a major step towards wood substitution and import liberalization, the Government will
exempt timber imports from all types of taxes, including sales tax.
1.8
Grazing Regulation
Heavy, indiscriminate and ubiquitous grazing being one of major cause of degradation of forests and
allied natural resources, programmes to promote regulated (controlled) grazing, stall feeding and
breed improvement shall be launched in collaboration with Livestock Division, Government of Pakistan
and Provincial Livestock Departments.
1.9
Forest Development Fund
A Forest Development Fund will be established at Federal level for conservation and development of
critical watersheds in uplands, on which sustained supply of the nations water depends. Part of such
fund shall also be used for promotion of forestry research, education and extension in the country.
2.
Institutional Strengthening
Improvement and strengthening of Federal and provincial institutions responsible for education,
research, management and extension of forestry and allied disciplines in the country will receive high
priority. The institutions will be restructured to enable them to handle present day challenges and
responsibilities. Pakistan Forest Institute will also be gradually transformed into a University of Forests
and Natural Resource Sciences. National Forestry Council will be established as a think tank on forest
policy, maintain and monitor academic and professional standards in forestry and allied disciplines.
Office of Inspector General Forests will be strengthened to discharge the mandated functions including
planning and policy making, inter-provincial and inter-ministerial coordination, finacing and
international cooperation. Special resources will be allocated to effectively deal with the new
challenges like climate change through capturing emerging opportunities under Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) and Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation ( REDD).
3.
Role of Local Governments in Sustainable Management of Natural Resources: The

local governments shall be provided with adequate financial and institutional support for
promotion of forests and allied natural resources in their rural development programmes.
4.
Measures for Specific Forest Ecosystems: A number of important ecosystems in the

country have been depleted due to variety of factors. Adequate arrangements will be made for
conservation and restoration of the following fragile ecosystems:
4.1
Mountain Forests: Mountain forest ecosystems are critically important to Pakistan. They
provide a carbon sink to mitigate global warming, act as repositories of invaluable biodiversity,

safeguard water supplies, retard loss of soil and water from watersheds, thereby reducing
siltation of water storage reservoirs, and afford sustenance to large number of human
communities and their livestock. The conservation and sustainable management of mountain
forest ecosystems shall be ensured through following interventions;
4.1.1 Sustainable Management in Reserved, Protected, Guzara and Private Forests : Ban
on commercial harvesting, imposed in 1993 by the Federal Cabinet has disrupted forest management
cycle depriving forest owners of their legitimate rights. Consequently the Forest Management Plans
have become non-operational and the forest owners have lost interest in protection and management
of their forests. Out of shear frustration many of them have resorted to large scale illicit cutting of
forests. Therefore, in order to restore the process of forest management, to promote natural forest
regeneration and to regain confidence of the forest owners, it is imperative to lift ban on timber
harvesting. However, Government of AJK may continue the ban to implement Green Kashmir Vision.
Provincial governments may resume sustainable commercial timber harvesting in the Reserved,
Protected, Guzara and Private Forests. However, Reserve Forests shall only be subjected to hygienic
felling and left alone for preserving gene pool and maintaining ecosystem integrity, structure and
functions. Timber harvesting in Protected, Guzara and Private Forests shall be allowed on the basis of
the following conditions:
a.
Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in well stocked forests that are covered under
updated and revised management plans approved by the respective government. All
operations such as marking, felling, logging, transportation and regeneration of forests
shall be monitored by an independent committee having representation of the Forest
Department, District Administration, reputable environmental NGO, concerned community
and the Federal Government. Such committees shall be notified by the provincial
governments.
b.
Timber harvesting shall only be resumed in those areas whose owners and right-holders
undertake to fully participate in the management and regeneration of their forests in
association with the Forest Department, with due regard to meeting the minimum
sustainable needs of the non-right-holders to the extent of the productive capacity of each
forest.
c.
Essential criteria for classifying forests into commercial and non-commercial categories
shall not only be stocking but terrain, need for regeneration and a creditable guarantee
from the owners, right-holders and users that they will ensure the regeneration of the
forests by affording them protection from grazing, fires and other sources of injuries.
The principal objective of timber harvesting in the above forests shall be poverty
alleviation through providing income to the owners and right holders and to promote
economic activity through generating local employment. Provincial Governments will make
arrangements for training the local people in all timber-harvesting operations and enable
them to take on small timber harvesting contracts on the pattern successfully
demonstrated in the Kalam and Kaghan projects.
d.
4.1.2
e.
In order to ensure regeneration of the forests, timber harvesting should be undertaken only
after a regeneration plan has been approved and funds ensured for its implementation.
f.
Provincial Governments and forest owners shall provide necessary resources to rehabilitate
the degraded forests. In this regard the initiative of establishing Forest Development Fund
taken by NWFP Forest Department may be adopted in other provinces as well including AJK
and Gilgit- Baltistan.
g.
Local communities will be actively involved in management of forest resources. In doing

so the Forest Department should assume the role of providing advisory services.
h.
Existing pressure on national forests will be reduced through promotion of commercial

plantations by private sector.
Establishing Protected Areas
The role of Protected Areas in conserving ecological characters of representative samples of important
ecosystems is well recognized. Therefore, the Provincial Governments will be encouraged to create and
effectively manage Protected Areas networks falling in their geographical boundaries.
Federal Government will provide grants out of poverty alleviation programmes to rural communities,
dependent on such forests for firewood and fodder; for growing these commodities on their village
lands through participatory approaches.
Appropriate institutional mechanisms will be devised for collaborative management of such protected
forests with the local communities in order to give them an economic and environmental stake in the
endeavor.
4.2
Mangrove Forests: Mangrove forests are vital for protecting coastal belt and as habitat for
fish nurseries and shrimp, which are a source of food and export earnings. These forests are
threatened by marine pollution, scarcity of fresh water flowing down the Indus delta, and overuse by the local communities for fuel wood and fodder. In order to ensure protection of these
forests, proper arrangements shall be made for containing marine pollution, allowing sufficient
water to flow down the Indus River and evolving an incentive-based system for sustainable
management of these forests.
4.3
Riverain Forests
Riverain forests are pitiable remnants of the extensive woodlands that once fringed rivers of Pakistan.
These forests shall be managed primarily for maintenance of their environmental and biodiversity
functions, and secondarily for meeting the needs of the public and wood-based industries.
As the existence of these forests is primarily dependent on availability of inundation water from the
Indus River System, this fact will have to be kept in view while planning Indus water storage and
distribution system.
4.4
Preservation of Relict and Unique Forests
Relict forests and their associated biodiversity are an invaluable cultural heritage of Pakistan, which
once covered the mountains of Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistanand plains of Punjab and Sindh. Native tree
species, having strong cultural and social values, shall be preserved and promoted. It shall, therefore,
be the policy of Government to preserve these forests and associated biodiversity primarily for
research, education, maintenance of local environment, and controlled eco-tourism; in partnership with
rural communities by providing them their minimum subsistence needs from the forests, along with
appropriate incentives in return for their active participation in the regeneration and protection of the
forests. Such forests include juniper forests of Ziarat, Chalghoza forests in Sulaiman Range, spruce
forests of Naltar in Gilgit-Baltistan.
4.4.1
Juniper Forests
The juniper forests of Balochistan are unique in having survived as remnants of once extensive forests
covering its high mountains against overwhelming odds, such as heavy uncontrolled grazing and
removal of wood by the local communities for use as fuel and timber. Besides their scientific
significance they also harbor a unique biodiversity, protect watersheds of the apple growing tracts, and
have great scenic beauty for promoting eco-tourism.
The Provincial Government shall take appropriate measures for conservation and sustainable
management of these forests with the involvement of local communities. This shall be achieved by
providing them incentives for enhancing their livelihoods and thus reduce their dependence on the
forests for consumptive uses.

4.4.2
Chalghoza Forests
The chalghoza forests of Balochistan and South Waziristan comprise the largest pure stands of
chalghoza pine in the country. Their survival is being threatened by the unsustainable demands of the
residents of about a hundred remote villages for timber, fuel wood, grazing, and edible pine nuts. To
save these forests from extinction, the Provincial Government shall launch appropriate development
schemes, on the same lines as for the juniper forests. Cultivation of chalghoza pine orchards will also
be promoted, in order to relieve pressure on limited natural forests.
4.4.3
Spruce Forests
Spruce forests in Naltar, District Gilgit in Gilgit-Baltistan being famous for their biodiversity shall be
protected with the involvement of local communities. This would require provision of appropriate
incentives by the Gilgit-Baltistan Administration for integrated resource management with all
stakeholders so that adverse impact of human and livestock pressure on these forests is reduced.
5.
Wildlife Management: Rapid depletion of forest, range and wetland resources have
adversely affected wildlife habitats bringing many endemic animal and plant species on the
verge of extinction. Pakistans Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP 2000) provides a strategic
framework for biodiversity conservation in the country. In order to effectively manage existing
protected areas and encourage new conservation initiatives on privately owned lands,
provincial wildlife departments shall be strengthened and Forest-Wildlife coordination be
improved. Federal Government shall assist provinces for implementation of international
treaties/conventions i.e. CITES, CBD, CMS and Ramsar Convention in provincial territories for
the protection and conservation of the threatened species of wildlife and their habitats.
National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (NCCW) shall be strengthened for providing more
effective advisory and coordination services. The capacity of Zoological Survey Department
shall be enhanced for biodiversity assessment and to conduct regular surveys and research on
wildlife species and habitats.
6.
Rangelands and Desert Ecosystems
6.1
Sub-Alpine and Alpine Rangelands and Meadows
Sub alpine and alpine rangelands and meadows constitute one of the most productive but fragile
ecosystems of the country. Over-grazing is not only depleting the productivity of these ecosystems but
is also setting soil erosion causing their permanent degradation. Wildlife in these areas is in direct
competition with livestock and many species particularly snow leopard, musk deer, Markhor and
Ladakh Urial have become endangered
The Federal Government shall assist Provincial Governments in conservation and rehabilitation of these
ecosystems by carrying out inventories on range condition, habitat restoration and preparation of
conservation plans.
6.2
Semi-Arid and Arid Rangelands.
Semi-arid and arid rangelands in Pakistan cover about 30 percent of its total land area. Un-controlled
over-grazing and uprooting the shrubs for fuel wood is converting these areas into deserts.
Government of Pakistan shall provide financial assistance to Provincial Governments for undertaking
rehabilitation and management of such lands. It shall also provide facilities for education in Range
Management and Wildlife Management.
6.3
Land Degradation and Desertification : Pakistan is mainly a dryland country, where 80

percent of its land is arid and semi-arid. Two-third of its human population depends on arid
lands to support their livelihood. The menace of land degradation and desertification is not
only affecting rain-fed agriculture and pastoral systems, but also reducing productive potential
of irrigated agro-ecosystems due to water logging and salinity. Sustainable Land Management
(SLM) is now considered as a viable option to combat land degradation and desertification.
Federal and Provincial Governments shall integrate SLM principles into sectoral policies,
strategies and plans, as land degradation adversely affects natural resource based livelihood of
the rural poor.
Federal Government shall support provincial governments to combat
desertification as recommended under Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), National
Action Programme (NAP) and aligning Pakistans NAP with 10-Year Strategic Plan of the United
Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). A National Desertification Control Fund
as envisaged under NAP and UNCCD shall be established to ensure continued financial
sustainability for SLM interventions at grassroots level. Appropriate incentives shall be

designed to enlist the participation of local communities in sustainable management of land
resources.
7.
Planting Trees on Farmlands: Farmers will be motivated to adopt farm forestry as a

commercial enterprise for production of industrial wood, fuel wood and fodder. Provincial and
local governments shall be encouraged to devise mechanisms of incentives for farmers for
growing trees on farm lands, including exemption from water tax and provision of agricultural
loans. Pakistan Forest Institute, Agricultural Colleges and Universities will be encouraged to
develop specialized courses in agro-forestry.
8.
Management of irrigated and linear plantations
Irrigated Plantations (IPs) are badly suffering from shortage of irrigation water. New improved irrigation
and planting techniques shall be encouraged to rejuvenate IPs with fast growing local species
propagated under state of the art silvicultural system. Production of non-wood products of IPs such as
silk, honey and medicinal plants shall be enhanced to generate sources of livelihood for surrounding
communities.
Existing linear plantations along canals, roads and railway tracks shall be protected and developed
using new irrigation and protection technologies. At least 10 % of command area of new canals shall
be allocated for raising plantations. Road side plantations shall become an integral component of all
the projects of new highways and motorways.
9.
10.
11.
V.
Improving urban environment: Urban and amenity forestry shall be given due focus by
city and district administrations in their development programmes. Maximum available blank
lands in jurisdiction of city and district governments shall be brought under tree cover. New
housing schemes shall allocate maximum areas for amenity planting and building by-laws
shall essentially include open space for trees.
Promotion of Indigenous Tree Species: Tree species of native origins, adapted to specific
forest ecosystems, will be promoted. Special measures are, however, needed by the provincial
governments to improve germplasm availability of species like Fraxinus, Juniper, Betula, Taxus,
Abies, native Acacia, Ziziphus, Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix, Tecomella, Calligonum, and
Dalbergia etc. This would be needed to enhance growth rate of native species and induce
resilience to pests, diseases, pollution and climate change affects. Provincial governments will
ensure that alien invasive species are not introduced and propagated
Monitoring and Evaluation Systems:In order to monitor the changes in forest cover, both
on public and private lands, an effective monitoring and evaluation system is urgently needed
for future policy, planning and implementation purposes. Government of Pakistan will provide
necessary financial and technical assistance to provincial forest departments and R&D
institutions for establishing regular monitoring system based on GIS and Remote Sensing.
ACTION PLAN: A mechanism shall be devised to implement and review the National Forest
Policy, including passing of any legislation that may be required, issuance of the requisite
notifications and the provisions of fund etc. A synoptic action plan for implementation of
National Forest Policy is given as under:
1.
Responsibilities
1.1
Federal Level
At the Federal level, Ministry of Environment shall be responsible for initiating following actions;
Establishing a cell under IGF for monitoring implementation of the policy.
Reporting annual progress of policy implementation to the Federal Forestry Board (FFB)
1.2
Provincial Level: In line with the provisions of this umbrella policy, respective Provincial
Forest and Wildlife Departments including FATA, AJK and Gilgit-Baltistan shall initiate actions to achieve
the goal and objectives envisaged in this policy.
2.
Priming the Action
Government shall implement this policy through the following stages:
1. Preparation and implementation of a 10-Year Plan of Action (2010-2020).
2. Integration of Plan of Action with PSDP and international grant assistance.
Provincial/territorial governments shall devise their own policies, legislation, programmes and plans of
actions.
References:

http://www.ahsankhaneco.blogspot.com/2012/04/major-problems-of-agricultural-sector.html
http://www.pakistaniexporters.com/static/industry_information/article4.aspx
http://www.worldwide-extension.org/asia/pakistan
http://archives.dailytimes.com.pk/editorial/22-Sep-2010/comment-much-ado-about-feudalism-shahidsaeed
http://blogs.tribune.com.pk/story/2190/the-past-present-and-future-of-land-reforms/
http://www.ahsankhaneco.blogspot.com/2012/04/role-and-importance-of-agriculture.html

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NOTES

Agriculture & Forestry

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v. Farm input supplies supported by appropriate technology to the farmers and at

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Inadequate Agricultural Research: The average crop yield in Pakistan is

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Deprived livestock extension activities: Livestock extension wing in the country

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Karachi Fisheries Harbor is being operated by Provincial Government of

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Despite the rhetoric and insistence on local or popular participation in decision

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academic institutions. Besides a Directorate of Extension, the

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offer academic degrees in a number of agricultural disciplines including

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Government Policies Short Term

Part 1: Chapter 4: Genetic Improvement for Crop Production

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Movement occurs over an evolutionary time scale.The introduction of foreign

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Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Papaya, potatoes, and squash have been

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Part 1 Chapter 6: Rainfed and Irrigated Agriculture

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consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as