Table of Contents

1.0. Introduction to Apparel Industry ..........................................

............................................. 8
1.1. Performance of Indian Apparel Industry ....................................
...................................................... 8 1.2. Some Interesting F
acts ...........................................................................
.......................................... 9 1.3. Quotas, Tariffs and the End of
the Multi-Fibre Arrangement ...................................................
....... 9
2.0. Apparel Industry Departments ..............................................
............................................. 9
2.1. MERCHANDISING..............................................................
.............................................................. 10 2.1.1. A Merch
andisers key responsibility.....................................................
.................................... 10 2.2. Sampling Department ...............
................................................................................
..................... 11 2.2.1. Types of Samples in Sampling Dept...............
.......................................................................... 11 2.
3. FABRIC SOURCING .............................................................
............................................................. 11 2.4. PURCHASING
DEPARTMENT ....................................................................
....................................... 11 2.5. FABRIC AUDIT DEPARTMENT.........
................................................................................
................. 11 2.6. ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT ..........................
...................................................................... 12 2.7. P
LANNING DEPARTMENT .............................................................
.................................................. 12 2.8. LABORATORY DEPARTMENT
...............................................................................
........................... 12 2.9. MACHINE MAINTENANCE ........................
................................................................................
...... 12 2.9.1. The function of PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE ........................
.................................................. 13 2.10. CUTTING ROOM........
................................................................................
.................................... 13 2.11. Production Department ............
................................................................................
................... 13 2.12. IED DEPARTMENT ....................................
................................................................................
..... 14 2.13. EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT ...........................................
............................................................. 14 2.14. WASHING D
EPARTMENT ......................................................................
........................................ 14 2.15. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT .
................................................................................
........... 14 2.16. FINISHING DEPARTMENT ......................................
....................................................................... 15
3.0. What is Quality? ..........................................................
....................................................... 16
3.1. Answers for Quality from Different Peoples ................................
.................................................. 16 3.2. Meaning of Quality ..
................................................................................
....................................... 16 3.2.1. Expectations of Quality.......
................................................................................
..................... 16 3.3. Definitions of Quality............................
................................................................................
.......... 16
1

3.3.1. Holistic Perspective ....................................................

............................................................. 16 3.3.2. Product
Perspective.....................................................................
............................................ 17 3.3.3. Producer Perspective (Man
ufacturer Perspective) .........................................................
........ 17 3.3.4. Customer Perspective ........................................
..................................................................... 17 3.3.5.
Value based perspective.........................................................
................................................. 19
4.0. Dimensions of Quality......................................................
................................................... 20
4.1. Performance ...............................................................
.................................................................... 20 4.2. Fea
tures ..........................................................................
................................................................ 20 4.3. Reliabi
lity ...........................................................................
............................................................. 20 4.4. Conformanc
e ..............................................................................
.................................................... 21 4.5. Durability & Servic
eability .......................................................................
....................................... 21 4.6. Aesthetics & Perceived Quality .
................................................................................
..................... 21
5.0. Quality Related Terms and Definitions .....................................
....................................... 22
5.1. Quality related terminology ...............................................
............................................................ 22 5.2. Introductio
n to Quality Assurance .........................................................
........................................ 23 5.2.1. The Textile Industry Complex
................................................................................
.................. 23 5.2.2. Textile quality Assurance .........................
................................................................................
24 5.2.3. Quality Control .....................................................
................................................................... 26
6.0. Quality Standards and Quality Grade .......................................
....................................... 29
6.1. Standards Introduction ....................................................
............................................................ 29 6.1.1. Standards
Definition by ISO .............................................................
..................................... 29 6.1.2. Standardization ................
................................................................................
....................... 29 6.1.3. Developing Standards .........................
................................................................................
..... 30 6.1.4. Benefits of Standards ..........................................
.................................................................... 30 6.1.5. L
evels of Standards .............................................................
..................................................... 30 6.2. Types of Standards
...............................................................................
.......................................... 31 6.3. Other types of Standards in t
he Industry ....................................................................
................... 31 6.3.1. Company Standards.................................
................................................................................
31 6.3.2. Industry Standards ..................................................
................................................................ 32 6.3.3. Volun
tary Standards .................................................................
............................................... 32 6.4. International Standards
................................................................................

.................................. 32
2

6.5. APPLICATION OF STANDARDS TO TEXTILE INDUSTRY ..............................

...................................... 33 6.5.1. Purpose of standards & specific
ation ..........................................................................
............ 33 6.5.2. Focus of Company towards Quality Standard ...............
.......................................................... 33 6.5.3. Constructio
n Standards ....................................................................
....................................... 35 6.5.4. Special Consumer needs........
................................................................................
.................. 36 6.5.5. Appearance of the finished product.................
....................................................................... 36 6.5.6
. Packaging ....................................................................
............................................................. 36
7.0. Different Textile and Apparel Standards ...................................
...................................... 37
7.1. Sources of Standards ......................................................
................................................................ 37 7.2. America
n Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC).........................
......................... 37 7.2.1. About AATCC ................................
................................................................................
........... 37 7.3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) ..........
............................................................ 38 7.3.1. ASTM Comm
ittees .........................................................................
.......................................... 38 7.3.2. ASTM Standards ............
................................................................................
.......................... 38 7.4. American Society for Quality (ASQ)...........
................................................................................
..... 39 7.4.1. The ASQ code of Ethics .........................................
................................................................... 39 7.5. Amer
ican Apparel and Footwear Association (AAFA) ...................................
................................. 40 7.5.1. AAFA Committees and Divisions ......
................................................................................
....... 40 7.6. TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp .........................
................................................................. 41 7.7. Americ
an National Standards Institute (ANSI) .........................................
...................................... 41 7.8. ISO International Organization fo
r Standardization ..............................................................
...... 41 7.8.1. Need for ISO ..................................................
.......................................................................... 41 7.
8.2. ISO 9000 Series Standards .................................................
...................................................... 41 7.8.3. How does the se
ries work? .....................................................................
................................ 42 7.8.4. Elements of ISO 9000 Standards ......
................................................................................
....... 43 7.8.5. Who is using ISO 9000? .......................................
.................................................................... 43 7.8.6. W
hat does being registered to ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 mean? ......................
....................... 43 7.8.7. Advantages of Implementing or registering to t
hese standards ............................................. 43
8.0. Quality Specification .....................................................
...................................................... 45
8.1. Two important elements in Specifications ..................................
................................................... 45 8.1.1. Minimums..........
................................................................................
...................................... 45 8.1.2. Tolerances ....................
................................................................................
........................... 45 3

8.2. Key element in Specification ..............................................

............................................................ 45 8.3. Types of Sp
ecification ....................................................................
................................................. 46 8.3.1. Open Specification..
................................................................................
................................. 46 8.3.2. Closed specification ...............
................................................................................
.................. 46 8.4. Types of specifications used by various industries...
...................................................................... 46 8.4.1.
Target Specification: .........................................................
....................................................... 46 8.4.2. Functional spe
cifications ....................................................................
..................................... 47 8.4.3. Product specification ..........
................................................................................
..................... 47 8.4.4. Materials Specification ........................
................................................................................
.... 47 8.4.5. Process specification ...........................................
.................................................................... 47 8.4.6. I
nspection specifications .......................................................
.................................................. 47 8.4.7. Test specifications
...............................................................................
.................................... 47 8.4.8. Acceptance Specifications .......
................................................................................
................ 48 8.4.9. Installation Specifications .........................
...............................................................................
48 8.4.10. Use Specifications ..................................................
................................................................ 48 8.4.11. Main
tenance Specifications .........................................................
......................................... 48 8.4.12. Disposal Specifications ...
................................................................................
....................... 48 8.4.13. Procurement Specifications...................
................................................................................
48 8.5. Tolerances ............................................................
.......................................................................... 49
9.0. Fabric Inspection Systems .................................................
................................................. 50
9.1. Inspection Loop: ..........................................................
................................................................... 50 9.2. Fabr
ic Inspection Machine ..........................................................
................................................... 51 9.3. General Inspection P
rocedures ......................................................................
................................ 51 9.4. 4 Point System ........................
................................................................................
..................... 52 9.5. 10-Point System...................................
................................................................................
........... 55 9.6. Correlation between Fabric Quality and Apparel Quality .....
......................................................... 55
10.0. Sewing Threads: ..........................................................
...................................................... 57
10.1. Properties of Sewing Thread ..............................................
.......................................................... 57
11.0. Zippers ..................................................................
............................................................. 59
11.1. Avoiding Zipper Problems .................................................
........................................................... 59
12.0. BUTTONS, BUCKLES AND SNAP FASTENERS.......................................

................ 64
4

12.1. Buttons ..................................................................

....................................................................... 64 12.2.
Buckles .......................................................................
................................................................... 64 12.3. Sna
p Fasteners ....................................................................
......................................................... 64
13.0. TRIMS TESTING.............................................................
................................................ 65
13.1. Testing of Fusible Interlining ...........................................
............................................................. 65 13.2. Testing o
f Zippers ......................................................................
................................................... 65 13.2.1. Zipper Strength T
ests ...........................................................................
................................. 66 13.3. Elastic Waistband Testing ...........
................................................................................
.................. 67 13.3.1. Fit for the labeled Size .........................
................................................................................
.. 68 13.3.2. Resistance to Degradation, Accelerated Aging Method ..............
......................................... 68 13.4. Sewing Thread Testing .......
................................................................................
.......................... 68 13.5. Buttons Testing.............................
................................................................................
................ 70
14.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance (Cutting) .........
.................. 71
14.1. Introduction In-Process Inspection .......................................
.................................................... 71 14.2. In-Process inspect
ion - Spreading defects.........................................................
........................... 72 14.3. Pattern Defects Marker making Defects .....
.............................................................................. 7
2 14.4. Cutting Defects ........................................................
..................................................................... 73 14.5. G
lossary of Cutting room defects ................................................
................................................. 74
15.0. Inspection procedures in Sewing Room .....................................
..................................... 77
15.1. What to Inspect during Sewing? ...........................................
....................................................... 77 15.2. Sewing Defects
................................................................................
............................................. 79 15.4. Seaming Defects .........
................................................................................
.................................. 80 15.5. Assembly Defects ...................
................................................................................
...................... 81 15.6. Glossary of sewing room defects ................
................................................................................
. 82
16.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance in Fusing Operation
........ 85
16.1. Interlinings .............................................................
....................................................................... 85 16.1.
1. Functions of interlinings ...................................................
..................................................... 86 16.2. Fusing Technology
...............................................................................
......................................... 86 16.2.1. Base cloths ...............
................................................................................
.............................. 86 16.2.2. Resins ...............................

................................................................................
...................... 87 16.2.3. Coating Systems ..............................
................................................................................
...... 87
5

16.2.4. Machinery and Equipment ................................................

.................................................... 88 16.3. The Control of Qua
lity ...........................................................................
....................................... 89 16.3.1. Temperature..................
................................................................................
........................ 89 16.3.2. Time .......................................
................................................................................
................ 89 16.3.3. Pressure ...........................................
................................................................................
...... 90 16.3.4. Peel- Strength test ..........................................
....................................................................... 90 16.3.
5. Dry clean and /or wash.......................................................
................................................... 90 16.4. Problems associated
with the use of the fusible interlinings.......................................
................ 90 16.4.1. Boardiness .........................................
................................................................................
.... 90 16.4.2. Bubbling .......................................................
.......................................................................... 91 16
.4.3. Color Change .............................................................
............................................................ 91 16.4.4. Delamina
tion ...........................................................................
.............................................. 91 16.4.5. Shrinkage ............
................................................................................
................................... 91 16.4.6. Strike back .....................
................................................................................
........................ 91 16.4.7. Strike Through .............................
................................................................................
.......... 91
17.0. Final Inspection .........................................................
........................................................ 92
17.1. Measurements for mens L/S dress shirts. ...................................
................................................ 93 17.3. Some possible defects
in garments with diagrams ......................................................
................ 93 17.4. Not readily apparent defects..........................
.............................................................................. 9
7
18.0. How much to Inspect? .....................................................
................................................. 98
18.1. No Inspection ............................................................
................................................................... 98 18.2.100
% Inspection ...................................................................
........................................................ 98 18.3. Spot Checking
................................................................................
............................................... 98 18.4. Arbitrary Sampling ....
................................................................................
.................................... 99 18.5. Statistical Sampling..............
................................................................................
......................... 99 18.6. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) ..............
................................................................................
.... 100 18.6.1. What is AQL? ..................................................
..................................................................... 101 18.6.2
. Brief History of AQL and Acceptance sampling .................................
.................................. 101 18.6.3. How do the Acceptance Sampling Pl
ans Work? .................................................................. 102
18.6.4. How to ensure success at AQL based inspections? .......................
...................................... 103 18.6.5. What AQL is not? ............
................................................................................
..................... 103 18.7. Sampling Plan Production System: ...............

........................................................................... 104
6

18.7.1. Continuous Sampling Plan CSP 1 .........................................

.......................................... 104 18.8. Average Outgoing Quality Le
vel (AOQL) .....................................................................
............... 104
19.0. Procedures practiced for quality control and assurance (Finishing) .......
.................. 105
19.1. Quality / workmanship standards in general ...............................
.............................................. 105 19.2. Glossary of finishing d
epartment defects ..............................................................
.................... 107
20.0. Different Stages of Samples and their requirements .......................
............................ 108
20.1. Development samples or enquiry samples ...................................
............................................. 108 20.2. Salesmen samples or prom
otional samples ................................................................
............... 108 20.3. Photo samples or fit samples .........................
............................................................................ 109
20.4. Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples ................
.................................... 109 20.5. Wash test samples................
................................................................................
...................... 110 20.6. Pre-production samples ........................
................................................................................
..... 110 20.7. Production samples .............................................
....................................................................... 110 20.8
. Shipment samples .............................................................
......................................................... 110
21.0. Product Zones Zoning defects and Appearance ..............................
......................... 111
21.1. Product Zones ............................................................
................................................................. 111
22.0. Packaging ................................................................
......................................................... 113
22.1. Apparel Packing Merchandise ..............................................
................................................... 113 22.2. Diagram for Packag
ing a shirt ....................................................................
................................. 114
7

1.0. Introduction to Apparel Industry

Apparel is one of the basic necessities of human civilization along with food, w
ater and shelter. The Apparel Industry reflects peoples lifestyles and shows thei
r social and economic status. The Apparel and Textile industry is Indias second l
argest industry after IT Industry. At present, it is amongst the fastest growing
industry segment and is also the second largest foreign exchange earner for the
country. The apparel industry accounts for 26% of all Indian exports. The India
n government has targeted the apparel and textiles industry segments to reach $5
0 billion by the year 2015. One of the most interesting features of the apparel
industry is that, it migrates from high cost nations to the low cost nations. Th
e growth of the domestic demand for clothing in India is linked with the success
of the retailing sector. India presently has entered the second phase of growth
and is witnessing a massive rise in the domestic demand. This is primarily due
to the rise in the standard of living caused by the rise in the middle-income gr
oups. In our present economic world of demand and supply, price and quality are
the key factors, which determine the success of any business. The key element he
re though, is the cost of labor. India and China have a comparative advantage in
this industry though, their vast labor forces and the relatively low cost of la
bor. Since, India and China have the advantage of making textiles and so fabric
costs are lower than in other countries, they have become the Apparel sourcing c
hoice for many international companies. Sourcing choices arise from profitabilit
y. This includes considering costs, such as, buying factors of production, like
land, buildings and machines versus factors affecting revenues, including pricin
g, marketing, and distribution. The issues of labor, material, shipping costs an
d tariffs structure also affect the sourcing choices. Since, apparel production
is a labor-intensive activity, wage rates are also a major factor in sourcing de
cisions. This gives immediate competitive advantage to producers in countries li
ke India and China to export to more developed and high cost countries like the
United States and the European Union. 1.1. Performance of Indian Apparel Industr
y As the worlds second largest producer of textile and garments, Indias garment ex
ports totaled US$ 10.17 billion during the year 2008-09, giving it an enviable m
arket share of 2.99%. The Americas, EU, much of Asia and Middle East are Indias c
lients. The industry proudly supports 7 million people as part of its workforce,
and aims to double this figure by 2011-12; even today it is the second largest
provider of employment in the country.
8


For every INR 100,000 invested in the industry, an average of 7 additional jobs
created. The Apparel Sector alone contributes to 8% of Indias total exports with
exports recording a 1% growth over last year. By the year 2011-12, India expects
to record a 15% growth in quantity and 20% growth in values In RMG exports, Ind
ia, today, ranks 6th in the world, with a 2.6% world market share and robust 11%
growth
1.2. Some Interesting Facts The largest producer of JUTE The 2nd Largest produce
r of Cotton yarn The 2nd largest producer of cellulosic fibre / yarn The 2nd lar
gest producer of Silk The 3rd largest producer of raw cotton The 4th largest pro
ducer of synthetic fibre/yarn 1.3. Quotas, Tariffs and the End of the Multi-Fibr
e Arrangement On 1 January, 2005, the quota restraints of the Multi-Fibre Arrang
ement (MFA) expired, finally bringing to an end four decades of restrictions on
trade in textiles and garments among World Trade Organization (WTO) members. Tra
de in these products is now governed by normal WTO rules.

2.0. Apparel Industry Departments

MERCHANDISING SAMPLING DEPARTMENT FABRIC SOURCING PURCHASIN
UDIT DEPARTMENT ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT PLANNING DEPARTMENT LABORATORY DEPAR
TMENT MACHINE MAINTENANCE CAD ROOM CUTTING ROOM PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT IED DEPART
MENT EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT WASHING DEPARTMENT QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT FINIS
HING DEPARTMENT
Process Sequence of Apparel Manufacturing
9

Design / Sketch
Pattern Design
Sample Making
Production Pattern
Cutting
Spreading
Marker Making
Grading
Sorting/ Bundling
Sewing/ Assembling
Inspection
Pressing/ Finishing
Despatch
Packing
Final Inspection
2.1. MERCHANDISING Merchandising is a process through which products are planned
, developed, executed and presented to the buyer. It includes directing and over
seeing the development of product line from start to finish. Marketing and merch
andising department -A team of merchandisers and marketers work together under a
profit controls head. Merchandisers handle the foreign buyers. The teams are ma
de according to the buyers being handled. 2.1.1. A Merchandisers key responsibil
ity Product Development Market and product Analysis Selling the concept Booking
orders Confirming Deliveries Designing and Sampling Costing Raw Material Flow Mo
nitoring Production Follow Ups Payments Follows
10

2.2. Sampling Department In any export house, the sampling department is one of
the most important departments and it plays a vital in the uplifting of a unit.
Sampling department directly co-ordinates with the merchandising and production
department. Sampling is done to see how the product will look like when produced
in bulk and to check whether there are any discrepancies in the pattern are mad
e according to the buyers specification. Sampling is the product development stag
e. It is a process by which a small number of garments are made so as to match t
he buyer requirement and to get approval from the buyer so as to start off the p
roduction. It is different from bulk production as here each tailor is multi ski
lled. This department makes samples on the basis of specifications and requireme
nts sent by the buyer in the tech pack 2.2.1. Types of Samples in Sampling Dept.
Proto Sample: Fit Sample: Pilot Run Sample: Pre Production Sample: Pre Size set
Size Set Shipment Sample Sales Sample 2.3. FABRIC SOURCING Fabric sourcing depa
rtment is basically engaged in determining how and where its merchandise i.e fab
ric will be obtained. It works in co-ordination with the merchandising departmen
t and looks after the delivery of the required goods within the scheduled time a
nd cost. A fabric sourcer must have knowledge about all varieties of fabric in o
rder to execute their function effectively. 2.4. PURCHASING DEPARTMENT The purch
asing department is similar to the sourcing department but the main difference i
s that the sourcing department works for sourcing the fabrics alone while the pu
rchasing department works for sourcing the accessories and trims. However, the w
orking procedure is the same 2.5. FABRIC AUDIT DEPARTMENT The main objectives of
this department are: Analysis of defects in the fabric by various methods. Sele
ction of fabric according to AQL
11


Inspection is done basically on the following grounds: 100% shade segregation is
done. 100% width segregation is done. 15% fabric inspection is done for defects
. 10 15% shrinkage test for light weight fabrics and mostly 100% for heavy weigh
t fabrics. The fabric is checked in full width form only. The quantity is checke
d, whether the mentioned length of the roll is correct or not.
2.6. ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT The stores receives the raw materials in-house
and after this they will have to do the sampling process and then they have to m
ake a list of the tests that are supposed to be carried out for that particular
accessories and then they send this to the laboratory. The lists of accessories
and tests that are generally tested are as follows,
Button breaking test Colored
laces and tapes are tested for color fastness Color fastness test for elastics
Lining fabrics for their dimensional stability 2.7. PLANNING DEPARTMENT Planning
department has a vital role to play in the approval of the order helps the merc
hants to determine the costing of a particular style tell the merchants if the c
ompany is capable of producing the particular style in the given span of time He
lps them to know the capacity of the production floor. 2.8. LABORATORY DEPARTMEN
T The laboratory in the factory is equipped with all the necessary devices and i
nstruments that are required for the testing of both the fabric and the accessor
y items. But, there are several tests which the buyer prescribes for which the m
achineries are not available in the factory for such tests the factory does not
have the right machineries so they send such fabrics or accessories, which requi
res some other tests to the external laboratories which are authorized ones with
the buyers and the merchants approval. 2.9. MACHINE MAINTENANCE Apart from havin
g quality system and the best practices, machine maintenance is also a very import
ant are to get quality products. Unacceptable quality of products often results il
l-maintained machines.
12


Breakdown and preventive maintenance is primarily aimed toward reduced downtime
and increased life respectively. Proper machine maintenance is also necessary to
avoid casualties at the floor.
2.9.1. The function of PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE Care of the fittings Adjusting set
tings Oil changing Graph maintenance Outward/inward reports Needle weekly report
s. Machine configuration chart History card Needle log cards. 2.10. CUTTING ROOM
Cutting department receives the order for cutting a garment style from the prod
uction manager. Cutting order is an authorization by the production manager to c
ut a given amount of styles, from the spreads. It comes in form of a package fil
e that carries the following details: Sampling average, weight of garment (base
fabric consumption only), and other trims averages. Measurement sheet Design wor
ksheet of the garment Purchase order Fabric requisition sheet CAD mini marker Ma
rker planning- length of lay etc., size ratio and colors in which the patterns a
re to be cut. 2.11. Production Department The production floor does production i
n two types, Pilot Production Bulk Production The production floor will receive
the details like, the style or the garment, number of operators required, the ba
tch for which the style has to be installed, any extra kinds of machines that ar
e to be used for the particular style, target for each day Breakup of the produc
tion quantity.
13

 The production managers help the planning department during planning or allocati
ng a particular line for the style by telling them the capacity of the line and
also telling them about the skills of the operators. 2.12. IED DEPARTMENT The IE
D department has to work with many other departments as this department gives th
e entire idea of the garment construction and the thread and trims consumption c
riteria, operators skill level categorization and other related aspects, hence t
hey play a vital role in determining the cost of producing a single piece of the
garment and they also calculate the cost of the factory for that particular sty
le of garment The IED department helps the planning department to know the time
required for the production of that particular style of the garment by calculati
ng the SAM value 2.13. EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT The embroidery section is a departm
ent which comes into picture only when the particular style demands. The embroid
ery section receives the garments from the sewing floor or from the cutting depa
rtment and then they start their embroidery process. 2.14. WASHING DEPARTMENT On
ce the garment has been finished with all the operations then they are sent to t
he washing department for the washing or finishing that has to be done for that
particular style according to the buyers specifications and hence it plays a vit
al role in the final feel and the texture of the garment which has to match the
specifications of the buyer 100%. There are different types of washing procedure
s involved and they are classified as follows, Normal wash/ water wash / dip and
dry, Softener wash, Desize wash, Enzyme wash, Stone enzyme wash, Rubber ball wa
sh, Denim wash, Bleach wash, Tinting/ T- staining 2.15. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPART
MENT Quality is the major criteria for any product and the same rule applied eve
n to garment industries also. In order to maintain quality the quality assurance
departments has split up their job into different stages of manufacturing and t
here are classified into four major groups which are as follows. Pre-production
audit: Cutting audit:
14

 Sewing audit: End line audit: 2.16. FINISHING DEPARTMENT The finishing departmen
t is the department which comes after all the departments and it plays an equall
y important role in the final appearance of the garment. This department include
s majorly of the following steps, Trimming Inspection Semi pressing Pressing Tag
ging section Packing Solid Packing In this method of packing, the carton box wil
l include garments of single colour and same size. For example, 20 shirts of a s
imilar colour say navy blue and the size say S will be put in one carton box. Ra
tio Packing In this method the carton box includes garments of same colour but o
f different sizes according to the ratio. For example, S: M: L: XL = 5: 7: 7: 5.
Mixed Packing In this method the carton box includes garments of different colo
urs but of same size or garments with different colours and different sizes in a
particular ratio form. After the packing is done the garments are kept in the s
tores until the buyer sends the buyer QC for the inspection purpose before deliv
ering them and once the QC arrives checking will be carried according to the AQL
level and then it will be decided if the garments has to be accepted or rejecte
d.
15

3.0. What is Quality?

Quality is unusually slippery and difficult to come in grips with and therefore,
someone has said, Quality is something I know when I see it. Quality is essential
character; nature; an ingredient or distinguishing attribute; property, a chara
cter trait, superiority of kind, degree of grade or excellence. Quality is a com
plex concept. No single definition addresses all the dimensions, areas of impact
and concerns relating to quality. The term quality is used in many ways for man
y reasons. 3.1. Answers for Quality from Different Peoples Quality means differe
nt things to different people. The answer from different people may be 1. The be
st money can buy 2. Meeting a specification or conformance to specifications 3.
Craftsmanship 4. The degree of excellence 3.2. Meaning of Quality Quality can al
so mean meeting or exceeding customer expectations all the time. The key here is
to know accurately customer expectations on a continuing basis because unless y
ou know customer expectations how can you meet or exceed them? 3.2.1. Expectatio
ns of Quality The expectations of Quality and the ability to distinguish various
quality characteristics also vary from one group of customers to another. Gener
ally more educated and sophisticated customers, the expectations of the quality
will be more specific. JOHN RABBITT defines quality as the ability to exceed a cu
stomers expectations while maintaining a cost competitive market position 3.3. Def
initions of Quality. The quality can be defined based on the following perspecti
ves A. Holistic Perspective B. Product Perspective C. Producer Perspective (Manu
facturer Perspective) D. Customer Perspective E. Value based Perspective. 3.3.1.
Holistic Perspective Websters dictionary (1977) defines quality as that which be
longs to something and makes or helps to make it what it is; characteristic elem
ent; any character or
16

characteristic which may make an object good or bad; the degree of excellence wh
ich a thing possesses. This definition helps us to look at quality from a holisti
c perspective and implies that even if quality is not the same for all things; i
t is still inherent in all objects and actions. 3.3.2. Product Perspective A pro
duct quality is represented by total set of precise and measurable characteristi
cs or components of a finished product. Differences in product quality can be at
tributed to differences in components or characteristics. Consider the following
example to understand quality based on product perspective more clearly. Two me
asures can be used to characterize the quality of the woven fabrics o (1) Weight
in GSM or oz/yd2 o (2) Yarns / inch in warp and filling. These characteristics
of the weight and count are linked to the yarn and weaving costs, but do not nec
essarily imply better products. Clearly these common measures of quality are not
necessarily directly related to consumer satisfaction 3.3.3. Producer Perspecti
ve (Manufacturer Perspective) From a producer or manufacture perspective, qualit
y is defined as consistent conformance to specifications and standards. When a p
roduct meets a companys standards and specifications, it has achieved the desired
quality level. The desired level may be high, low or medium or at any point in
between the extremes of continuum. The producer oriented definition of quality a
ddresses a companys ability to produce products that consistently meet predetermi
ned criteria and can be sold in the market at full price. Products that meet thi
s level of quality are assumed to produce greater profit and income for the comp
any This does not address consumer expectations. 3.3.4. Customer Perspective Fro
m a customer perspective quality depends on the dimensions of a product or servi
ce that are of important to that user. A user based definition of quality simply
means that the quality is whatever the customer says or wants which goes back t
o meeting or exceeding customers requirements and expectations. This perspective
recognizes the primary role of the customer in determining whether a product or
service meets or exceeds expectations. However, quality is not in steady state;
from a customers perspective, quality reflects an ever
17

changing market place and satisfies the ever changing needs of the customer in t
hat market. One challenge of examining the quality from the customers perspective
is understanding and incorporating the characteristics that the customer finds
desirable at a price that is acceptable. Hence a company needs a good understand
ing of the wants of the immediate consumer and the ultimate consumer. This focus
on customers and their satisfaction is a basic underlying principle of total qu
ality management (TQM). Several definitions of TQM exist. All focus on the integ
rated, continuous improvement process that involves everyone in the organization
. In TQM, all the companys actions are directed towards producing a quality produ
ct for the target market, satisfying the target market, and meeting the companys
business objectives. Customer Satisfaction
Cost
Value
Quality
Benefit s
Losses
Satisfaction of requirements
Satisfaction of Business Objectives Business Objectives vs. Customer Satisfactio
n (Satisfying business objectives forms the foundation for customer satisfaction
)
The Deming Cycle
One of the first individuals to recognize the need to focus on quality in produc
tion and product development was W.Edwards Deming (1982), who maintained that qu
ality is the responsibility of the management. Demings management principles incl
ude adopting a philosophy of improving products and services, remaining competit
ive, staying in business, and providing jobs. The Deming Cycle links the product
ion, target markets and business objectives, is a five step approach.
18

The Deming Cycle 5 Step Approach

(1). Conduct consumer research. Use results in
the planning the product (2). Produce the product. (3). Check the product. (4).
Market the product. (5). Analyze the product.
Check
DO
The Deming Cycle
Act
Plan
Analyze
Many companies follow these steps as they develop, produce, market and evaluate
or analyze their products. Communication within the company and with the custome
rs is vital for survival in the market. 3.3.5. Value based perspective
A value b
ased definition of quality takes into consideration cost or price of a product o
r service. Form a value based approach, quality products are those that perform
at acceptable prices or conform at acceptable costs.
The question from the custo
mers view point is what is the value of this product or service to us?
How valuab
le is a given product or service?
19

4.0. Dimensions of Quality

The characteristics or conditions those are important to quality need to be esta
blished. Garvin has identified eight dimensions related to quality. They are (1)
.Performance (2).Features (3).Reliability (4).Conformance (5).Durability (6).Ser
viceability (7).Aesthetics (8).Perceived Quality 4.1. Performance Performance is
based on the primary operating characteristics of a product. Examples A rain co
at should be a water repellent, A mosquito net should not allow mosquito to ente
r inside. A pen should be writeable 4.2. Features Features of a product are thos
e secondary characteristics that supplement a product basic functioning. Example
s - baby clothing should be dressing ease, softness, durability, safety 4.3. Rel
iability Reliability refers to the probability of products malfunctioning or fail
ing within a specified period of time. We depend on, demand, and expect reliable
products. It takes a long time for a company to build up a reputation for relia
bility, and only a short time to be branded as "unreliable" after shipping a fla
wed product. Reliability is "quality changing over time Reliability is a major ec
onomic factor in determining a product s success Sometimes equipment failure can
have a major impact on human safety and/or health. Automobiles, planes, life su
pport equipment, and power generating plants are a few examples. Some failures h
ave serious social consequences and this should be taken into account when plann
ing reliability studies
20

4.4. Conformance Conformance refers to the degree or extent to which a products d

esign and operating characteristics meet pre-established standards. 4.5. Durabil
ity & Serviceability Durability means the length of time a product will last or
product life. Serviceability refers to the speed, courtesy, competence and ease
of repair of a product. 4.6. Aesthetics & Perceived Quality Aesthetics refers to
how a product looks feels, sounds, tastes or smells. Perceived Quality refers t
o what consumers perceive to be the quality of a product based on image, adverti
sing, and brand name reputation
21

5.0. Quality Related Terms and Definitions

What is Quality? Quality is also the reflection of the customers opinion of the v
alue they see in your product compared to that of your competitors. In other word
s quality is whatever the customer says it is or the customer it is or the custo
mer is the final judge of quality. Quality Definition by ISO Quality is defined
by ISO (International Standards Organization) as the the totality of features and
characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy sta
ted or implied needs
5.1. Quality related terminology Here is some quality related terminology taken
from an American National Standard ANSI/ASQC A3 Quality systems terminology
Quality Management
Quality System Quality Assurance
Quality Plan
Quality Policy Statistical Quality Control
Quality Control
Inspection
Testing
Quality Management: Aspect of all the overall management function that determine
s and implements the quality policy Quality System: The organizational structure
, responsibilities, procedures, processes, and resources for implementing qualit
y management Quality Plan: A document setting out the specify quality practices,
resources, and activities relevant to a particular product, service, contract,
or a project.
22

Quality Policy: The overall intentions and directions of an organisation as rega

rds quality as formally expressed by top management Quality Assurance: All those
planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a p
roduct or service will satisfy given requirements for quality. Quality Control:
The operational techniques and activities required to fulfill the requirements f
or quality Statistical Quality Control: The application of statistical technique
s to the control of quality. Inspection: Activities such as measuring, examining
, testing, gauging, one or more characteristics of a product or service, and com
paring these with the specified requirements to determine conformity. Testing: A
means of determining the capability of an item to meet specified requirements b
y subjecting the item to a set of physical, chemical, environmental,or operating
actions and conditions. 5.2. Introduction to Quality Assurance Quality Assuranc
e: All those planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confide
nce that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality. 5.2.1
. The Textile Industry Complex The textile industry complex indicates suppliers
of Raw material and processed materials, Sewn product manufacturers, Wholesalers
, and Retailers. 5.2.1.1. Raw Materials Raw materials include the unprocessed co
mponents used to produce a product. Raw materials include fibres, yarns, dyes, f
inishing chemicals and other materials as plastics and metals that are processed
into buttons, zippers and other items that are used to produce finished goods.
5.2.1.2. Sewn product manufacturers Sewn product manufacturers make apparel, fur
nishings and industrial products. These manufacturers often incorporate other ac
tivities such as fusing and dyeing, into the production process.
23

They may sell their products to wholesalers or directly to consumers.

Fibres & Yarns Dyes & Pigments Fabrics Closures, Trims and Support Materials
Producer of Products
Manufacturers Contractors
Wholesalers Retailers (Store and non-store formats)
Consumers of Products
Producers of Materials
Distribution of Products
5.2.1.3. Retailers Retailers present merchandise to the consumers via stores, ca
talogs, websites, TV, direct sales, and other venues. Many manufacturers and ret
ailers have off-shore production facilities or work with contractors who produce
goods 5.2.1.4. Consumers Consumers are the individuals who use or wear finished
textile products. Consumers include consumers, companies, such as sewn product
manufacturers who buy fabric and other materials, and retailers who buy quantiti
es of identical products for sale to the consumer. 5.2.2. Textile quality Assura
nce Textile quality assurance is the process of designing, producing, evaluating
, and assessing the products to determine that they meet the desired quality lev
el for a companys target market. It is based on the knowledge of Textiles Design
Merchandising Production Consumer behaviour Product and process evaluation Marke
ting Statistics
24

5.2.2.1. Phases of Quality Assurance Inspection Before/after Production

Inspection and Corrective Action during Production
Quality built Into the Process
Acceptance Sampling
Process Control
Continuous Improvement
The least Progressive
The most Progressive
5.2.2.2. Some issues facing the quality profession
How to define quality from th
e customers perspective?
Keeping up with the constant increases in the level of q
uality of todays goods and services.
The particular difficulties encountered in m
anaging service quality. How does the organization identify the quality dimensio
ns that are most important to its customers?
Being able to avoid the costs of po
or quality products and services.
Being able to deal with the shift in balance o
f power to consumers from producers through globalization. Recognizing that cust
omer loyalty is increasingly based on quality. Getting leaner by achieving higher
levels of productivity. 5.2.2.3. Internal and External Benefits of Quality
Internal Benefits
External Benefits
Reduces costs Increases dependability Increases speed Boosts moral Increases cus
tomer retention Increases profit
Customer gets correct product or service Correct specifications Appropriate inta
ngibles Customer satisfaction Customer retention
25

5.2.3. Quality Control Quality control (QC) includes the activities from the sup
pliers, through production, and to the customers. Incoming materials are examine
d to make sure they meet the appropriate specifications. The qualities of partia
lly completed products are analyzed to determine if production processes are fun
ctioning properly. Finished goods and services are studied to determine if they
meet customer expectations 5.2.3.1. QC throughout Production Systems Inputs
Raw Materials, Parts and Supplies
Quality of Inputs
Conversion
Production Process
Quality of partially completed products
Outputs
Products and Services
Quality of outputs
5.2.3.2. QUALITY CONTROL ASPECTS OF GARMENT EXPORTS There are a number of factor
s on which quality fitness of garment industry is based such as Performance, Rel
iability, Durability, Visual and Perceived quality of the garment Quality needs
to be defined in terms of a particular framework of cost. 5.2.3.3. Costs of Qual
ity Failure Defects are not free; someone makes them and gets paid for the privi
Scrapped materials, goods
lege Cost of Internal Failure Cost of External Failure
and Warranty and servicing services costs
Rework/ retest Product liability / Lit
igation
Reduced capacity/ yield/ increased Complaints and their downtime adminis
tration
Rescheduling Loss of customer goodwill
Service delays
Inconvenience to o
ther Disruption to the service process. customers
Focus is on troubleshooting no
t improvement
26

5.2.3.4. The Economic Costs of Quality COST OF PREVENTION

Quality planning Desig
n of quality system
Staff quality training and development Preventative maintena
nce Supplier development training
Administering quality procedures (e.g. ISO 900
1) Time spent problem - solving, improving process
Measurement of customer satis
faction during process
COST OF APPRAISAL
Testing and Inspection of supplier goods and services
Testing
and Inspection of internal service processes Measurement of customer satisfactio
n after process
Quality Audits
5.2.3.5. Points to note down for quality in garment manufacturing system Here so
me of main fabric properties that are taken into consideration for garment manuf
acturing for export basis: Overall look of the garment. Right formation of the g
arment. Feel and fall of the garment. Physical properties. Colour fastness of th
e garment. Finishing properties Presentation of the final produced garment. 5.2.
3.6. Basic Thumb Rules for Garment Manufacturers & Exporters 1. Quality has to b
e taken care by the exporter, excuses are not entertained in international marke
t for negligence for low quality garments, new or existing exporters for both it
is mandatory to use design, technology and quality as major up gradation tools.
2. Apart from superior quality of the garment, its pricing, packaging, delivery
, etc has to be also taken care of. 3. The garment shown in the catalogue should
match with the final garment delivered. 4. It is important to perform according
to the promises given to the buyer, or else it creates very bad impression and
results in loss of business and reputation. 5. In international market, quality
reassurance is required at every point. 6. Proper documentation and high standar
d labels on the garment are also important aspects as these things also create g
ood impression.
27

7. Timely delivery of garments is as important as its quality. 8. If your compet

itor has the better quality of garment in same pricing, it is better to also enh
ance your garment quality. 9. Before entering into international market, garment
exporters have to carefully frame out the quality standards, or else if anythin
g goes wrong it could harm the organization. And after that strictly follow it.
10. The garment quality should match the samples shown during taking the orders.
11. The garment exporters should know to negotiate a premium price after qualit
y assurance is done.
28

6.0. Quality Standards and Quality Grade

Many companies have established sets of expectations for the products they produ
ce or sell. These expectations describe various factors, including the sizes or
size range, features or style components, appearance aspects, materials, and per
formance. Expectations may exist in a written and organized form, in a series of
memos from various individuals within the company or in an unwritten form. Thes
e expectations may be stated in general terms, or they may incorporate very spec
ific numerical descriptions. Companies that are committed to quality are far mor
e likely to have complied their expectations in an organized, detailed written q
uality assurance manual. 6.1. Standards Introduction We have all come across the
term standard or standards in reference to quality control, but what exactly is a s
tandard and who makes the standards? A standard may be defined as a) Something t
hat is established by the authority, custom or general consent as a model or exa
mple to be followed; b) Something established for use as a rule or basis of comp
arison in measuring or judging capacity, quantity, content, extent, value, quali
ty, etc. c) The type, the model or example commonly or generally accepted or adh
ered to; criterion set for usage or practice; d) A level of excellence, attainme
nt, etc. regarded as a measure of adequacy. Standards are commonly agreed upon a
ids for communication and trade. Standards are set of characteristics or procedur
es that provide a basis for resource and production decisions. Standards are used
to define the quality level, characteristics and performance for a firms product
s. 6.1.1. Standards Definition by ISO According to ISO, standards are documented
agreements containing technical specifications or other precise criteria to be
used consistently as rules, guidelines, or definitions of characteristics, to en
sure that materials, products, processes and services are fit for their purpose.
6.1.2. Standardization Standardization is the process of developing and applyin
g rules for a consistent and uniform approach to a specific activity for the ben
efit and with the cooperation of all concerned. Standardization involves a serie
s of actions by a group of individuals who work toward a specific goal.
29

6.1.3. Developing Standards Standards are developed with the cooperation of prod
ucers, suppliers, manufacturers, government agencies and consumers, because a ne
ed is perceived within an industry, a company, or another area of interest. Ofte
n a standard reflects one companys interest that has been broadened to reflect a
wider range of applications. Standards are evaluated and revised many times befo
re they are acceptable to all groups 6.1.4. Benefits of Standards The benefits o
f standards literally surround us. Clothes fit and do not fade or fall apart in
just one laundering or dry-cleaning, buildings stand, cars run, tape recorders r
ecord, and planes fly because each is made to conform to some technical standard
s for material, design, and performance. Civilization or industrial progress as
we know it today would have been impossible without the order standards create.
Some of the benefits of standards are Standards facilitate communication and pre
vent misunderstanding. Standards make parts interchangeability possible and as a
result mass production is possible Standards can be used in marketing strategy
to promote purchase of products that meet nationally recognized requirements, es
pecially, when conformance is backed by a certification program Standards reduce
cost and save money. 6.1.5. Levels of Standards There are various levels of sta
ndards Company Standards: - These standards are useful to the companys design, de
velopment, production, purchasing, and quality control departments. These standa
rds may be those developed by the company itself or developed by some other orga
nizations and adopted by the company as it own standards. Industry Standards:- T
hese standards are typically developed by a trade association or professional so
ciety. For example, American Chemical Society has for many years maintained spec
ifications for chemical reagents. Government Standards:- These are standards eit
her developed by the government or developed by other organizations and adopted
by the government. The government standards generally tend to be related to safe
ty or well-being of the people. Full consensus standards:- These are the standar
ds developed by the representatives of all sectors, such as industry, consumer,
government, academia, who have an interest in use of these standards either as a
producer or consumer.
30

6.2. Types of Standards ASTM develops six types of full-consensus standards

Test
methods Specifications
Practices
Terminology
Guides Classifications Test method
s: A definite procedure for identification, measurement, and evaluation of one o
r more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material, product, system
or service that produces a test result. Specifications: A precise statement of s
et of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, system, or service th
at indicates the procedures for determining whether each of the requirements is
satisfied. They often are given as numerical requirements with appropriate units
and within reasonable limits. Practices: A definite procedure for performing on
e or more specific operations or functions that does not produce a test result.
These are not down-graded tests. They include statistical procedures, writing st
atements on precision, and selecting, installing and operating equipment. Termin
ology: A document comprising definitions of terms, descriptions of terms, and ex
planations of symbols, abbreviations. Guide: A series of options or instructions
that do not recommend a specific course of action. Guides suggest approaches, o
ffer guidance for a procedure, increase awareness of available techniques and pr
ovide information regarding evaluation and standardization. Classification: A sy
stematic arrangement of materials, products, systems or services into groups bas
ed on the similar characteristics such as origin, composition, properties, or us
e. 6.3. Other types of Standards in the Industry A Company Standard Industry Sta
ndards Voluntary Standards Mandatory Standards 6.3.1. Company Standards A compan
y standard reflects a consensus among employees for products or services provide
d.
31

Company standards are used throughout the company in product development, produc
tion, purchasing and quality assurance. Company standards describe general chara
cteristics or features of a product or service or they describe a required level
of performance. 6.3.2. Industry Standards Industry standards reflects consensus
among many companies in an industry or among individual members of a profession
. Industry standards are not common in the textile industry in terms of product
performance. Very few industry wide standards exist for performance of materials
, in spite of what vendors may indicate. Standards are much more common in terms
of materials. There are several standard types on the market, so that companies
can buy the type and quality needed for their products 6.3.3. Voluntary Standar
ds Voluntary Standards allow individuals or companies to determine on their own
whether to adopt standard. ASTM standards are examples of voluntary standards. N
o organization or group forces adoption of these standards. However voluntary st
andards may become incorporated into laws, regulations or contracts. 6.3.4. Mand
atory Standards With mandatory standards, adoption is required, generally by a l
aw or regulation. Most mandatory standards relate to safety or health issues. Fo
r example, with textile products, childrens sleepwear has to meet mandatory stand
ards in terms of its minimal burning behaviour. 6.4. International Standards Sin
ce standards have become so important to many industries worldwide, standards ar
e used internationally to facilitate trade and technology transfer among nations
. International standards describe a situation in which majority of the products
or services conform to the same standard regardless of where a product was prod
uced or service was performed. International standards exist for many industries
including o Information Processing o Banking o Energy production o Communicatio
n & o Textiles
32

Often standards that are widely used by one country involved in international tr
ade become part of the international standards simply because they are widely us
ed in many parts of the world. More than 150 countries are involved in developin
g international standards. Some of the national standards organization that work
with ISO are o Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC) o The Standards C
ouncil of Canada (SCC), o American National Standards Institute (ANSI), o Standa
rds New Zealand (SNZ) o British Standards Institute (BSI) Many standards relate
to the textile industry. 6.5. APPLICATION OF STANDARDS TO TEXTILE INDUSTRY Intro
duction of Standards in business Standards reflect business objectives that deal
with meeting target market needs and expectations. Standards must exist when co
mmunicating among producers, suppliers, vendors, retailers and consumers. Standa
rds guide product development, materials selection, prototype analysis and refin
ement, production and finishing, labeling, packaging, shipping, and other activi
ties within a company. Uses of NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL standards for business N
ational standards address labeling and supplying information for consumers at po
int of purchase. International standards relate to information necessary to do b
usiness. International standards relate to information necessary to do business
in a global market. ISO 9000 standards are one example. 6.5.1. Purpose of standa
rds & specification The purpose of standards and specifications is to incorporat
e the desired quality into the products based on those documents and requirement
s. One does not write or develop quality standards, but appropriate aspects of q
uality are incorporated into standards and specifications as they are developed.
Quality cannot be added to the products after production, so quality standards
enforced at that stage merely separate first quality merchandise from second qua
lity merchandise 6.5.2. Focus of Company towards Quality Standard Company should
focus on identifying the factors that contribute to a quality product and on in
corporating standards that address those concerns.
33

A company needs to examine each element of its product and relate those elements
to consumer expectations and satisfaction. Many divisions of the company will b
e involved in the process of developing and continuously examining and refining
company standards.
Marketing
Provides feedback from the customers and may seek out information from consumers
. Analyses the requirements and capabilities related to equipment, skills and tr
aining costs, and quantity Examines product requirements in terms of materials,
products and customer expectations
Production Merchandising
These information are integrated to form the standards related to the product li
ne A company is likely to develop standards for Size based on its basic blocks f
or patterns, Grading rules used in developing the size range for each style Expe
ctations for fit Performance of materials used in the product line Basic element
s regarding product construction Special needs of the user Appearance of the fin
ished products Packaging 6.5.2.1. Product Size Product size is based on basic pa
ttern blocks. The basic block is the starting point for developing the pattern f
or specific style. It is the block and the grading rules used to change the size
of that determine the dimension of the finished product. A consumer may discove
r that one company basic block fits her/his figure better than another companys b
asic block. Many companies have developed dimensions that are acceptable for eac
h size. The dimensions incorporate a plus / minus tolerance or range overlaps in
to adjacent sizes
34

6.5.2.2. Product Fit In terms of product fit, companies may develop standards th
at describe a loose or tight fit. Fit standards must be consistent so that the p
roducts fit in a constant and consistent manner. Some companies may combine some
aspects of fit with those of appearance. (Ex. A company may have a standard tha
t all the side seams are perpendicular to the floor) Thus requirements for patte
rn, fit, and construction should address meeting this standard. 6.5.2.3. Perform
ance of Materials and Products Performance of materials and products may be addr
essed by standards. In some companies only materials performance is addressed. T
his practice assumes that if materials meet the standard, then the products will
also meet the standard. o Materials performance may focus on o requirements for
care o Ability to be spread o Cut o Sewn & Finished in the production facility
o Durability o Comfort o Appearance retention 6.5.2.4. Some common terms include
d in Standards Terms which are commonly used by the consumers may be included in
the standards. o Care may be described as easy care, machine washable and dryab
le, or dry cleanable. o Durability requirements may use terms such as strong, ab
rasion resistance, pill resistant, and long wearing. 6.5.3. Construction Standar
ds Construction standards may address how components are assembled. Standards mi
ght be listed as Shirts always have a separate collar stand, Hems are circular (
Side seams are produced first, then garment is hemmed) Elastic are stitch in pla
ce All shirts have seven button fronts Construction standards do not describe th
e specific steps in production, but they address expectations for product charac
teristics and performance for consumers
35

6.5.4. Special Consumer needs Special consumer needs may be addressed in company
standards. Companies that produce buttons for mens shirt may focus on producing
buttons that do not crack when subjected to pressure, heat, and seam in commerci
al laundry presses. Companies that produce childrens wear may focus on incorporat
ing features that enable children to dress themselves. 6.5.5. Appearance of the
finished product Company standards may also address the appearance of the finish
ed product. Standards may be as simple as o Stating that fabric and thread color
s match o Hems do not roll Product appearance is one of the very first character
istics that attracts the attention of the consumer, appearance should address th
ose characteristics that consumer may consider in assessing products. 6.5.6. Pac
kaging Packaging is another area that standards may address. Many companies have
packaging standards that minimize environmental impact. In addition, bar code l
abeling is commonplace. Standards of location of bar codes information incorpora
ted in the bar codes are important.
36

7.0. Different Textile and Apparel Standards

7.1. Sources of Standards In an industry with so many segments and interests, co
mmunicating quality requirements and supplying goods of the appropriate quality
level are difficult. Professional and trade organizations have developed to educ
ate members and enhance communication among industry segments. Organizations Sev
eral organizations which are available for quality standards o identify and defi
ne terms, o develop consistent practices within the field for describing and eva
luating materials and process, o encourage fair trade practices, o Develop techn
ological advances to remain competitive in the world market and promote the text
ile industry. Major organizations for Quality Standards a) American Association
of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) b) American Society for Testing and Ma
terials (ASTM) c) American Society for Quality (ASQ) d) American Apparel and Foo
twear Association (AAFA) e) TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp f) American N
ational Standards Institute (ANSI) g) International Organization for Standardiza
tion (ISO) 7.2. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) I
ntroduction AATCC is the worlds leading not-for-profit association serving textil
e professionals since 1921.AATCC is headquartered in Research Triangle Park, N.C
., USA, providing test method development, quality control materials, and profes
sional networking for thousands of members in 60 countries throughout the world.
7.2.1. About AATCC The American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (
AATCC) was founded by Dr. Louis Olney of the Lowell Textile School in 1921. AATC
C is the world s leading not-for-profit professional association for the textile
design, materials, processing, and testing industries. Members of AATCC are emp
loyees of textile, apparel, and home goods manufacturers; dye and chemical manuf
acturers; testing laboratories; consumer and retail organizations; state and fed
eral government agencies; and colleges and universities. AATCC has thousands of
individual and corporate members in more than 60 countries world wide. AATCC dev
elops internationally recognized standard test methods used by the industry, gov
ernments, researchers, and others.
37

It develops procedures to assess the characteristics of materials and their perf

ormance in the areas of o Wet processing, o Dyeing o Care o Biological propertie
s & o Other related factors These procedures are sometimes described as wet test
s because liquids, such as water and other solvents are used in preparing specim
ens or in the procedure. AATCC standards and test methods are developed by resea
rch committees after extensive investigation and inter laboratory comparisons. D
evelopment or extensive revision of a procedure reflects several years of work.
Test methods are approved by three level hierarchies before they are published i
n the Technical Manual. A test method is reviewed annually for its first three y
ears of existence. After that it is reviewed every five years and reaffirmed, re
vised or withdrawn 7.3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) Introd
uction ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing an
d Materials (ASTM), is a globally recognized leader in the development and deliv
ery of international voluntary consensus standards. Today, some 12,000 ASTM stan
dards are used around the world to improve product quality, enhance safety, faci
litate market access and trade, and build consumer confidence. ASTM is one of th
e oldest professional organizations in United States. ASTM was established in 18
98. ASTM consists of more than 130 technical committees, is international in sco
pe and supports the work of National Institute of Standards and Technology. 7.3.
1. ASTM Committees ASTM Committee D-13 focuses on textiles; other committees foc
us on other materials or products, such as leather and building materials. ASTM
procedures are used to identify physical characteristics and assess performance
related to physical-mechanical procedures. These procedures are often referred t
o as dry procedures because the materials are most often tested in the dry state
. ASTM also works with industry, government, and others interested in developing
uniform standards. 7.3.2. ASTM Standards ASTM standards are full consensus stan
dards. This means that a standard result when a full of all concerned parties is
met. Proposed standards and revisions are voted on by ASTM voting members.
38

Once the standard has been approved, it is included in the Annual Book of Standa
rds. All interested individuals participate in the development and/or use of the
standard. ASTM requires that all standards be reviewed by committee every five
years, so that each standard reflects current practices within industry. Standar
ds are used voluntarily and are not legally binding unless they became incorpora
ted in laws or regulations or are cited in contracts ASTM has no certificate pro
gram, but standards sometimes are used in certifying products. Products may carr
y labels indicating that a product was certified following an ASTM procedure. Th
is means that a standard ASTM procedure was followed and that the product met or
exceeded a minimum level of performance established by another group completely
separate from ASTM 7.4. American Society for Quality (ASQ) The American Society
for Quality (ASQ) is an organisation of professionals who work to improve the q
uality of manufactured goods services and related factors. ASQ has developed a p
rofessional code of ethics to guide professional practices. ASQ has technical co
mmittees and a certification program for professionals. The society publishes a
newsletter, On Q, ten times a year; Quality progress, a monthly journal that inc
ludes articles on quality methods and issues; several journals that examine tech
nical, theoretical, and practical issues related to quality; and books related t
o quality issues. 7.4.1. The ASQ code of Ethics Fundamental Principles ASQ requi
res it members and certification holders to conduct themselves ethically by Bein
g honest and impartial in serving the public, their employers, customers and cli
ents Striving to increase the competence and prestige of quality profession, and
Using their knowledge and skill for enhancement of human welfare. Members and c
ertification holders are required to observe the tenets sets forth below. Relati
on with the public o Article 1 : Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare o
f the public in the performance of their professional duties Relation with Emplo
yers and Clients o Article 2 : Perform Services only in their areas of competenc
e o Article 3 : Continue their professional development throughout their careers
and provide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of other
s
39

o Article 4 : Act in a professional manner in dealings with ASQ staff and each e
mployer, customer, or client o Article 5 : Act as faithful agents or trustees an
d avoid conflict of interest and the appearance of conflicts of interest Relatio
n with Peers o Article 6 : Build their professional reputation on the merit of t
heir services and not to compete unfairly with others o Article 7 : Assure that
credit for the work of the others is given to those to whom it is due 7.5. Ameri
can Apparel and Footwear Association (AAFA) The American Apparel & Footwear Asso
ciation (AAFA) is the national trade association representing apparel, footwear
and other sewn products companies, and their suppliers, which compete in the glo
bal market. 7.5.1. AAFA Committees and Divisions AAFA members actively serve on
some 14 committees, subcommittees, councils and divisions. The Committees are cl
assified under the following Headings Government, Trade and Regulatory Issues: M
anagement Issues: Divisions and Specialty Markets: Technology Issues: Government
, Trade and Regulatory Issues:
Government Relations Committee
Brand Protection C
ouncil Government Contracts Committee
Social Responsibility Committee
Environmen
tal Committee Product Safety Council Management Issues:
Financial Management Com
mittee Human Resources Leadership Council
Supplier Resource Committee Divisions
and Specialty Markets: Footwear Division
Intimate Apparel Council Technology Iss
ues: Information Systems Committee
Supply Chain & Product Innovation Committee
40

7.6. TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp TC2 was established in 1981 as a coa
lition of leaders in the U.S textile and apparel industry, Labour unions and gov
ernment organizations. TC2 focuses on improving the sewn products industry to ma
ke it more productive, competitive and cost effective. It works with manufacture
rs to develop new processes, equipment, and implementation procedures 7.7. Ameri
can National Standards Institute (ANSI)
The American National Standards Institut
e, which is a federation of many organizations, agencies, and groups, coordinate
s all national voluntary agencies that develop standards.
It has an accredited c
ertificate program. Certification attests that products has been tested and meet
specified requirements. These requirements are usually based on minimum perform
ance characteristics and often relate to such health and safety issues as streng
th of structural steel components used in bridges and buildings.
Many ASTM proce
dures have been approved by the ANSI, and this is the indicated in the designati
on of the test method. 7.8. ISO International Organization for Standardization I
nternational Organization for Standardization is a worldwide federation of natio
nal standards bodies from some 100 countries, one from each country. ISO is a no
n governmental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO is to promot
e the development of standardization and related activities in the world with vi
ew to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to deve
loping cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and
economic activity. 7.8.1. Need for ISO The existence of non-harmonized standards
for similar technologies in different countries or regions can contribute to so
called technical barriers to trade. Export oriented industries have always felt t
he need to agree on world standards to help international trade. This was the or
igin of the establishment of ISO. International Standardization is now well esta
blished for very many technologies in such diverse field as information processi
ng and communications, textiles, packaging, distribution of goods, energy produc
tion and utilization, ship building, banking and financial services. 7.8.2. ISO
9000 Series Standards The ISO 9000 series is a set of five individual, but relat
ed, international standards on quality management and quality assurance.
41

They are generic not specific to any particular products. They can be used in th
e manufacturing and service industries
ISO 9000
Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards Guidelines for Selection and
Use Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Producti
on, Installation, and Servicing Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in P
roduction, Installation and Servicing
ISO 9001
ISO 9002
ISO 9003
Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Final Inspection and Test
Quality Management and Quality System Elements Guidelines
ISO 9004

These standards were developed with the goal of effectively documenting the qual
ity system elements to be implemented in order to maintain an effective quality
system in a company. These standards seek to ensure that a company has in place
necessary organization, commitment and systems to consistently meet defined qual
ity and performance standards. It is important to recognize that these standards
do not set or define quality levels; the setting of the quality levels or perfo
rmance standards is very much up to the company, depending on the needs of the m
arket place and the requirements of its customers.
7.8.3. How does the series work? ISO 9000 is the road map for the series. Its pu
rpose is to provide the user with the guidelines for selection and use of ISO 90
01, 9002, 9003 and 9004. ISO 9001,9002, and 9003 are actually successive subsets
of each other. ISO 9001 is the most comprehensive covering design, manufacturin
g, installation, and servicing systems, and it covers 20 elements of company ope
rations.
42

ISO 9002 covers production and installation, and ISO 9003 covers only final prod
uct inspection and test. 7.8.4. Elements of ISO 9000 Standards 1. Management res
ponsibility 2. Quality System 3. Contract Review 4. Design Control 5. Documents
and data control 6. Purchasing 7. Customer-supplied product 8. Product identific
ation and traceability 9. Process Control 10. Inspection and Testing 11. Control
of Inspection, measuring, and test equipment
12. Inspection and test status 13. Control of nonconforming product 14. Correcti
ve and preventive action 15. Handling, storage, packaging, preservation and deli
very 16. Control of quality audits 17. Internal quality audits 18. Training 19.
Servicing 20. Statistical Techniques
7.8.5. Who is using ISO 9000? Corporations around the world have been building a
nd continue to build their quality systems around these standards. Both large an
d small companies with international businesses perceive the ISO 9000 series as
a route to open markets and improved competitiveness. One doesnt have to be a mul
tinational corporation to benefit from implementing these standards. 7.8.6. What
does being registered to ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 mean? Being registered to ISO 9
001, 9002 or 9003 means having an accredited independent third party conduct, an
on-site audit of your companys operation against the requirements of the appropr
iate standard. Upon successful completion of this audit, your company will recei
ve a registration certificate that identifies your quality system as being in co
mpliance with ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003. You may publicize your registration and us
e the third party registrars certification mark on your advertising, letterheads,
and other publicity materials, but not on your products. 7.8.7. Advantages of I
mplementing or registering to these standards These standards can be used as a v
ital management tool to improve quality and productivity and save costs. As comp
any beings to implement ISO 9000 standard, it forces all the employees to review
the current practices in a variety of areas of the company operations
43

and improve them as an effort is made to comply with the requirement of the stan
dard. It forces consistency in procedures and practices and thereby brings disci
pline in operations, resulting in reduced variability, which is the key to proce
ss improvement. It generates greater awareness of quality at various levels and
across functions within a company. It helps identify opportunities for reducing
errors and improving quality and productivity. As a company goes through registr
ation process quality and productivity improves. ISO 9000 registration can be us
ed as a marketing tool, and a competitive advantage. Being registered to ISO 900
0 Standard will result in reduction in multiple audits / assessments as customer
s are increasingly accepting supplier quality system registration / certificatio
n from an accredited third party. Being registered to ISO 9000 standards offers
worldwide credibility as a company having good quality system in place
44

8.0. Quality Specification

Specifications: A specification or spec is a precise statement of a set of requi
rements to be satisfied by a material, product, system, or service that indicate
s the procedures for determining whether each of the requirements is satisfied.
Several key elements have to be emphasized in this definition. Requirements
Requ
irements indicate that these expectations are nonnegotiable. Requirements must b
e met for the specifications to be satisfied.
Specifications describe requiremen
ts. In other words, specific terms and numerical values with the measurement uni
ts are listed so that it is clear what issues are considered important.
The expe
ctations for performance, quality, or condition is expressly defined. 8.1. Two i
mportant elements in Specifications The numbers used in writing specs address tw
o important elements in Specifications : (1) MINIMUMS & (2) TOLERANCES 8.1.1. Mi
nimums A minimum is the least or low acceptable value for any given parameter or
dimension.
Establishing minimums can be very difficult task because it is these
values that encompass performance, appearance, and quality of the product. 8.1.
2. Tolerances A tolerance describes the range of acceptable values, or in other
words, it describes allowable deviations from specified values.
Tolerances may b
e listed in several ways; as range from X to Y, as plus/minus value such as X +
Y, or as a minimum with any value greater than the value listed is being accepta
ble. A major problem with tolerances is that they can accumulate or stack up in
a product. The result is an unacceptable product, even though no single specific
ation is outside the acceptable limit. Tolerances are included when a range is a
cceptable. However, not all the specs include tolerances 8.2. Key element in Spe
cification
The final key element in specifications is the inclusion of procedure
s for analysis and evaluation. The procedure, test method, or process must be id
entified in detail in the specification.
45

In terms of materials performance, this detailed procedure usually refers to a s

tandard test method, such as those developed by ASTM or AATCC.
In terms of other
aspects, such as product dimensions, diagrams and detailed explanations or proc
edures may be included. Identification of procedures is critical, because they u
ltimately measure whether the product conforms to specifications and is acceptab
le to the company and its target. 8.3. Types of Specification Companies develop
specifications for a product or a material as
An open or Closed specification. 8
.3.1. Open Specification An open specification allows for consideration of multi
ple vendors and includes a description of character and/or performance desired i
n the product or material to be purchased. An open specification describes what
is wanted and leaves the field open to any supplier who can meet the requirement
s specified. Open specifications can include general information or very specifi
c information regarding fabric mass, resistance to fading, or whatever performan
ce and design features are required. Open specifications are used to locate appr
opriate materials that would satisfy the target market 8.3.2. Closed specificati
on A closed specification specifies the exact material, component, or product by
the manufacturer or vendor and includes style numbers, trade names, or other sp
ecific identifiers. All producers or vendors except for the one specified are re
stricted in submitting a bid. Closed specifications are used for the production
purposes, pricing and for items that must incorporate specific materials. 8.4. T
ypes of specifications used by various industries Some of these are having littl
e relation to textile products. Others may be of interest when dealing with spec
ific textile products. 8.4.1. Target Specification: Target specifications relate
to the understanding the companys focus in terms of the product type, price poin
t, and target market needs and expectations. Target specifications for textile p
roducts may be stated in nebulous terms in the companys mission and philosophy st
atement. For example, a company describes its mission as we provide high fashion,
upscale furnishings for discriminating consumer incorporates some general aspect
s related to their market and types of products produced.
46

8.4.2. Functional specifications Functional specifications for textile products

relate to performance requirements. Understanding customer expectations for prod
ucts will assist in developing the functional specifications. Several laws and r
egulations incorporate functional specifications that must be met. For example,
functional requirements for flammability are defined by the federal law for matt
resses and mattress pads. 8.4.3. Product specification Product specification inc
ludes elements related to production: seam and stich type, equipment to be used
for each operation, and the aspects related to quality. This would include a des
cription of each seam, the thread to be used, seam type, stitch type, stitch den
sity, and the precision of matching required for the plaids and when seams meet.
For example, what is the acceptable precision when arms-eye and sleeve seams me
et at the underarm 8.4.4. Materials Specification Materials Specification for te
xtile products combines identification of the characteristics of each material (
its type, quality characteristics, description, and condition) with the function
or performance aspects. For materials, this would focus on how the materials, n
ot the product, react to various conditions of use. Functional specifications ne
ed to focus on the product. 8.4.5. Process specification Process specification a
ddresses all processes, including pattern and marker making, spreading and cutti
ng, sewing, finishing, packaging and shipment. Product specifications should add
ress the issues related to product quality. For example, specifications for pack
aging might address the number of items to be placed in a box and the kind of la
bels needed on the exterior of the box. These criteria are important for large c
ompanies that operate from distribution centers because of the space available,
conveyor belt size restrictions for moving merchandise, and in tracking merchand
ise deliveries. 8.4.6. Inspection specifications Inspection specifications inclu
de in-process inspection, final inspection, or acceptable inspection. These spec
ifications, will describe how and when to inspect products. 8.4.7. Test specific
ations Test specifications may be combined with functional and materials specifi
cations. Test specifications describe the procedures to follow in evaluating the
process or the product before, during, or after production.
47

Testing done before production focuses on the materials their character and perf
ormance. Testing done during the production focuses on the processes, often duri
ng the finishing step 8.4.8. Acceptance Specifications Acceptance Specifications
describe the frequency, type and the location of the defects that will be accep
table in the finished product. Acceptance specifications often address aspects r
elate to the appearance, performance, labeling, and packaging. 8.4.9. Installati
on Specifications Installation Specifications most often relate to the installat
ion of the contract and home furnishings and industrial products. It is the deta
il instructions necessary for installing products on site ready for use. Probabl
y prepared by the design or product development and engineering divisions. 8.4.1
0. Use Specifications Use specifications include information and special instruc
tions that users will need to enable them to use the product in its intended man
ner. Probably prepared by marketing with assistance from the design and engineer
ing divisions. 8.4.11. Maintenance Specifications Maintenance specifications giv
es in details the procedures to be followed to ensure that the product receives
correct maintenance at required intervals. Probably prepared by the design and m
arketing divisions 8.4.12. Disposal Specifications Identifies any special requir
ements in terms of disposal of the product. May be included with the recyclable
products. Probably prepared by the design and engineering divisions 8.4.13. Proc
urement Specifications Provide a total picture of the what, where, when and how
expected of the product so that prospective suppliers know what is expected of t
hem. Used by buying organizations to procure relatively complex products that mu
st meet variety of requirements related to materials, functional, inspection, te
st and acceptance areas. Probably developed by design, product development, and
engineering divisions.
48

8.5. Tolerances Tolerances identify the acceptable range of variation from a spe
cification. When reviewing specs for products, tolerances are more likely to be
listed as ranges of behaviour than as minimums, as was the situation with the ma
terials. If dimensions for any given size are too far above or below the specifi
cations, the product is outside that size and does not meet customer expectation
s. Thus, if dimensions differ too much, a garment will no longer fit within the
dimensions that define a size. In addition, the function of a product or compone
nt may be critical to its target market. Components are the products pieces that
are sewn together or otherwise attached and treated as one piece in a later pro
duction stage, such as collars, cuffs, sleeves, and plackets. If a product or a
component of a product exceeds the acceptable range, it may no longer function.
For example, buttons and buttonholes must match within a narrow range or the clo
sed placket will not line up with the correct button hole, and the product will
hang in a distracting or uncomfortable manner.
49

9.0. Fabric Inspection Systems

Inspection Inspection in reference to the apparel industry can be defined as the
visual examination or review of raw materials (such as fabric, buttons, zippers
, sewing threads, trims etc,), partially finished components of the garments and
completely finished garments in relation to some standards, specifications, or
requirements, as well as measuring the garments to check if they meet the requir
ed measurements. The principle involved in inspection is the early detection of
defects, feedback of this information to the appropriate people, and determinati
on of the cause, ultimately resulting in the correction of the problem. The main
objective of inspection is the detection of the defects and nonconformances as e
arly as possible in the manufacturing process so that time and money are not was
ted later on in either correcting the defect or writing off defective garments.
9.1. Inspection Loop: For inspection to be effective, the entire inspection loop
is shown below must be completed. Inspectio n Correctio n of the defects Detect
ion of Defects
Deternminatio n of causes of defects
Feedback of these defects to appropriate personnel
Inspection Loop The inspection is divided into the following three sections 1).
Raw Material Inspection. 2). In-process Inspection. 3). Final Inspection. Raw Ma
terial Inspection Fabric Inspection After fabric is received, it should be inspe
cted to determine its acceptability from a quality viewpoint; otherwise extra co
st in garment manufacturing may be incurred due to either the loss of the materi
al or time, to say nothing of customers returns and dissatisfaction due to poor
quality.
50

Some garment manufacturers rely on the fabric suppliers to perform the fabric in
spection and mark fabric defects. Either way the fabric is inspected prior to sp
reading will remove the burden of the quality responsibility from those performi
ng the spreading and cutting operations. A spreader will be able to concentrate
on spreading more quickly without having to worry about inspecting the fabric. A
cutters productivity would increase because the defects are already marked. In m
any small companies spreading and cutting is done by the same personnel and fabr
ic is inspected as it is being spread on a table for cutting. Regardless of what
practice is followed, the important point is that the fabric should be inspecte
d before cutting, the defects marked and the patterns cut around the defects so
as not to include them in the finished garment. 9.2. Fabric Inspection Machine F
abric inspection is usually done on fabric inspection machines. These machines a
re designed so that rolls of the fabric can be mounted behind the inspection tab
le under adequate light and rerolled as they leave the table. Defects in the fab
ric can be seen easily and readily with these machines, as the inspector has a v
ery good view of the fabric and the fabric does not need to be reversed to detec
t defects. The inspection machines are either power driven or the inspector pull
s the fabric over the inspection table. The defects are located, marked and reco
rded in the inspection form. Such machines are also equipped to accurately measu
re the length of each roll of the fabric as well as monitor the width of the fab
ric. The width of the fabric is very critical to the cost of the manufacturing b
ut it may be even more critical to the manufacturers of basic garments such as m
ens and boys underwear who frequently reuse the markers, make pattern changes less
often, and perhaps use tight markers resulting in greater fabric utilization. T
herefore the Variation in the width would result in the higher cost of manufactu
ring for such companies. On the other hand, fashion garment manufacturers freque
ntly change their patterns and therefore do not use the same markers again and a
gain, so variation in fabric width may not be as much of a problem for them as f
or the manufacturers of basic garments. Also the profit margin for the basic gar
ment manufacturers is usually lower than the fashion garment manufacturers, and
therefore, maximum fabric utilization is vital for basic garment manufacturing c
ompanies. 9.3. General Inspection Procedures 1. Fabric inspection is done in sui
table and safe environment with enough ventilation and proper lighting.
51

2. Fabric passing through the frame must be between 45-60 degree angles to inspe
ctor and must be done on appropriate Cool White light 2 F96 fluorescent bulbs ab
ove viewing area. Back light can be used as and when needed. 3. Fabric speed on
inspection machine must not be more than 15 yards per minute. 4. All fabric insp
ection must be done when 80% of good or lot is received. 5. Standard approved bu
lk dye lot standards for all approved lots must be available prior to inspection
. 6. Approved standard of bulk dye lot must be available before starting inspect
ion for assessing colour, hand, weight, construction, finish and visual appearan
ce. 7. Shade continuity within a roll by checking shade variation between centre
and selvage and the beginning, middle and end of each roll must be evaluated an
d documented. 8. Textiles like knits must be evaluated for weight against standa
rd approved weight. 9. Fabric width must be checked from selvage to selvage agai
nst standard. 10. All defects must be flagged during inspection 11. The length o
f each roll inspected must be compared to length as mentioned on supplier ticket
ed tag and any deviation must be documented and reported to mill for additional
replacement to avoid shortage. 12. If yard dyed or printed fabrics are being ins
pected the repeat measurement must be done from beginning, middle and end of sel
ected rolls. In India and many other countries fabric inspection many times is c
arried out manually, either on a slanting inspection table or on a horizontal ta
ble, some time with light under it or some time without it. This way of fabric i
nspection is neither effective nor efficient. There are various fabric inspectio
n systems, as listed below. However, the 4-point system and 10-point system are
used most widely. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 4 Point System 10 Point System Graniteville 7
8 system Dallas System. Textile Distribution Institute (National Federation of Te
xtiles-1955) System 4 Point System revised.
9.4. 4 Point System The 4 Point System, also called the American Apparel Manufac
turers Association (AAMA) point grading system for determining fabric quality, is
widely used by producers of apparel fabrics and by the department of Defense in
United States and is endorsed by the AAMA as well as the American Society for Q
uality Control (ASQC). Fabric flaws or defects are assigned point values based o
n the following.
52

Length of the defect in fabric, either warp or weft wise direction Up to 3 inche
s Over 3 inches up to 6 Inches Over 6 inches up to 9 inches Over 9 inches Holes
and openings (Large Dimensions) 1 inch or less Over 1 Inch
Points allotted 1 2 3 4 2 4
The total defect points per 100 square yard are calculated, and normally those f
abric rolls containing more than 40 points per 100 square yard are considered as
seconds. However, a garment may use more or less than 40 points per 100 square ya
rds as an acceptance criteria. Therefore Points per 100 Square yards
=
Total points scored in the roll X 3600_______ Fabric width in inches X total yar
ds inspected.
The following points are worthy of note: 1. The maximum number of defect points
to be counted against any one linear yard is 4 points. Overall, fabric quality i
s assessed on the basis of the number of defect points per 100 square yards of f
abric. 2. The fabric is graded regardless of the end product. However, this draw
back can be overcome. For example, a manufacturer may decide to use different po
int values for first and second quality fabrics (or acceptable / rejection crite
ria) depending on the end item being manufactured. For example, acceptance / rej
ection criteria of 40 points / square yard may be alright for fabric for mens cas
ual trousers and sports shirts, but the same may not be adequate for fabric for
mens suits. Different types of fabrics have different point levels of acceptabili
ty. These levels of acceptability are usually established by the mutual agreemen
t between the buyer and the seller. 3. A defect point in a 4 Point system is not
a consistent unit of measure. For example, 4 points when representing slubs may
affect no more than 4 inches of defect, but when representing a full width of d
efect in a 60-inch wide fabric, 4 points represent 60 inches of continuous defec
t. In the first case, a point represents 1 inch or less, whereas in the second c
ase, a point represents 15 inches of defect. This system is not sensitive to the
width of the fabric being inspected. 4. The 4 point system makes no provision f
or the probability of minor defects causing seconds or minor defects falling out
on the cutting table, being lost in the fabrication or escaping scoring in the
finished garment. There are defects accepted inconspicuous areas of the first qu
ality garments and rejected when found in conspicuous areas. There is no provisi
on for the very influential factor
53

5. There is no standard sampling plans used in the industry for the inspection o
f the fabric or piece goods. 6. No industry standards or acceptable limits exist
for shortage in number of yards on roll of fabric. Defects which must be scored
includes: a. Bar Filling wise thick place, thin place, coarse yarn or fine yarn
. b. Bad Selvedge Loose, tight, beaded, raged etc. c. Broken End A warp yarn mis
sing for a portion of its length d. Chafe An area where the fabric has been dama
ged by abrasion or friction. e. Coarse End Or Pick A warp or weft yarn having la
rger diameter or more plies than normally used in the fabric. f. End Out A warp
end missing from the entire length of the cloth. g. Fine End A warp yarn having
smaller diameter or less plies than normally used in the fabric. h. Flat Two or
more threads weaved as one and not meant to be a feature of the weave. i. Float
A thread that extend unwoven over the threads of the opposite set with which it
should normally be interlaced. Fly loose fibers not originating from the fabric
or foreign mater that have been woven into the fabric.
j.
k. Fuzz Balls Loose fibers originated from within the fabric that have formed ba
lls and is woven into the fabric. l. Hard Size An excessive quantity of size mat
erial.
m. Double Pick An extra pick dragged into shed with the correct pick for a porti
on of the width of the fabric n. Kink (Snarl) A short length of yarn spontaneous
ly doubled on itself. o. Misspick A pick woven in the wrong order with respect t
o the weave or colour pattern. p. Missing End A warp wise streak causing the imp
roper spacing of the warp across the fabric.
54

q. Mixed Yarn Yarn that differs from that used in normal. r. Reed Mark -- A warp
wise streak caused by damage reed. s. Smash An area where the fabric been ruptu
red by breakage of large number of ends. t. Temple Mark Disturbance of the appea
rance at the temple region. u. Tight end or pick v. Torn Selvedge 9.5. 10-Point
System Under this system, fabric defects are assigned point values based on the
following. Length of the defects Warp defects Up to 1 1 to 5 5 to 10 10 to 36 Weft def
cts Up to 1 1 to 5 5 to Width More than Width For width less than 50 First Quality =
Total Defect Points < Total Yards inspected Points allotted 1 3 5 10 1 3 5 10
Otherwise it is second Quality For more than 50 width First Quality = Total Defec
ts X 1.1 Points < Total Yards Inspected.
Maximum defects allotted /yard = 10. Otherwise it is second quality. 9.6. Correl
ation between Fabric Quality and Apparel Quality Various studies have shown that
there is a direct correlation between fabric quality and apparel quality, and p
oor quality fabric results in excess cost of apparel manufacturing. The subject
point system can be used consistently, effectively, and economically as an
55

index of fabric quality. The quality grade obtained by this system bears a measu
reable relation to garment quality. The weighting of the defects as 1,2,3 & 4 po
ints defects is sound. The greatest weakness of this point system is difficulty
in evaluating seriousness. Using proper precautions, this weakness is not disabl
ing. The general use of this grading system will provide profitable to the selle
r and the buyer alike. While inspecting fabric for obvious defects, one should n
ote any extreme variations in the hand, nap, or nay other such surface finish ch
aracteristics if they will be detrimental. Also any noticeable variation in the
shade of a fabric should be recorded. This variation could be in the roll of the
fabric or from roll to roll. Comparing the shades of two colors of two pieces o
f fabric (such as from roll to roll or between a standard piece of fabric and a
roll of a fabric) is called shade matching. The shade matching process sounds fa
irly simple; however, due to subtle factors like lighting and background color i
n the area where shade matching is being done; or the ability of the individual
who is doing the shade matching to perceive shades of color, shade matching can
be difficult.
56

10.0. Sewing Threads:

The necessity of the good sewing thread is evident because of the following (1).
During sewing process in a high speed lock stitch machine, the thread is subjec
ted to complex kinematic and dynamitic conditions. The speed at which it passes
through the needle eye can reach 140-165 km / hour and at the moment at which th
e thread is caught by the sewing hook, the speed reaches 2000m/sec. While moving
at such high speeds, the thread is subjected to friction from a number of guide
s, from the needle eye, from the fabric being sewn, from the bobbin case assembl
y, and from the bottom thread. At the same time, the thread is subjected to many
stresses, all of which take place very quickly and at high speed. These effects
acts on the sewing thread repeatedly and for a fairly prolonged period of time,
since a length of the thread, before being incorporated in a stitch, may pass m
ore than 30 times through the fabric, the needle eye, and the bobbin case mechan
ism. Such a severe working condition with the heat generated in the needle can r
educe the initial strength of a thread by as much as 60% and this is one of the
causes of increased breakage in the needle thread during high speed sewing. Ther
efore the sewing thread should be checked and tested for following characteristi
cs. 1. Construction Yarn count, yarn ply, number of twists, twist balance, yarn
strength (tenacity), yarn elongation. 2. Sewability At least three sewing thread
packages from a lot should be used for at least 100 yards of sewing under norma
l conditions and a record kept for running performance. A good quality sewing th
read should be able to produce uniform consistent stitches in the chosen sewing
material at the highest machine speed under normal conditions. In addition, actu
ally using at least three packages of sewing thread from each lot will give a ve
ry good indication of the following properties of sewing thread. 10.1. Propertie
s of Sewing Thread 1. Imperfections Sewing threads should be free from slubs, kn
ots or any such defects. Otherwise, there will be excessive stoppage on the sewi
ng machine, resulting in the lower sewing efficiency. 2. Finish Thread finish is
basically a lubricant applied to a sewing thread so that the thread will slip e
asily and smooth through the eye of the sewing machine needle and through variou
s thread handling parts of a sewing machine. This finish
57

varies from 3 to 15% of the weight of the thread. The amount of finish must be c
onsistent from package to package and from lot to lot; otherwise, sewing quality
and efficiency will be lost completely. 3. Color Color of a sewing thread (incl
uding white) should match that of either he original or the standard sample and
should not vary too much within a lot or shipment of sewing thread. Also, the co
lor should not bleed in washing and or dry cleaning and fade in sunlight. 4. Pac
kage Density Package density of the sewing thread should be consistent from pack
age to package within a shipment or lot and from shipment to shipment. If packag
e density varies too much, sewing machine operators will have to adjust the tens
ion frequently, resulting in lower productivity. 5. Winding Winding of the sewin
g thread on packages should be uniform; otherwise, it may result in excessive th
read breakages, again causing lower efficiency. 6. Yardage Length of the sewing
thread on each package should be at least the specified amount or within certain
tolerance, such as + 2% of the labeled length.
58

11.0. Zippers:
Zippers should be checked for the following. 1. Dimensions Check for the correct
width of the tape. If it isnt correct, the machine will run off. Measure overall
length with the zipper closed from extreme ends of metal. Tape extensions shoul
d be as specified. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Top and bottom stops be fastened secu
rely Zipper tape should be of uniform in color if that is important Zipper shoul
d not cause wrinkling or puckering after it is sewn in to the garment Can a zipp
er be washed or dry cleaned? Will it fade? Will the slide deform under pressing
or ironing? Check the force it takes to pull open the zipper (sideways) Pull tab
should be affixed firmly to the slider body Slider should ride freely but must
not be so free that it is loose on the chain Check also to be sure the slider lo
cks securely.
11.1. Avoiding Zipper Problems Most zipper failures in garments are the result o
f - Improper installation methods in the sewing - Questionable garment design or
construction - Incorrect product application - Factory and / or retail customer
abuse. As a mechanically operational device, a zipper is the most sophisticated
component in the garment, and thus is acutely vulnerable to human error. This i
s especially true in factories that use continuous zipper chain and perform the
gapping, bottom stopping, and slidering operations in-house Slider Direction The
slider direction must run in a specific direction. On metal chain, the points o
f the teeth face towards the open end of the zipper. Correct direction is more d
ifficult to determine with the plastic chai, but in both cases, arrows are usual
ly printed on the tapes that point towards top, open end. Right Side Up On plast
ic coil and extruded tooth chain, the slider should be mounted, with the pull ta
b on the same side as the printing on the tapes. Some of coil zipper is not symm
etrical, therefore making slider mounting obvious. Side to side orientation is n
ot critical with metal or molded chain.
59

Stabilization Most zippers tapes contain some percentage of cotton, or cotton bl

end yarns in order to provide a dense anti-sleazy construction. A resin treatmen
t option is available for permanent press or low shrink applications, which are
commonly referred to as stabilization. The process consists of applying a materi
al to the chain which, when cured with a specified temperature/time relationship
, will impart synthetic qualities to the cotton, at some sacrifice of strength.
Resin treated chain is available in either a semi cured or fully cured state, to
match similarly treated textiles. The use of fully cured chain with semi-cured
textile will result in tape degradation when the assembly is subjected to a fina
l cure. Also, the use of resin treated chain in a garment that receives resin tr
eatment as an assembly, will subject the tape to double treatment, resulting in
degradation of the cotton yarns. Slider and Chain Combinations Every zipper manu
facturer has a large stable of slider and chain available for most applications.
Materials vary from light weight plastic through the family of metals such as Z
inc, steel, brass, and nickel-silver. Slider action covers a spectrum from nonlo
ck, pinlock, camlock, flangelock, fliplock and atuolock. Selecting the proper co
mbination is best left to application lab of the zipper supplier.
60

Handling and Processing Zipper Zipper chain should be stored at a moderate tempe
rature and humidity. Long term storage at elevated temperatures can cause some t
ape yarn deterioration, especially with resin treatment. Excessive tension or sh
ock loading of zipper chain during processing can affect dimensions and cause la
tent shrinkage Running more than one manufacturers chain simultaneously can resul
t in accidental mixing of components. Ratcheting This is the act of forcing the
slider down the chain by pulling the two open halves apart. Although some slider
s are designed to ratchet, this action does the damage, degrade the teeth, and w
ith positive locking sliders the chain is destroyed. Ratcheting occurs in the se
wing room, finishing, and at industrial laundries when operator wants to open th
e garments fast. Retail users can ratchet a slider by not fully opening the zipp
er when putting on or removing the garment, or as deliberate act to allow return
of an unwanted item. Shear This is the act of attempting to shift one half of t
he chain with respect to the other half after the slider is mounted. It occurs w
hen an operator tries to adjust the waistband alignment without first removing t
he slider, and usually results in permanent damage. Slider Distortion A slider i
s clam shelled when the top and bottom have been spread apart, as in opening a cla
m. This condition can be caused by sticking slider holder or by an overzealous c
onsumer trying to move a stuck slider with a pair of pliers. A crushed slider us
ually occurs in the pressing buck of the garment factory or in industry launderi
ng. Slider holder This device holds the slider by the pull tab, and lifts the lo
ck out of the path of the chain during slider threading. A misadjusted holder ca
n cause ratcheting if the lock release malfunction or clam shelled sliders and c
hain damage if the pull clamp does not release after threading. Bottom Stop The
primary function of the bottom stop is to prevent accidental opening of the clos
ed end of the chain. A stop that is not tightly clinched over the zipper teeth,
or is totally missing will allow the chain to open behind the slider. This condi
tion can sometimes be repaired in the factory by pulling the slider down thus re
healing the chain, and applying a new stop.
61

Sewing The major cause of zipper failure is poor sewing. A garment panel attache
d too close to teeth will interfere with the slider and get caught inside. Attem
pting to free the slider can cause garment and chain damage, or clam shelled sli
ders. A sew line that is not parallel to the chain or wanders, causes localized
high stresses and curvature which can eventually lead to erratic slider action a
nd tape failure. Low stitch count can lead to tape sleaziness, and using blunt,
large diameter needles will cause heating and melting during sewing because of t
he high density tight weave inherent in zipper tapes. Improper thread trimming w
ill cause interference with slider action when the loose ends become caught. Fly
Serging The outer edge of zipper tape can be accidentally cut during right fly
serging knives, causing disastrous zipper failure. The best policy is to remove
the knives entirely, or use a positive edge guide. Hump Hump is a roller coaster
effect of either the zipper chain or garment at the sew line. A humpy zipper is
usually caused by the operator over tensioning the garment panel during sewing,
or feeding the assembly with the chain down in engagement with the feed dog. A
humpy garment is usually caused by the over tensioning the zipper during sewing,
or excessive foot pressure. Hump after washing or dry cleaning is the result of
excessive foot pressure. Hump after washing or dry cleaning is the result of th
e excessive differential shrinkage between the garment and zipper. Contrary to p
oor opinion, this condition is usually the result of excessive garment textile s
hrinkage, resulting in zipper hump.
62

Popping A zipper that opens in one spot has been popped. This can be caused by ver
y high localized force, but is usually the result of folding the zipper back upo
n itself while under cross wise load. Most metal and extruded or molded plastic
chain is almost impossible to pop. Coil zipper pop more readily, but can be healed by
running the slider down and back up. Waist band and Hook/Eye Closures The hook a
nd bar, snap, hook and eye, and button closures used at the top of the zipper op
ening are intended to absorb all the crosswise stress when closed. Mislocated or
poorly attached closures will subject the zipper teeth to very high stresses at
the top. Garments that are sized small, or retail customers that purchase under
sized items, promote failure because these closures are usually left open and th
e slider is used to keel the opening closed. Bar tacks Bar tacks serve the funct
ion of protecting the bottom stop from excessive load in fly operations. A missi
ng bar tack, or one set too low, could result in a bottom stop failure at the re
tail level. Design Problems Many potential zipper problems can be avoided at the
garment design level. Some of the more common errors are; Opening too short, ca
using bottom stop failure, such as in hip hugger jeans Wrong side zipper not des
igned for stress Wrong type zipper Installation across a heavy fell seam, causin
g popping and slider snagging Insufficient fly piece reinforcement Improper sew
line position, either too near the outer tape edge or the teeth. Lack of bar tac
ks at the bottom, as previously mentioned.
Zippers problems that do not fall within the scope of this bulletin are best dia
gnosed by calling in the supplier. Some manufacturers supply a free application
lab service that will analyze a new design or construction prior to production.
63

12.0. BUTTONS, BUCKLES AND SNAP FASTENERS

12.1. Buttons Buttons should have large, clean sew holes that are free from flas
h and will not cut the thread. Holes must be located properly in relation to the
edge of the button. Buttons should be uniform thickness. The color or shade of
the buttons should be within a certain visual tolerance. Buttons should be able
to withstand laundering, dry cleaning, and pressing without any changes such as
cracks, melting of surface (scorch), and change in color or shade.
12.2. Buckles Buckles should be checked for any visual defects such as sharp, bu
rred edges. If a buckle is cloth or vinyl covered, there should not be an approp
riate difference in the buckle and garment materials. 12.3. Snap Fasteners The a
ttaching machinery should locate the snap fasteners accurately and at proper pre
ssure. Components parts should be checked to close tolerances and free from dirt
and other foreign substances so that they will feed rapidly through the hopper
and permit uniform and troublefree assembly. Hardness and workability of metal a
re important factors also and are controlled carefully by quality suppliers. If
the metal is too hard, the parts will be formed poorly and may crack; if it is t
oo soft, the closure will be weak.
64

13.0. TRIMS TESTING

Fusible Interlinings Zippers Elastic Waist band Sewing threads Buttons Snap Fast
eners 13.1. Testing of Fusible Interlining The purpose of fusible interlinings i
s to give shape or form and improve the aesthetics of a garment. There is no bet
ter way to test fusible interlining other than to actually fuse the interlining
with the end-item fabric and evaluate such samples before starting mass producti
on. Therefore, at least three 30 X 30 cm (12 X 12 in.) pieces of end-item fabric
cut and fused to the 23 X 23 cm (9 X 9 in.) pieces of fusible interlining at th
e recommended time, temperature, and pressure. Then these specimens are checked
for compatibility, shrinkage and bond strength. Compatibility means that the fus
ible interlining material should provide good drapability, bulk, and support wit
hout altering the natural hand of the end item (shell) fabric. Shrinkage can be
measured by placing gauge marks on the interlinings and shell fabrics before fus
ing and measuring the distance between these gauge marks after fusing. Any signi
ficant shrinkage in the fusible interlining fabric would result in a noticeable
bubbled appearance on the right side of the shell/interlining assembly. Bond str
ength can be determined by using the standard method of testing bonded and lamin
ated apparel fabrics. 13.2. Testing of Zippers Zippers can be tested using any o
ne or more of the following ASTM test methods Durability of finish of zippers to
laundering Colorfastness of zippers to dry cleaning Colorfastness of zippers to
light Colorfastness of zippers to crocking Colorfastness of zippers to launderi
ng Durability of finish of zippers to dry cleaning Resistance of zippers to salt
spray (fog) Measuring zipper dimensions Strength tests of zippers Operability o
f zippers
65

The durability of the finish of the zippers to laundering is evaluated by launde

ring the test specimen in a Launderometer. The effect of the test on zipper coat
ing is evaluated by noting the loss of coating on the zipper chain or components
or both The color fastness of zippers to dry cleaning is tested by subjecting t
he zipper tape to commercial dry- cleaning with multi-fibre fabric. The dry clea
ned specimen is compared with the original specimen and any change in the color
of the specimen or staining of the multi-fibre fabric is then assessed using AAT
CC grey scale for color change or the chromatic transference scale. The color fa
stness of the zippers to laundering is tested by subjecting the zipper with a mu
lti-fibre test fabric to home laundering according to the intended care instruct
ions of the garments on which this particular zipper would be used. The alterati
on in shade of the zipper tape and degree of staining of multi-fibre test fabric
is evaluated by the AATCC gray scale for staining and color change or the chrom
atic transference scale. The durability of the finish in the zippers to dry clea
ning is tested by subjecting the zipper to the dry cleaning, as in AATCC test me
thod 86, but the zipper is air-dried rather than hot pressed. The specimen is th
en evaluated visually for any exposed base metal compared to a new zipper or com
pared to a sample illustrating an acceptable degree of coating loss. Sometimes d
ue to corrosion, a zipper will not operate smoothly and its crosswise strength m
ay be reduced. Such deterioration in a zipper can be evaluated by subjecting the
zipper to a slat spray test. Of course, plastic/nylon zippers do not corrode, a
nd therefore this test applies only to metal zippers. In this test method, speci
mens are subjected to slat spray [5% salt solution at 33 0 to 360 C for 24 hours
continuously] as directed by ASTM method D 2059, slat spray testing. The expose
d specimens are then visually evaluated for any sign of corrosion and tested for
ease of operation and crosswise strength, and results are compared with the eas
e of operation and crosswise strength of the original specimens. Zippers dimensi
ons should be measured in certain ways so that they can be communicated effectiv
ely. 13.2.1. Zipper Strength Tests The usefulness of a zipper in service can be
evaluated by the following strength tests. No one test determines the suitabilit
y of a zipper for a specific end use. Since the tests are interrelated, more tha
n one may be needed for a complete evaluation. Zipper strength is usually tested
in the following areas. 1. Crosswise Strength The ability of a zipper chain to
withstand lateral stress is measured by loading to destruction a 1 in. section o
f the specimen in the tensile testing machine.
66

2. Scoop pull-off The gripping strength of a scoop around the bead is determined
by pulling a single scoop from the bead at right angles to the stringer using a
tensile testing machine with a specially designed fixture. 3. Holding strength
of stops The ability of stops to perform their intended purpose is determined th
rough the use of five different methods that simulate the important stresses enc
ountered in the end use of zippers. 4. Scoop slippage The ability of a scoop to
resist longitudinal movement along the bead of the tape is determined with a ten
sile testing machine fitted with a specially designed fixture 5. Resistance to c
ushioned compression of sliders The lower plateau of compression tester is cushi
oned with a neoprene pad. The specimen is laid on the pad and a load is applied.
Then, the operability of zipper is tested and compared to the operability of th
e original zipper. 6. Slider deflection & recovery There are two procedures for
determining the resistance of slider planes of zippers to an opening or spreadin
g force. In one procedure, the force is applied to the mouth of the slider. In t
he other, an alternative method, the force is applied through the slider pull an
d back plane of the slider. 7. Resistance to twist of pull and slider In this me
thod, the twist resistance of a pull and slider assembly against a torsional for
ce applied to the pull of the zipper is evaluated. A fixture is used with a torq
ue wrench to apply a specified twisting force to a slider pull. The amount of pe
rmanent twist imparted to the slider pull or other permanent damage or deformati
on are noted. The specimen is also examined for any other effects such as breaki
ng of deformation of the lug or any other part of the assembly. 8. Resistance to
pull-off slider pull In this test, with a special fixture, tensile load is appl
ied to the slider pull to determine how much force is required to pull off the s
lider pull. The operability of zippers are tested by pulling the slider with a f
orce indicator (such as pull gauge) along the zipper chain alternately in the op
ening and closing directions and the force required to maintain each movement is
recorded. The force required to move the slider on the chain is a measure of th
e ease with which the zipper will operate in end use applications. 13.3. Elastic
Waistband Testing There are two properties of an elastic waistband that need te
sting; i. Fit for labeled size ii. Resistance to degradation (becoming loose, lo
sing elasticity) due to laundering.
67

13.3.1. Fit for the labeled Size This property can be tested by stretching the w
aistband about 5 cm more than the hip dimension for the labeled size (to stimula
te the condition that exists when putting on the garment) and bringing back the
waistband to the waist dimension for the labeled size and measuring the force it
takes to keep the waistband stretched at that particular dimension. Then the si
milar garments must be wear tested and the numerical value of the force required
must be correlated with the actual comfort during wear. This testing can be don
e on a tensile testing machine. 13.3.2. Resistance to Degradation, Accelerated A
ging Method 1. Take three specimens of the elastic that would be used for a wais
tband. Mark them in such a way that the distance between the marks is 25 cm (10
in.). Then subject them to accelerated aging [expose them to 149 0C for 2 hour i
n a circulated air oven]. After aging, let the specimens cool down to room tempe
rature. 2. Then, stretch the specimen 50% and keep them in that stretched condit
ion for 24 hours. Allow them to relax for 10 min. Then, measure the distance bet
ween the gauge marks and express that as a percentage of the original distance b
etween the gauge marks 25 cm (10 in.). Use a sign to indicate shrinkage and a +
sign to indicate growth in the distance between the gauge marks. The final resul
ts are expressed as the average of the three specimens. 3. Usually any growth ov
er 7% or 8% is not acceptable. Any shrinkage is unacceptable because it will res
ult in tight fit. 13.4. Sewing Thread Testing There is an ASTM test method for s
ewing threads. This test method outlines the procedure for testing the following
properties of sewing threads. Diameter Length per thread holder Strength and el
ongation Shrinkage, single end Twist and twist balance Yarn number.
Diameter Knowledge of thread diameter is important because diameter can affect s
ewing performance and seam appearance. Sewing performance can be influenced beca
use thread is required to pass through restrictions, such as needles eye and tens
ion disks. Seam appearance can be adversely affected when the diameter of a thre
ad is large enough to displace fabric yarn and results in a puckered seam. Sewin
g thread diameter is also a consideration when selecting sewing threads for embr
oidery, contrast stitching, or other decorative applications. The diameter of th
e thread is determined either with the thickness gauge or optically. The procedu
re for measuring sewing thread diameter by thickness gauge is as follows:
68

Draw the thread from the side of the sewing thread holder, taking care not to di
sturb the twists. Place four strands of the thread side by side on the anvil and
approximately midway between the sides of the pressure foot of the thickness ga
uge. Measure the thickness to the nearest 0.0025 cm under 240gm/cm2 (0.001 in. u
nder 3.4.psi) pressure at 10 points along the thread and calculate the average a
s diameter of the sewing thread. The optical method for measuring sewing thread
diameter is not recommended because it has difficulty determining the exact boun
daries of threads having hairy fibres on the surface. Length per thread holder T
he length of the sewing thread on a thread holder is measured in meters or yards
while being removed from the thread holder. Strength and Elongation Strength an
d elongation of sewing threads are determined by the same way as the strength an
d elongation of yarn, by a single strand method (ASTM D-2256). The loop length a
nd elongation of a sewing thread are a measure of the threads ability to contribu
te to seam performance. The loop strength of a thread bears a direct relationshi
p to stitch strength and hence to seam strength. Loop elongation is an indicatio
n of the degree to which seam, under stress, can be stretched without a thread b
reaking. Besides loop elongation, the ultimate elongation of a seam is dependent
on the material stitched, the stitch and seam type and number of stitches per i
nch. In a loop strength and elongation test, each specimen consists of two piece
s of yarn taken from one package or end. Both the ends of one piece are secured
in one clamp of the testing machine so that the length of the loop is about onehalf the gauge length. One end of the second loop is passed through the loop for
med by the first piece of the sewing thread, and both ends of the second piece a
re clamped in the other clamp of the testing machine, the machine is started, an
d the load and elongation, when the loop breaks, are observed and noted. Shrinka
ge, Single End Shrinkage of sewing thread is important because shrinkage can cau
se puckering of a seam, thus adversely affecting seam appearance. A conditioned
single end of thread is measured under a prescribed tensioning force before and
after exposure to boiling water for hour or dry heat 1520 + 30 C for 1 hour. The
change in the length is expressed as a percentage of the length before exposure
. Twist and twist balance For determining twist level in the sewing thread, the
ASTM test methods cited in [88-89] can be used. The determination of twist balan
ce is important in predicting the snarling tendency of the thread during actual
sewing operations. In this method, about a meter (yard) of conditioned thread fr
om a holder is withdrawn in the same manner as that in which it is delivered to
the sewing machine and formed into a loop, positioning the ends of the threads s
o that they are 10 cm (4
69

in.) apart at the top of the loop. The twist balance is reported in terms of the
complete rotations that the loop makes. Yarn Number The yarn number of the sewi
ng threads can be determined by the ASTM test methods 13.5. Buttons Testing Dura
bility of the buttons can be tested by an impact test. Individual buttons are pl
aced on a surface centered under a tube through which a preselected mans falls f
rom a preselected height. After the mans impact the button, the button is remove
d from a testing device and visually examined using 5x Magnifying glass for brea
kage, cracking, or chipping. The practice is used for acceptance testing of butt
ons. The buttons are classified as class A, B1 through B3 depending upon the imp
act resistance, the class A button being the most durable.
70

14.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance (Cutting)

Process of Inspection, Types of Defects and their possible solutions, o (Marker
making, o spreading, o cutting, o bundling , o ticketing o quality parameters an
d formats ) Quality Specs.
14.1. Introduction In-Process Inspection In-process inspection means the inspect
ion of parts before they are assembled into a complete product. In apparel manuf
acturing, this means inspection at various points in the entire manufacturing pr
ocess from spreading to pressing / finishing. The idea behind the in process ins
pection is to inspect or check the quality of component parts close to the manuf
acturing a possible and thereby identify the source of quality problems as early
in the manufacturing process as possible. This type of inspection can be perfor
med by either quality control inspectors or individual operators themselves afte
r they perform their respective operations. This will minimize the need for late
r repairs and rework. Each production operation performed correctly makes for a
smooth running plant with low operating costs. Poor quality at any stage in prod
uction compounds itself and can be expected to increase total cost. In process i
nspection is also called as during production or du-pro inspection A well run in
-process inspection program will result in the following two advantages. 1. Redu
ction of major surprises from the customers due to bad quality. 2. Decrease in lab
or costs due to decrease in repair rates. These advantages are generally derived
from the fact that due to in-process inspection a. The operators (workers) and
supervisors are constantly reminded that the company has a specific quality leve
l to meet, just by the very presence of the inspectors in their section on a dai
ly basis. b. Because each worker realize that his/her work is subjected to being
inspected at any time throughout the day the quality of work produced by worker
s will improve c. The data obtained can be effectively analyzed and utilized by
the production supervisors and plant manager in correcting problems or improving
quality. The day is long past when apparel manufacturers can depend solely on 1
00% final inspection at the end of a production line. The quality cannot be inspe
cted into a garment after it has been made; instead, quality should be manufacture
d into a garment at every step and checked repeatedly during production.
71

14.2. In-Process inspection - Spreading defects Various factors that affect the
spreading process are - Ply alignment - Ply Tension or Slackness - Bowing - Spli
cing. The greater the variation in width or length alignment, the greater the wa
ste in the precision cutting because the ends and sides must be trimmed to the n
arrowest and shortest plies. A tight spread will contract after cutting, resulti
ng in smaller and skimpier components than what should be. A slack spread posses
ses excess length within the stipulated end of the spread. Cut components from a
slack spread will tend to be oversized. Bowing is the distortion of filling yar
n from a straight line across the width of the fabric. This would cause unbalanc
ed stresses in fabric, resulting in slackness and tightness in the ply that will
lead to undersized components. Also the garment component containing such a def
ect will tend to twist or distort in laundering or dry-cleaning. Splicing is the
overlapping of two ends of fabric in a ply. A short or insufficient overlap wil
l result in incompletely cut pattern sections and a long overlap will result in
waste. Static in the fabric may cause a distorted spread, resulting in incomplet
ely cut pattern sections. Static can be eliminated by either increasing the humi
dity in the cutting room or using static eliminators. Some more possible spreadi
ng defects are - Not enough plies to cover the quantity of garments required. Narrow fabric - Plies not all facing in the correct direction. That is, not all
the plies are spread face down, face up, or face to face, as required. - Mismatc
hing of checks. Plies not spread accurately one above another ready for cutting.
14.3. Pattern Defects Marker making Defects 1. Pattern Parts Missing Correct nu
mber of parts for all sizes not included by the marker maker. 2. Mixed parts- Pa
rts not correctly labeled in the marker; therefore, a marriage of wrong-sized pa
rts. 3. Patterns not facing in the correct direction on napped fabrics 4. Patter
ns not all facing in the same direction on a one way fabric 5. Patterns not alig
ned with respect to the grain line of the fabric. As a result, a garment may not
drape or fit properly 6. Line definitions poor (e.g., chalk, too thick, indisti
nctly printed line, perforated lay not fully powdered), leading to inaccurate cu
tting.
72

7. Skimpy marking Either the marker did not use the outside edge of the pattern
or the pattern was moved or swung after partial marking to squeeze the pattern i
nto a smaller space in the interest of fabric economy. Alternatively, the patter
n is worn around the edges and should be replaced. 8. Generous marking A combina
tion of points 7 and 8 results in the components being sewn together with pucker
ing or pleating. 9. Marker too wide Garment parts at the edge of the lay are cut
with bits missing 10. Not enough knife clearance allowance 11. Mismatched check
s and stripes 12. Notches and drill marks omitted, indistinct, or misplaced. 14.
4. Cutting Defects Cutting quality is a prerequisite for quality in a finished p
roduct. In addition, cut work quality affects the ease and cost with which const
ruction is accomplished. The quality of work leaving the cutting room is determi
ned by how true the cut fabric parts are to the pattern; how smooth or rough the
cut surface is; material or fabric defects in cut fabric parts; shade differenc
es between cut fabric pieces within a bundle. In addition various factors in cut
ting that can affect the subsequent quality should be checked, such as under- or
overcut, size, placement and sequence alignment of notches and drill holes, rip
ped or pulled yarns etc. The defects that may arise in the cutting are 1. Frayed
Edges May impede cutting time by clogging the knife action and / or mar the fab
ric with the rips or pulled yarns. The amount of fraying depends on fabric const
ruction and finish. Improper cutting tools or dull knives cause excessive frayin
g in a pattern as section is cut. 2. Fuzzy, ragged or serrated edges This is the
result of the poor cutting. Such edges will impede sewing and / or diminish sew
ing quality. Such a condition is caused by faulty knife edges such as burrs, chi
ps, or dullness. 3. Ply to ply fusion More common and troublesome. Adjacent plie
s in a block are fused together, which makes if difficult for the sewing machine
operator to pick up a single ply quickly. Fusion occurs due to heat created by
excessively high speed of cutting or by friction of a dull knife. To prevent fus
ion, check knife speed, keep knives sharp, place wax paper between fabric plies,
and lubricate cutting blade. 4. Single edge fusion Consists of a single ply who
se cut yarn ends are fused to form a hard brittle rim on the cut edge. Sometimes
, this is desirable to prevent fraying; however
73

hardness and brittleness are undesirable it they impede sewing manipulation or m

ay result in seams uncomfortable to the consumer. 5. Pattern Precision Misshape
or distortion of the pattern perimeter as cut. Whether it is under-or overcut is
due to poor manual control of cutting machine and poor lines on the marker. To
assure precision in a pattern, check markers before cutting, use tensionless spr
eading, or allow time for fabric to relax. After a cut, check the top, bottom, a
nd middle plies against the pattern. 6. Notches Notch size refers to the depth o
f the notch. If the depth of the notch is too great, the notch may show after a
garment is sewn. If the notches are too small, sewing operators may have difficu
lty locating them quickly, resulting in decreased efficiency. Misplacement of a
notch may be due to an improper spread marker, poor control of cutting machine w
ith cutters notching tool stroking diagonally instead of vertically, incorrect ma
rker in that notches for mating parts do not coincide. Check notch placement aga
inst mating pieces. Quality control in stitching may be a problem if notches are
not aligned. 7. Drilling The drill hole may be too large or too small in diamet
er. In addition, a drill may become too hot due to high speed or wrong size, cau
sing the plies to fuse together at the drill hole. The drill must stroke vertica
lly to the table for uniform placement throughout the bundle. Sometimes fabric p
roperties are such that the slight movement of yarns in a fabric would close a d
rill hole. In such cases, it is necessary to drill holes with a marking fluid. T
he drill used for such purpose is hollow and carries marking fluid (ink) that is
deposited at the drill point on the fabric as the needle is withdrawn. Such mar
ks should last long enough so that further processing can be finished without di
fficulty, but should be easily removable after processing or in case of an error
. 14.5. Glossary of Cutting room defects (Pattern, Marker, Spreading and Cutting
room defects) S.No Defect Description Pattern Grading Defects 01 Grade not conf
orming to Finished product not measuring to specified Specification Measurements
dimensions and component parts not fitting in relationship to notches, openings
, and seams such as armholes, sleeve heads, neck bands, neck openings, side seam
s, inseams and waist measurements etc., 02. Distorted Grading: Unbalanced patter
ns which would cause twisted seams, puckering, pleating and a general uneconomic
al yardage waste.
74

03. 04. 05.

06.
07. 08. 09. 10. 11.
Marking Defects Shaded Parts: All component pans not included in same section. P
ieces not Symmetrical Will not sew together without puckering or pleating. Not M
arked by Directional Bias will not fit together, causing twisting, Lines: pucker
ing, pleating and a general mismatching of component parts. Skimpy marking Marke
r did not use outside perimeter of pattern. Pattern moved after partially marked
to fit into space. Notches and Punch Marks: Left out, not clearly marked or mis
placed. Marker Too Wide Parts will not catch in the lay causing skimpy garments
or requiring recuts Marker Too Narrow Results in wasted material. Mismatched Pla
ids Marker did not block component parts to match. Misdirected Napping Patterns
not marked in same direction on napped fabrics Spreading Defects Uneven Spreadin
g: Front edge of lay is not even, resulting in front or back edge of marker not
catching all plies. Narrow Material Bolts or rolls of material too narrow to cov
er marker width Missed Sectional Breaks: Sectional marker breaks too long or too
short. Parts in lay will be short or material wasted. Improper Tension Cloth sp
read too tight or too loose, causing parts not to fit in sewing or distorting di
mensions of garments. Mismatching Plaids: Material spread too loose or too tight
causing plaid lines to run diagonally or bow. Misdirected Napping: Air pockets
not removed. Napped material reversed in spreading.
12. 13. 14. 15.
16.
17.
18.
19
20.
Improper Matching of Face of Not spread face down, face up or face to face Mater
ial as required Cutting Defects Marker or Perforator Not stapled or stenciled on
lay to catch both edges causing parts to miss in cutting. Too tight or too loos
e distorting dimensions of garment. Perforated stencil not powdered, or inked su
fficiently to show distinct lines, notches and punch marks Misplaced Piece Rate
Tickets Attached to, or marked on, wrong bundles or Bundle Members causing mixed
sizes and/or shades.
75

21. 22. 23.

Drill Marks
24. 25. 26. 27
28. 29. 30. 31.
Drill marks misplaced, not perpendicular, omitted or wrong side drill used. Open
ing Slits Cut under above to the side or at incorrect angle. Not cut through enti
re bundle or omitted. Improper Cutting Not following marker lines resulting in d
istorted parts. Letting knife lean, causing top and bottom ply to be of differen
t sizes. Notches Misplaced, too deep, too shallow or omitted. Oil Spots Equipmen
t improperly oiled or cleaned. Improper Knife Sharpening Causing ragged, frayed
or fused edges on bundles. Knife or Scissors Cut Piece damaged by over run in cu
tting previous piece Shade Marking Defects Pencil or Machine marking Too dark, t
oo light, bleeding through, not legible or marked on wrong side. Stains Ink stai
ns from stamping or pin ticket machines. Thermo ply or Pin Ticket Improperly pla
ced or marked marking: Mixed Plies Results in mixed shades
76

15.0. Inspection procedures in Sewing Room

Introduction In process inspection in the sewing involves the inspection of work
from each operator, with a quality standard established to limit the amount of
bad work permitted and a provision for operators to re inspect and repair entire
bundles should this limit be exceeded. The decision on where to place the inspe
ction stations will be influenced by various factors, such as the importance of
operations, and controlling troublesome or key operations. Since the inspections
can often be performed for two or more operations at the same time, in process
inspection can be established at various inspection points in sewing operations,
as opposed to the inspector literally selecting work at each operators work stat
ion. First, a complete manufacturing process chart should be made, clearly ident
ifying the production or manufacturing steps for each type of garment made. 15.1
. What to Inspect during Sewing? Manufacturing process flow chart for mens dress
shirts is given below. 1. Marker lay made according to cutting ticket. Marker la
y checked 100% 2. Marker and material delivered to spreading operation. Material
spread. 3. Machine knife cut 4. Die cutting small parts 5. Cut parts delivered
to plant 6. Collar department: Fuse stays, run collar tops, trim points. Turn an
d press (shape), top stitch, trim tops. Hem bands, stich lining to bands. Band c
ollar. Turn band ends. Top stitch bands. Trim and baste. Quarter-mark band. Butt
on hole. Button sew. 7. Cuff department: Hem cuff, run cuff. Shape cuff top stit
ch. Button hole. Button Sew. 8. Under fronts: Baste neck. Crease Front. Hem butt
on stay. Button Sew. Set Pocket. Set flap. 9. Upper Fronts: Baste neck. Crease F
ront. Centre Pleat. Buttonhole. Set Pocket. Set Flap. 10. Sleeves: Piece binding
. Bind Sleeve. Tack binding. 11. Backs: Pleat. Backs 12. Yokes: Label. Sew. 13.
Attach yoke backs. 14. Assemble completed bundles of parts, any size, section, p
ly number, and /or shade.
77

1
2 3 5 4
6
7
8
9
10
11 1
12
13
14
15
16
17
18 9
19 9
20 9
15. Join shoulder seam 16. Join collar to shirt 17. Set sleeve, join side and un
derarm seams (Side fell) 18. Cuff attach, hem shirt, trim threads. 19. Button sh
irt, run collar, press, and fold. 20. Pack The inspection points or stations sho
uld be carefully selected so that the operations to be checked are neither cover
ed by later operations, nor necessitate ripping good work to repair a defect. In
spection stations should provide a uniform work load for each inspector and shou
ld minimize the elapsed time between the completion of an operation and its insp
ection.
78

Each operator should be told what standard of work is acceptable and what is not
. There should be a written quality specification for each job in the manufactur
ing process. Wherever possible sketches of the garment parts should be included,
illustrating how they are supposed to appear after completion. Dimensions and t
olerances for critical points must be included. Knowledge of the factors that cr
eate problems in a particular operation helps to determine the specific dimensio
n or characteristic to be maintained. Each inspector should be clearly told what
to look for while inspecting various operations. There is no standard amount of
inspection that will provide the right balance between the quality and costs fo
r all types of garments and production methods. It is advisable to plan on havin
g enough inspectors so that, on the average, every fourth bundle is inspected an
d no operation ever goes longer than 4 hours without being inspected. The daily
volume of the garments produced should decide the numbers of inspectors and not
the number of operators. Studies have shown that usually 15-20% of the operators
in any plant will cause 65% to 80% of the defects. Most inspections in the in p
rocess check points can be performed rapidly without sacrificing the accuracy, a
nd quite large units of inspection should be expected of inspectors each day. Th
e inspectors must be allowed with enough time to inspect in greater detail when
necessary and to carefully explain the quality problems to the supervisors. As w
ith all the inspection activities, the thoroughness of inspection is more import
ant than the quantity inspected. 15.2. Sewing Defects 1. Needle damage are evide
nced by holes, picked threads, ruptured threads or other damage to the fabric; c
aused by wrong size or type of the needle, blunt needle, needle heat, or machine
feeding difficulty. 2. Feed damage, particularly on thicker sheer fabrics, or w
hen machining over transverse seams, from incorrect type of teeth, excessive pre
ssure by foot, improper alignment of feed and foot, damaged throat plate, excess
ive machine speed. 3. Skipped Stitches, from the hook irregularly failing to pic
k up the loop of thread from a needles eye owing to a number of causes. 4. Thread
breaks, arising from too thick a thread for needle, too thin a thread, needle h
eat, operator working un rhythmically, or too tight tensions.
79

5. Broken stitches, arising from the wrong stitch type, too tight tensions, a ba
dly formed joint in the seam where the second line of the stitch runs over the f
irst and cracks it, sharp feeds, and too great a pressure. 6. Seam grin, arising
from too loose a tension or too large a stitch, or use of the wrong stitch type
. 7. Seam pucker, because of incorrect handling by the operator, misaligned notc
hes, or tight tensions. 8. Pleated seams, an extreme form of seam pucker, where
operator failed to ease fullness evenly 9. Wrong stitch density. Too many give r
ise to jamming and rapture of fabric threads; too few to grinning or weak seams
10. Uneven stitch density. Operator causes machine to snatch and does not allow
machine to control fabric. 11. Staggered stitch, from faulty feed motion, incorr
ect needle, and other machine parts. 12. Improperly formed stitches, caused by b
ad tension, incorrectly adjusted timing, ill fitting machine components. 13. Oil
spots or stains. 15.4. Seaming Defects Seaming defects are usually caused by th
e errors arising from the interaction of the operator and the machine in the han
dling of the garment. 1. Incorrect or uneven width of inlay, arising from bad ha
ndling by operator, incorrectly set guide, incorrectly adjusted folder. In extre
me cases, the seams burst open, raw edges show, slippage of weave threads occur,
or notches are exposed. 2. Irregular or incorrect shape of the sewing line (som
etimes called run-offs) in top stitching, arising from lack of or badly set guid
e, not following a mark, or incorrect handling. 3. Insecure back stitching, beca
use subsequent rows do not cover the first row of stitching. 4. Twisted seam lea
ding to irregular puckering or the garment parts not hanging correctly when worn
; caused by improper alignment of fabric parts, mismatched notches, and allowing
one ply to creep against another.
80

5. Mismatched check or stripes 6. Mismatched seam, where transverse seams do not

match (e.g., inside leg seams at the fork of the trousers) 7. Extraneous part c
aught in seam, an unrelated piece showing through the seam. 8. Reversed garment
part, where part is sewn with the face side opposite from specification, perhaps
when the part cut for one side of the garment is sewn in the other, or when the
whole garment is assembled inside out. 9. Blind stitching showing on the face s
ide, or not securely caught on inside, arising from improperly adjusted bender.
10. Wrong seam or stitch type used. 11. Wrong shade of thread used. 15.5. Assemb
ly Defects Assembly defects are perhaps caused by errors arising in marking and
cutting, as well as sewing operations in the sewing room, or a combination of th
ese. 1. Finished components not correct to size or shape or not symmetrical 2. F
inished garment not to size, arising from incorrect patterns, inaccurate marking
or cutting, shrinking or stretching fabric, incorrect seam widths. 3. Parts, co
mponents, closures, fixtures omitted, caused by bad work flow, wrongly printed w
ork tickets, parts omitted in cutting, careless operator. 4. Components or featu
res wrongly positioned or misaligned arising from incorrect marking, or sewing n
ot following the mark. (e.g., pockets, bar tacks, top stitching, button holes, b
uttons, hooks and bars, hooks and eyes, zips). 5. Interlining incorrectly positi
oned, twisted, too full, too tight, cockling. 6. Lining too full, too tight, sho
wing below the bottom of the garment, twisted, incorrectly pleated and so on. 7.
Garment parts cockling, pleated, twisted, showing bubbles and fullness; for exa
mple, collar in relation to the under collar or the neck, sleeve in relation to
the armhole, pockets, tapes, zips, pads in relation to the shoulder. 8. Garment
parts shaded owing to being mixed after cutting
81

9. Parts in one- way fabrics in wrong direction, usually only small parts, such
as pockets. 10. Mismatched trimming. 15.6. Glossary of sewing room defects S.No
Defect Description 01 Scissors or Knife Cut Self-explanatory 02. Tear Usually th
e result of excessive strain or snagging on the manufacturing machinery. 03. Nee
dle Chew Caused by use of wrong or blunt needle or machine feeding difficulty 04
. Incorrect Material Shading Where components do not match exactly as to shade 0
5. Spots or Stains Normally the result of a defective machine or a dirty work ar
ea. 06. Loose Threads Can be caused either by malformed stitching or poor trimmi
ng techniques 07. Puckered Seams An irregular seam surface usually caused by a)
Inherent fabric characteristic, b) Needle puncture, c) Machine feed slippage or
d) incorrect machine application 08 Pleated Seams Caused by incorrect machine at
tachments. Machine sewing parts too large or small for fabric or seam desired ir
regularly cut patterns or fabric irregularities and operator feeding fabric fast
er than normal feeding action of the machine. 09 Thread Breaks Wrong thread appl
ication, sewing machine malfunction, defective thread. 10 Insecure Backstitching
Original stitch row not covered with second seam. 11. Wrong Shade of Thread Eit
her caused by basic purchasing error, manufacturing defect by thread supplier or
operator selecting wrong color from thread bin. 12. Irregular Gauge of Stitchin
g Not using correct sewing machine or using single needle machine where a multip
le needle machine is required 13. Open Seams Incorrect folder or poor operator t
echnique. Sometime results from poor selection of type of seam for fabric used o
r purpose of seam in garment. 14. Run Off Operator not following marking or not
using mechanical aids such as edge guides to assure uniform stitching.
82

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

Wrong Seam or Stitch Type
21. 22. 23.
24.
Management error in selection-or operating personnel failing to follow specifica
tions Loose Thread Tension Tensions not adjusted correctly by operator Tight Thr
ead Tension Tensions not adjusted correctly by operator Wrong Stitches per Inch
Normally caused by operators who lengthen stitch to increase machine speed Skipp
ed Stitch Caused by machine malfunction or excessive needle heat due to friction
. Broken Stitches Often times the fault of wrong type of stitch for specific sea
m construction. Could be caused by excessive tightness in machine tensions Closu
res Omitted Normally an oversight by operators or failure by inspectors Closures
Misplaced. Inattention or inexperience by operating personnel or improper align
ment with gauges. Finished Components Not Could be caused by faulty pattern, cut
ting, measuring to Tolerances previous operations in stitching or by indifferent
operator attention to the specified tolerance Dimensions out of Tolerance Could
be caused by faulty pattern, cutting, previous operations in stitching or by in
different operator attention to the specified tolerance. Notches Exposed Poor op
erator technique and execution in not covering notch with seam. Omission of Any
Part of Poor work flow, inattentive operator. wrong work Garment tickets or poor
inspection Twisted Seam Caused by improper alignment of fabric pieces. uneven t
ension or pull on plies being stitched Pieces Not Aligned Pieces sewn together n
ot matched to each other Reversed pieces Where piece is sewn with face side oppo
site from specification; where part cut for one side of garment sewn in other. E
xcessive Fullness Caused where piece surface not smoothed prior to stitching. Un
even Edge Where stitching not straight or improperly formed in creasing machine
Ragged Edges Usually occurs where knives on automatic button-hole machines do no
t dip smoothly. Uncut Buttonhole Where knife failed to cut button-hole United St
itch Where tying stitches on automatic machines fail to secure. Hole Damage caus
ed by faulty machine or related equipment Faulty Gauging Where operator has not
sewn seam to specified Margin
83
25. 26. 27. 28. 29.
30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Misaligned Closure Misplaced Component Misaligned Seam Mislocated Reinforcement
Uneven Stitch
42. 43.
Needle Pick Caught Place
Closure components do not line up Where part not positioned according to specifi
cations Where seams .do not line up or cross specified point Where bar tack or b
rad not in proper location Caused by operator speeding up machine too rapidly or
by holding back or pushing fabric through machine in variance with correct mach
ine feed Failure of operator to replace a dull needle Where a component of part
of a garment been caught in an unrelated operation.
84

16.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance in Fusing Operation
.
There is nothing much that can be done visually on interlinings. The performance
testing of interlinings as well as the control of variables in the fusing of in
terlinings are of utmost importance. These materials (Interlinings, linings, and
other support materials) provide a foundation for product shape, support areas
subjected to stress, help maintain a products appearance, enhance comfort or encl
ose interior parts for aesthetic or performance reasons. These materials must be
compatible with the fashion fabric. Although they contribute to the overall qua
lity of the finished product, they may not be visible at point of sale. Often ma
ny types of support materials are combined in one product because each material
has a different function. These materials come in variety of different types, ar
e made from many different materials, and may have different application methods
and care requirements. 16.1. Interlinings Interlinings or interfacings are sewn
or fused to specific areas of the product to shape, support, reinforce and impr
ove performance. Many different types are available and influence the aesthetics
, performance, cost, comfort, and care of the finished product. For example, the
hand and drape of the fabric can be altered by the selection of the interlining
s. Handling and sewability are the other two important factors to consider. Inte
rlinings that are easy to sew and handle have lower production costs that those
of that require more effort and attention to detail. Fibre content, fabric weigh
t, fabrication method, and method of application need to be specified. For produ
cts were soft hand is important, cotton and rayon may be preferred. Where resili
ency is needed, wool and hair fibres are preferred. Nylon provides a stiff, resi
lient, lightweight interlining. The heavier the weight, the more support provide
d to the fashion fabric. Light weight interlinings produce a softer hand. Interl
inings can be fused to the fashion fabric quickly and inexpensively. Fusible int
erlinings incorporate a bonding agent that is heat, pressure, or steam activated
. Several types of bonding agents can be applied in a pattern to or all over the
back of the interlining. Selection of interlinings with the appropriate propert
ies for the fabric and the style requires knowledge of the available products, t
he processes to be used, and an understanding of compatibility factors. As styli
ng needs change, producers of interlinings may create new fabrications, weight,
and adhesives with different properties. The soft unstructured look that was pop
ular during the 1990s did not mean interlinings were omitted; their characterist
ics were modified to produce a softer hand and better drape ability.
85

16.1.1. Functions of interlinings Interlinings serve mainly for two major functi
ons (1). To produce and retain the desired aesthetic appearance, and (2). To imp
rove garment performance. Selecting the appropriate interlining is not a simple
task because many considerations must be taken in account. Interlinings must be
compatible with piece goods and other materials used in the style, and they must
be adaptable to the equipment used in the plant. Interlinings that enhance the
hand of the shell fabric and create the desired aesthetic characteristics for a
garment component may be preferred choice. Aesthetics Appropriately chosen inter
linings provide the foundation for the shape and hand of the garments and the st
ability to maintain the same appearance through use, care, and storage. Aestheti
c standards are often subjective and vary by designer. One designers interpretati
on of a soft silhouette may be interpreted as limp by another designer. A firm w
ith high quality standards may determine that shrinkage of either the interlinin
g or shell fabric is unacceptable; other firms may allow tolerances for shrinkag
e if both the shell and interlining shrink the same amount. Interlinings help fo
rm and maintain the hand, stability, durability and resiliency of the shell fabr
ic. Hand refers to the drape, stiffness or softness of materials used in a garme
nt. Interlinings are available in a variety of different hands and must be analy
zed with the shell fabric when determining the best combination. Performance Int
erlining performance may be evaluated from two different perspectives: performan
ce during production and performance in the finished garment. Manufacturers may
select certain types of interlinings to facilitate handling and improve the sewa
bility of the fabrics and garment parts. Interlinings may be used to reduce rave
ling and provide stability for the sewing process. They are frequently used unde
r the embroidery to stabilize fabrics for better-executed stitching. 16.2. Fusin
g Technology The term fusing technology is concerned with: - Base cloths - Resin
s - Coating systems - Machinery and Equipment - Control of Quality. 16.2.1. Base
cloths The Base cloth, also called the substrate is an interlining material on
which the thermoplastic resin is coated, sprayed, or printed. Base cloths are pr
oduced in a variety
86

of woven, knitted and non- woven forms from natural or synthetic fibres and each
type has a specific application. Irrespective of the construction and fibres us
ed, the base cloth influences the following characteristics in the finished garm
ent. Handle and bulk Shape retention Shrinkage control Crease recovery Appearanc
e in wear Appearance after dry-cleaning or washing Durability.
In addition, the final cost of the garment is influenced by the type and amount
of the fusibles used in its construction. 16.2.2. Resins These are the materials
applied to the base cloth and when subjected to heat and pressure they become t
he sole bonding agent between the top cloth and the interlining. Thermo plastici
ty, or change with heat, is the basis of all fusible interlinings in its cold st
ate the resin is not adhesive and only becomes viscous when heated. Through the
application of pressure, the heated resin penetrates into the top cloth; on cool
ing it solidifies again, forming a bond between the two fabrics. Today no natura
lly occurring resins are used for interlinings, but large variety of thermoplast
ic resins including polyamides, polyester and PVC. 16.2.3. Coating Systems Coati
ng is the process whereby the thermoplastic resin is applied to the substrate ma
terial. There are many coating methods in use, some of the more commonly used on
es being; Scatter coating: This method uses electronically controlled scattering
heads to deposit the resin on to the moving substrate. Dry- dot printing: In th
is process, the resin is printed onto the substrate by a roller engraved with sm
all indentations which hold the resin powder. Performed: The resin is heat-proce
ssed to form a net which is then laminated onto the base cloth by heat and press
ure. During heating, the net melts and leaves a minute dot pattern on the substr
ate. A coating system is basically concerned with flexibility and uniformity, an
d these factors have to be considered when evaluating the use of the specific fu
sibles.
87

16.2.4. Machinery and Equipment The mechanical medium required for fusing is a p
ress, and the three basic types are (1). Steam (2). Flat bed (3). Continuous fus
ing 16.2.4.1. Steam press Regular steam presses with shaped bucks are designed f
or fusing but are used for this purpose by many factories that cannot, or will n
ot invest in the correct equipment. While fusible with certain types of resins c
an be fused on steam presses, these machines have number of serious limitations
for general use. Even when fitted with heated bucks, steam presses are usually u
nable to reach the heat levels required by most resins. The pressure applied ove
r the full buck area is uneven, which restricts the machines use to the fusing of
small parts. Most of the older types of steam presses are not fitted with timer
s and programme controls, thus leaving the time element completely dependent on
the operator. When the resin has been originally activated by steam heat, the sa
me thing can happen again when garments are pressed during production. This is l
ikely to cause serious problems with lamination and handling.
All in all, steam presses do not have the complete range of the operating charac
teristics necessary for correct fusing. 16.2.4.2. Flat bed press These are purpo
se built fusing machines available in a wide variety of types from small table m
odels to large, floor-standing machines. There is also wide choice of manual or
mechanical loading and take off systems for use with these presses. Basically th
is type of press consists of padded top and bottom bucks with heating elements i
n one or both of the bucks. The bottom buck is static, with top buck raised or l
owered to open or close the press. Flat bed presses can have single or double tr
ays which move horizontally to feed work into and extract it from the machine. T
here are many types of special purpose flat bed presses which are built to suit
a particular, repetitive type of operation. One of these has a carousel action w
hich automatically moves the assembly from the loading position of the operator
through the fusing and cooling process and returns the fused components to the o
perator for unloading. There are large ranges of flat-bed presses available for
different purposes, which enables a factory to equip itself with the right machi
nes for each job.
88

16.2.4.3. Continuous fusing press These machines all operate on the same princip
le, transporting the assembly for fusing through all the processes on a powered
conveyor belt. There are two conveyor belt systems in general use. End to End Fe
ed: The parts are conveyed from the loading area at one end of the machine, via
the fusing and cooling areas, to take-off area at the opposite end of the machin
e. This system is used where production levels require one set of operators for
loading and another set for unloading. Return Feed: This machine has a belt syst
em which returns the fused components to the same end of the machine at which th
ey are loaded. The upper belt transports the unit through the fusing processes a
nd the lower belt returns the fused unit to its starting point. This enables the
operator to load and unload from the same position.
Continuous fusing presses are also available for special purpose such as the fus
ing of trouser and skirt waistbands or other narrow components which can be fuse
d in continuous tape form. Fusing is known to be a labour intensive operation an
d in the past few years there have been some major developments which are substa
ntially reduce the manual labour content. 16.3. The Control of Quality Relativel
y speaking, fusible interlinings are precision products and it is essential that
they are fused on the correct equipment and under strict control. Some factors
which influence fusing quality are (1). Temperature (2). Time (3). Pressure (4).
Peel Strength (5). Dry Clean and / or wash. 16.3.1. Temperature There is a limi
ted range of temperatures effective for each resin. The applied heat generated b
y the machine can be checked by simple and practical method involving the use of
the thermal test papers. These are narrow strips of paper calibrated in increme
nts of 20 C, which react to temperature by changing the colour of the segment wi
th the matching temperature rating. 16.3.2. Time The only time element of any va
lue in fusing is when the assemblies are actually being heated. For flat bed pre
sses this is the time between the closing and the opening of the
89

bucks; for continuous machines it is the time when the assemblies are actually i
n heating zones of the machine. 16.3.3. Pressure During fusing it is necessary t
o apply equal pressure all over the component in order to ensure that: - An inti
mate contact is effected between the top cloth and the interlining - The heat tr
ansfer is optimum - There is a controlled and even penetration of resin points i
nto the fibres of the top cloth. There are many methods of verifying whether pre
ssure is being exerted equally over the pressure surfaces of the machine. One of
the simplest is to fuse a large piece of cloth with an identically sized piece
of fusible. After cooling, the fused assembly should be carefully separated. In
some cases the interlining fibres will remain on the cloth and in others the fib
res of the cloth will be pulled out by the fusible. In both the cases, a clear o
ptical pattern will result which would indicate the areas where there are pressu
re variations. Serious variations of adhesion need the attention of skilled tech
nicians. 16.3.4. Peel- Strength test This test checks the strength of the bond b
etween the top cloth and the interlining; the force required to pull them apart
is compared to a standard for that particular cloth and fusible. The test is usu
ally performed on a fused strip about 70cm X 5cm with the length on the warp of
the cloth. The force required to separate them can be measured on a instrument c
alled a tensometer, or more simply with a good spring balance. 16.3.5. Dry clean
and /or wash It is recommended that production garments should be subjected to
the appropriate cleaning methods on a regular basis. One garment in each cloth a
nd fusible combination should be tested at least once every two weeks. 16.4. Pro
blems associated with the use of the fusible interlinings. 16.4.1. Boardiness It
is a problem related to the inappropriate selection of adhesives used on fusibl
e interlinings. If resins liquefy and run together to form a resin coating inste
ad of being retained in a sintered or dotted manner, a stiff hand is produced. T
his can be the result of over-fusing, too much adhesive, and the application of
excessive heat and/or pressure. This is a problem when the interlining distorts
the shape of the microfiber fabrics.
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16.4.2. Bubbling Bubbling occurs when the face fabric or interlining becomes puc
kered from delamination, poor bonding, differential shrinkage, uneven temperatur
es or pressure, and inconsistent use of the resin. 16.4.3. Color Change This may
be temporary or permanent discoloration caused by the high temperatures and res
ins used in the fusing process. Certain types of dyes may change color with the
application of high temperature. 16.4.4. Delamination Delamination is the loss o
f bond between the interlining and the shell fabric. Resin, because it migrates
toward heat, becomes embedded in the interlining substrate instead of the shell
fabric, which prevents an effective bond between the two materials. The shell fa
bric may appear to be bubbled. Delamination may be the result of underfusing, ov
erfusing, not enough cooling time, or incompatibility of the resin and the shell
fabric. 16.4.5. Shrinkage Shrinkage may cause performance problems if one garme
nt part shrinks because of application of fusible interlining and adjoining piec
es do not shrink. This is a common problem with jacket fronts and facings. Often
the high temperature needed for fusing causes the fabric to shrink. This may ma
ke accurate seaming impossible, create puckered seams, or cause puckered surface
s of shell fabric. With proper testing the amount of potential shrinkage of the
shell fabric and interlining can be determined and adjustments made in patterns.
16.4.6. Strike back Strike back is the penetration of the resin through the int
erlining substrate. It causes resin to stick to the fusing press, conveyor, or s
huttle tray. It can affect both cost and quality of fusing. It may be the result
of too much resin for the type of fabric and interlining fabrication or too muc
h pressure. 16.4.7. Strike Through Strike through is the penetration of resin th
rough to the face of the shell fabric. It may be caused by too much pressure, to
o high a fusing temperature, or too long a fusing time. This is a greater proble
m with sheer, lightweight, non absorbent fabrics than with heavier, bulkier, mor
e absorbent ones. Strike through is the cause of many other problems such as col
or change, differential shrinkage, bubbling, poor strength, and boardiness. This
is the common problem with microfiber fabrics because of the construction and w
eight.
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17.0. Final Inspection

Final inspection consists of inspecting finished garments from the consumers poin
t of view; size measurement; form fitting (putting garments on the proper-size m
annequins to see if they properly fit the labeled sizes); and live modeling if n
ecessary (again to see if the garments properly fit the labeled sizes). Final in
spection may occur before or after garments are packed in polybags and boxes. If
it is done after garments are packed, then proper size and style markings on th
e package can also be checked. In any case, there should be a list of points to
be checked in a garment, including a table of finished measurements. For example
such a list is shown for mens dress shirts in the below table. Final Inspection
- Quality Specifications for Mens Dress Shirts. Location Inspect for 1. Collar Bo
th points same length (+1/8 in.). Stripes, plaids, checks, or pattern should mat
ch on both points. Uniformly stitched, no puckering, skipped or broken stitches,
or raw edges. Should lay flat. 2. Buttons and Properly spaced, no puckering or
fullness. Buttonholes properly Buttonholes sewed, no cut stitches. No broke butt
ons. Located so stripes, plaids, or patterns match (+1/8 in.). 3. Pocket Top of
the pocket horizontal. Uniformly stitched, no puckering, skipped or broken stitc
hes, or raw edges. Corners securely tacked. Stripes, plaids, checks or patterns
should match (+1/8 in.). Should lay flat 4. Hems Uniformly stitched, no puckerin
g, skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Stitching 1/16 in. from edge. 5. Yo
ke and Pleats (if any) properly placed. Uniformly stitched, no puckering, Should
er skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Should lay flat. 6. Side Seams Stri
pes, plaids, checks, or patterns should match (+1/8 in.). Uniformly stitched, no
puckering, skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Stripes, Plaids, checks or
patterns should match the sleeve (+1/8 in.). Uniformly stitched, no puckering,
skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Clean of all loose thread. No oil/dirt
stains. Free of any fabric defect. No shade difference within a shirt from part
to part (panel to panel).
7. Cuff
8. Finished appearance
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17.1. Measurements for mens L/S dress shirts.

17.3. Some possible defects in garments with diagrams Left side is off grain to
the seam
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Poor Stitching : Loops pulled to one side

Poor Collar: Collar is not smooth and there are tucks where the collar and lapel
s join together.
Zipper is unattractive because facing does not cover it completely
Plaids do not match at the seam
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Armhole seam is unattractive because gathers caught in seam

Hem is unattractive because gathers and stitching show on the outside
Unattractive seam because of puckering
Pocket opening is too loose
95

Material is caught in armhole seam

Opening is uneven at the bottom
Top button hole is too large for the button
Pocket Opening is too loose
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17.4. Not readily apparent defects

Control of proper size is extremely important because no matter how well a garme
nt is made, unless it fits properly, it will be useless from a customers point of
view. Control of garment dimensions will not guarantee that the garments will f
it right, look right, and feel right. Fit is dependent on pattern shape, proport
ion, and dimension as well as proper grain. Poor cutting and inaccurate sewing c
an result in poor or not fit at all. Checking garment for size, appearance, fit
drape, and so on by putting them on appropriate mannequins is called form fitting
, whereas the checking those items by having someone try them on is called live mo
deling. Form fitting and live modeling will contribute significantly toward assur
ing that the garments in question fit right, look right, and feel right for thei
r intended sizes.
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18.0. How much to Inspect?

The purpose of inspection is to make a sound judgment on the disposition of a ma
terial or product, whether to accept it or reject it. What is done with a reject
ed lot may be a matter of negotiation between a buyer and a seller, it may be pa
ssed on by a review board or committee or it may be inspected 100% (100% inspect
ion of a rejected lot is also called screening), but the immediate decision is tha
t the lot is not acceptable. However, before an accept / reject or pass /fail de
cision can be made, a fundamental question must be answered: How much should be
inspected? The entire shipment or lot? Only a part of it? If so, how big or smal
l a part? How many pieces out of a shipment? The following alternatives will hel
p answer this fundamental question. 18.1. No Inspection If no inspection is done
, little or nothing is known about a material. In case the material is defective
, no one knows until the material is in critical demand. This situation increase
s cost. If the defective material is detected before it is put in process, the n
eedless waste of the labour, machine time, and rework and so on can be avoided.
No inspection also means that next to nothing may be known about the product and
no one will be aware of any defects until that product is in the hands of the c
ustomer. Then the customer may return it for a refund or may decide never to buy
that product again. Either way, cost is increased and loss of goodwill created,
and in long run, goodwill is invaluable. Loss of goodwill will result in the lo
ss of repeat business. If the defective product was detected before it reaches t
he customer, such a loss could have been avoided. Needless to say, this alternat
ive is not acceptable. 18.2.100 % Inspection This is other extreme of no inspect
ion. 100% inspection is the inspection of every unit of a product. The accept /
reject decision is not made for entire lot of the shipment, but for each unit in
dividually, based on the results of inspecting a unit for the quality characteri
stic concerned. The obvious advantage of 100% inspection is that it gives the be
tter idea of the product quality than any other inspection alternative. However,
generally 100% inspection does not guarantee detection of all defects, especial
ly when the inspection is done by human inspectors; 100% inspection is usually n
ot 100% effective. The direct cost of 100% inspection will generally be higher t
han that of any other inspection alternative. Therefore, this is also not an acc
eptable alternative. 18.3. Spot Checking This represents an attempt at a comprom
ise between no inspection at all and 100% inspection and consists of inspecting
random shipments. This procedure, of course,
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stops some defective material from entering production or some defective product
s from reaching customers, but it is only partially effective since many shipmen
ts are accepted without inspection. Therefore, this is also not a practical alte
rnative. 18.4. Arbitrary Sampling Under this alternative, a certain percent of a
shipment is inspected and an accept / reject or pass / fail decision regarding
that shipment is made, based on the inspection results of that certain percent o
f the shipment. The most popular and widely used plan under this alternative is
called 10% sampling. This means that regardless of the size of a shipment, 10% o
f the shipment is inspected and the results are used as the basis for a decision
regarding the entire shipment. Although this alternative is better than the pre
vious three alternatives, it still has some drawbacks. For some shipments or lot
s, 10% is too small a sample to be representative, whereas for other shipments o
r lots, it may be too large. Also, as with any sampling, certain risks (chances)
or making a wrong decision exist. Too often, the users of arbitrary sampling ha
ve little idea of the risk inherent in their procedure, but at least, they will
have some idea about product or material quality. However, there is a better way
to gather such information, and that is statistical sampling. 18.5. Statistical
Sampling Statistical sampling is known as acceptance sampling. The inspection a
lternative also provides a comparison between 100% inspection and no inspection
at all. Still it has certain disadvantages. Large shipments or lots are not over
inspected; Small shipments or lots are not under inspected; Most important, the
risks of making wrong decision (such as accepting a defective lot or rejecting
a good lot) are known controllable. This is usually the most economical means fo
r determining product quality. Statistical sampling has the advantage of flexibi
lity with regard to the amount of inspection to be performed at any given point
of time, depending on the importance of the product and apparent product quality
Statistical sampling, which is also sometimes referred to simply as random samp
ling or random sampling inspection, means taking a sample of units from a lot or
shipment of product, inspecting the samples for defects, and making a decision
as to whether the lot is acceptable or not based on the quality of the sample. S
tatistical sampling is equally applicable to incoming inspections of shipments o
f raw materials or partially finished products, products at various stages of ma
nufacture, and finished products as well as outgoing shipments. Let us look at t
he some terms and definitions used in conjunction with statistical sampling. The
definitions of these terms are taken from the Sampling Procedures and
99

Tables for Inspection by Attributes, ANSI / ASQC Z1.4. The international designa
tion for this standard is ISO 2859. Sample: A sample consists of one or more uni
ts of a product drawn from a lot or batch, the units of the sample being selecte
d at random without regard to their quality. The number of units of a product in
the sample is the sample size. Lot or Batch: The term lot or batch shall mean in
spection lot or inspection batch, that is, a collection of units of a product from
which a sample is to be drawn and inspected to determine conformance with the ac
ceptability criteria, and may differ from a collection of units designated as lo
t or batch for other purposes (e.g. production, shipment, etc.). Lot or Batch Si
ze: The lot or batch size is the number of units of a product in a lot or batch.
Percent Defective: Percent Defective =
number of defective units X 100 Number of units inspected .
Process Average: The process average is the average per cent defective of a prod
uct submitted by the supplier for original inspection. Original inspection is th
e first inspection of a particular quantity of a product, as distinguished from
the inspection of a product that has been resubmitted after prior rejection. 18.
6. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) AQL is one of the most frequently used terms w
hen it comes to quality in the apparel export industry. Everyone in the industry
uses this term quite liberally, assuming that they know what AQL signifies. But
when a few years ago, an American apparel importer requested me to provide inpu
ts to him and his sourcing office in India on what AQL actually was? What was th
e logic behind it and how to use it effectively? I realized that AQL in its true
sense remains little understood among the large number of executives working in
the apparel industry. As most of the acceptance decisions of the apparel shipme
nts for the export market are made on the basis of AQL based sampling plans, it
is important that all concerned in the industry at least have a basic idea about
what is AQL. In this article we shall look at fundamental concept of AQL, its o
rigin and how to prepare an organization to meet the prescribed AQL level. All o
f us know that inspection is the tool that is used for assessing the conformance
of the merchandise to the agreed specifications or the requirements. Though ins
pection is important and it gives us an idea about the acceptance level of a pro
duct, it may not be possible to carry out 100% inspection of all the units in a
particular shipment or a lot. This is mainly due to following reasons: It is cos
tly.
100

100% inspection is seldom 100% accurate and dependable. It may be impractical an

d not desirable as it leads to excessive handling of goods which results in good
s losing their freshness. Having known that 100% inspection may not be the best
thing to do, the next question is if not 100%,how much to inspect? There are two
options available. The first option is to decide a fixed proportion of the lots
that will be inspected to arrive at the acceptance decision of the whole lot or
the second option is to use Acceptance Sampling procedure to arrive at a sampli
ng plan for given AQL and make an acceptance decision. The first option is arbit
rary and it does not have any scientific basis, which can tell us about the reli
ability of this technique. Since the acceptance decisions are important commerci
al decisions, it is important to have a reliable and scientific method of arrivi
ng at such decision and one should be aware of the extent of risk involved in su
ch decisions. Acceptance sampling is a scientific technique and it also tells us
the probability of making a wrong judgment while using it. 18.6.1. What is AQL?
As Pradip V. Mehta describes, "The AQL is the maximum per cent defective that f
or the purpose of sampling inspection can be considered satisfactory as a proces
s average." In layman s language this means, when a buyer specifies a particular
AQL for sampling inspection, it is an indication that as long as the percentage
of defective garments in the shipments (lots) supplied by a manufacturer is low
er than the AQL, most of the shipments will be accepted. Process Average means t
he average percentage of defective products (percent defective) in the lots subm
itted for the first inspections. Assume a true percent defective level of six lo
ts of garments is 2.3, 2.7, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8 and 2.2 respectively the process avera
ge will become 2.5% defective. 18.6.2. Brief History of AQL and Acceptance sampl
ing Acceptance sampling is an important field of statistical quality control tha
t was popularized by Dodge and Roming and originally applied by the U.S. militar
y for the testing of bullets during World War II. If every bullet was tested in
advance, no bullets would be left to ship. If, on the other hand, none were test
ed, malfunctions might occur in the field of battle, with potentially disastrous
results. Acceptance sampling plans help in distinguishing between the acceptabl
e and the unacceptable lots. The basic assumption here is if the proportionate s
ample is randomly drawn from a lot, the sample would represent the quality level
of the lot and based on this the acceptance decision can be made. Acceptance Sa
mpling is the middle of the road approach between 100% inspection and no inspect
ion. Based on the extensive work by the American military during and past World
War II, US Government issued the standard for sampling procedure and tables for
inspection called MIL-STD-105D in 1963. This was further modified in 1989 as MIL
-STD 105 E and re-designated as ANSI/ ASQC Z 1.4 in Feb 1995. For all the
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practical purposes MIL STD 105D and ANSI/ASQC Z 1.4 are almost similar. For the
purpose of acceptance sampling inspection in the garment industry, most buyers r
efer to the tables from either of these standards. Though garment industry gener
ally uses normal level on inspection, the standards also provide from reduced an
d tightened inspections based on the past performance of the supplier. Table: Ac
ceptable Quality Level
18.6.3. How do the Acceptance Sampling Plans Work? The apparel industry mainly u
ses single sampling plans for the acceptance decisions. However, a few buyers al
so use double sampling procedure. In single sample based on AQL table you random
ly draw a sample consisting of specified number of garments from a lot. The samp
le plan also provides the number maximum allowed defective pieces. If the defect
ive pieces are less than allowed number the lot is accepted and if the number of
defective pieces is greater than allowed the lot is rejected. One may say that
as the acceptance sampling is scientific, ideally speaking, it must lead to 100%
reliable results. In other words, it must always lead to acceptance of lots con
taining lower defective level than AQL and must reject all the lots that contain
more defective products than AQL. But this is not possible, as the acceptance d
ecision is made only on the basis of small sample drawn from the lot and it carr
ies a risk of making a wrong judgment. The acceptance decisions based on AQL bas
ed inspections contain two kinds of risks as detailed below:
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1. Producer s risk: The chance of rejecting a good lot that contains equal or le
ss percent defective than AQL. 2. The Customer s risk: The chance of accepting a
bad lot that contains more defective than the largest proportion of defects tha
t a consumer is willing to accept a very small percentage of the time. It is als
o known as Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD) or represented as RQL (Rejecti
ng Quality level). 18.6.4. How to ensure success at AQL based inspections? The a
nswer to this question is very simple but difficult to achieve. Ensure that your
average percent defective level is below the AQL prescribed by your buyer. What
does this mean? It means the true percent defective level of the lots submitted
for AQL based inspection must be less than the AQL. For this purpose an organiz
ation has to measure its current average percent defective level (process averag
e). This can be achieved by conducting sampling inspections of the lots before t
he inspection by the customer. In such case, all the pieces in a sample drawn fr
om the lot are inspected to arrive at percent defective level of respective lots
. If an organization does this for about 300 consecutive lots and calculates the
average of the per cent defective of all lots inspected, it would give a good i
dea of the process average . Assuming your process average is lower than the AQ
L level, and then there can a very minimal chance (generally less than 5-10%) of
your shipment getting rejected. If your process average is greater than AQL lev
el, you need to work towards, if not eliminating, reducing the generation of def
ect level at source so that the process average becomes lower than the AQL level
. In case process coverage remains higher than the AQL level the chances of your
shipments failing to pass AQL based inspection are higher depending on the proc
ess average. 18.6.5. What AQL is not? Having known what is AQL? How does it work
? How to succeed in AQL based inspections? It is equally important to now, as in
dicated below, what AQL is not: 1. A permit to ship defective goods to the tune
of agreed AQL level: AQL 4.0 does not mean that supplier has a right to send up
to 4% defective merchandise to customer /buyer. 2. A guarantee that all shipment
s passed as per AQL plan will definitely contain lower percent defective than th
e specified AQL. There is also no guarantee that lots with higher percentage def
ective will not pass on AQL based inspection. 3. An indicator of the quality lev
el achieved by a manufacturer. Let us assume that the average rate of defective
garments in a manufacturer s shipment is 6%, but the AQL used by buyer for final
inspection is 2.5. It is possible that the manufacturer may resort to 100% insp
ection of the merchandise to weed out the defective garments so that the shipmen
t can pass the final inspection by the buyer at AQL 2.5.
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18.7. Sampling Plan Production System: The above sampling plans are suitable for
the bundle system or group system of production. These are not suitable for con
tinuous production system or unit production system. The statistical sampling pl
an applicable for continuous production called continuous sampling. 18.7.1. Cont
inuous Sampling Plan CSP 1 In the beginning all the pieces until X pieces found ac
ceptable are to be inspected. Then the inspection has to be restricted to a frac
tion of the pieces produced. This can be done by inspecting n pieces in succession
. All the defective pieces should be either repaired or replaced with good piece
s. 18.8. Average Outgoing Quality Level (AOQL) It means the maximum possible val
ue of average percent defective in the outgoing product or shipments. E.g. AOQL
of 3% means that in long run the average percent defective of outgoing product w
ill not be more than 3.0% defective. To select C.S.P-1 Plan, one must decide lev
el of AOQL and fraction to be inspected, that is, 1 out of 20 pieces (5%), 1 out
of 5 pieces (20%), 1 out of 10 pieces (10%), etc. or the number of successive p
ieces you want to find acceptable before discontinuing the inspection of all pie
ces, that is, 100% inspection
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19.0. Procedures practiced for quality control and assurance (Finishing)

The basic objective of finishing must be quality and appearance. Appearance is t
he basis of most consumers judgment on whether or not to purchase a garment. The
quality of pressing operation can be measured by evaluating the following: 1. Bu
rned or scorched garments 2. Water spots / stains 3. Gloss and/or change in colo
r (original shade) 4. Flattened nap or surface 5. Broken zippers, buttons, etc.
6. Creases not correctly formed 7. Fabric of finished garment not smooth, wrinkl
e- free, and showing its proper appearance 8. Edges wavy and stretched or thick
and cockling 9. Garments not thoroughly dried. 10. Pockets not smooth 11. Lining
showing pleats, creases, wrinkles, shine 12. Garments not correctly molded, eit
her in detail or total silhouette 13. Shrinkage due to heat and moisture Also it
is very important to continuously monitor the temperature (surface temperature
of the press), the pressure under which the garments are pressed and the time of
the length for which those garments are pressed and the time of length for whic
h those garments are pressed. 19.1. Quality / workmanship standards in general A
. Open seams No open or raw seams allowed except on hems where up to 5/8 allowed.
B. Skipped Stitches No skips allowed on chain stitch or raveling stitch unless
skip will be covered by a subsequent operation. Two or fewer skips allowed on lo
ck stitch provided skips are non-consecutive. More than two skips are allowed on
lock stitch provided seam will be covered by a subsequent operation. Skips on d
ecorative top-stitching allowed on non- reveling seams if not obvious on face of
garment. C. Cracked stitches All seams must withstand stress reasonably expecte
d in wearing without breaking stitches. D. Stitches / Inch All operations must m
eet SPI (Stitched per inch) requirement designated in the product specification
and/or standard speed and stitch chart. E. Uneven seams Leg, sleeve cuff, or oth
er seams designed to meet evenly must be no more than from meeting evenly. Interm
ediate operations may have
105

larger tolerances provided measurement, appearance, or operations are not affect

ed by failing to meet evenly + tolerance.
subsequent
F. Crooked, puckered, curled, pleated seams Finished garment appearance or servi
ceability must not be adversely affected. G. Needle and Feed cuts No feed cuts a
llowed unless cut will be cut off or completely covered by a subsequent operatio
n. One needle cut allowed provided no hole or run develops when subject to norma
l wearing stress. Two or more allowed if meets run or hole criteria and only nee
dle cut appears in finished seam. (Exception: Holes confirmed by gripper or embr
oidery). H. Unclipped Threads and Long ends On intermediate operations (i.e. tho
se operations which will be seamed over or covered by a subsequent operation) th
reads will be specified on In-process quality specifications for that operations
a. Automatic operations such as buttonhole or bar tack, 3/8 allowed unless thread
contrasts with garment and creates poor appearance. b. Finished seams 3/8 allowa
ble if texturized polyester thread is used. c. Otherwise none allowed outside if
contrasting and visible to the consumer. Allowed on outside if matching thread
is used and tail is less than d. Exception: Foot or hand area of footed or handicuff garments may not have a thread tail exposed on finished seams in excess of
3/8. Strictly Enforced. I. Raw Edge, Untrimmed No raw edge allowed on outside fi
nished seams. No raw egde inside wider than . J. Turn Ends Defect on finished seam
if appearance or secureness is affected. K. Labels Defect if crocked, missing,
incorrect, insecurely attached, or seriously puckered. Stitching not to cover lo
go in any manner. L. Snaps, Fasteners Missing, loose or misaligned. Stud must ma
tch socket within . Greater tolerance allowed only if appearance is not seriously
affected. M. Broken Needle Any broken needle left in the garment. N. Hems Defect
ive if excessively curled puckered, pleated, or excessive bite. O. Smocking Ends
not caught securely such that subsequent operations will fail to secure. Incorr
ect design. One skip on securing stitch or obvious skips on decorative thread af
fecting appearance. P. Trim Missing or obviously pieced, shaded or defective so
as to affect appearance of finished garment.
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19.2. Glossary of finishing department defects Defect Description Trimming defec

ts Thread not Trimmed or Self-explanatory. Threads not Trimmed to Specified Leng
th Cuts or Nicks Caused by indifferent handling of scissors. snips or mechanical
trimmers Seam Tears Frequently caused by the turning equipment used to reverse
garments in finishing Soil Caused by oil, grease or dirt. Often times originatin
g from a dirty work area or machinery not properly cleaned. Streaks Marking caus
ed by some types of turn boards or defectively finished trimmings Pressing Defec
ts Pressing Omitted. Burned or Self-explanatory. Scorched Garments Inadequate Pr
essing Excessive heat or pressure resulting in poor pleating, fullness or twisti
ng of a seam or garment surface Garments not Thoroughly Resulting in excessive w
rinkling of garment. Dried: Improper Pressing Over Often produces a tear or unsi
ghtly impression on the Zippers or Other Closures face of the garment Pockets or
Linings not Causing wrinkles or ridges to appear on the surface Pressed Correct
ly of the garment Pressing Producing a Shine Usually caused by excessive heat or
incorrect type of in Fabric pressing surface Folding Defects Garment not Folded
to Self-explanatory. specifications Garment not Folded with Cardboard, tissue o
r other specified packaging Proper materials materials omitted Pins or Folds in
Garment Pins in wrong location or folds not correctly aligned Incorrect for pack
age Garments not Buttoned. Flys Self-explanatory. not Closed. Incorrect number o
f Pins: Label not Showing Garment not positioned in package to show label on top
surface
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20.0. Different Stages of Samples and their requirements

There may be a separate sampling department in a company. But the merchandiser i
s the person who is interacting with the buyers regarding samples and other requ
irements, this sampling department will work under the supervision of merchandis
ing department. Also as the samples are to be made according to the buyers price
ranges and quality levels, merchandiser has to advise sampling department suitab
ly. There are different types of samples used in the apparel industry. They are
Salesmen samples or promotional samples Proto samples or fit samples Counter sam
ples or reference samples or approval samples Wash test samples Photo samples Fa
shion show samples Pre-production samples Production samples Shipment samples 20
.1. Development samples or enquiry samples When we work with some buyers continu
ously, we will have to keep on sending samples to them very often. Whenever they
have enquiries, buyer may need samples. Buyers may like to see the garments in
a new fabric. For one enquiry, they may need samples in different fabrics to cho
ose from. If they want to develop new style in new fabric, then also we will hav
e to send these samples. We may have to spend too much on these samples. But the
se samples are inevitably important to develop business. Some times, even the bu
yer is not so confident of some enquiries, if our samples are good and attractiv
e at reasonable prices, they will bring orders to us. Also we will have to send
samples to the newly contacted buyers to show our workmanship, product range, qu
ality standards and price level. These samples should be sent so that they would
attract the buyers. So it is better for a company to have a separate sampling d
epartment so that they can create new styles in new fabrics to impress the buyer
s. 20.2. Salesmen samples or promotional samples Some buyer needs these samples
for getting the orders from their customers. If the buyer is having 7 salesmen i
n his office, then the buyer will ask us to make 7 samples in each style. The sa
lesmen will book the orders from their customers, by showing these samples. Buye
r will place the order to us accumulating the quantities.
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If we have sent samples for 5 styles, some times, we may get orders for all 5 st
yles, 3 styles or 1 style. Some times, we may not get order for even a single st
yle. Expected sales may not be possible, due to poor quality, unsuitable colours
, improper measurements, unmatched prints or embroidery, etc. of salesmen sample
s. Or it may be due to local business recession or competition or unsuitable pri
ces. Any way, we have to make these salesmen samples perfectly with sincere inte
rest to get orders. We might have spent more money, time, etc. for making these
samples. But as we dont get orders, we can not blame the buyer. He too can not he
lp us in this regard. To avoid this embarrassing situation, it is better to disc
uss about the cost of these samples with the buyer before proceeding for samplin
g. Normally the sampling will cost us approximately 3 to 5 times of the garment
price. We can not expect to get the full cost from the buyer. Of course these sa
mples will help us for our business. Hence we can ask the buyer to accept 2 or 3
times of garment price as the sampling cost, for the styles which we dont get or
ders. Some genuine buyers will agree for this. 20.3. Photo samples or fit sample
s These samples are to be made after getting the order sheets. These samples are
needed to check the measurements, style and fit. So they can be made in availab
le similar fabrics but in the actual measurements and specifications. Some buyer
s may need these samples if they want to print the photos of garments on photo i
nlays, packing box, hang tag, etc. These samples may be needed for local adverti
sement or buyers promotional occasions. In any case, the samples will be worn by
the highly paid models. The buyers will arrange the photo shoot session, by spen
ding huge money to the advertising agencies. So the buyers will need these sampl
es strictly on time. If they dont get samples on time, the buyers will have to pa
y more compensation to the advertising agencies and models. Buyers will ask us t
o make the photo samples according to the intended models body fit. So it is impo
rtant to strictly adhere to these measurements. Buyer may ask these samples to s
end either from production or before starting production.
20.4. Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples These samples are
to be made in actual fabrics with actual trims. If the order is for 3 colours,
buyer may need samples in any one colour and swatches (fabric bits) in other col
ours. These samples should be strictly as per the specifications in the order sh
eets. We have to get the approval for these samples from the buyer before starti
ng production.
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After getting the approval, the approved samples should be followed in productio
n. Some times, buyer may comment on fabric, measurements, making, etc. We have t
o follow his comments carefully in production. Some buyer will mention that the
order sheets subject to the approval of counter samples. So these samples are ve
ry important.
20.5. Wash test samples If these samples are sent before starting production and
if we get some remarks or comments on these samples, we can correct them in pro
duction. But some buyers will need us to send these samples from production befo
re shipment. In this case, these samples may be considered as shipment samples. If
these samples are rejected due to some complaints, then we will not have any ex
cuse and we will be in real trouble.
20.6. Pre-production samples These samples are almost like approval samples. The
y have to be made in actual production fabric with actual bulk trims. They will
represent that the production will be like these samples.
20.7. Production samples These samples are to be sent before shipment to get the
buyers confirmation for shipment. Hence these samples are needed to be perfect i
n all manners. Buyer may check these samples for everything or anything. Some ti
mes, they may do wash test also. We should not get any remark or comment. We hav
e to get only OK from the buyer. Then only we can ship the goods and we can be sur
e of getting payment. So these samples are to be sent with more and more care.
20.8. Shipment samples These samples are to be sent after shipment. They should
be sent in actual packing with all labels, tags, etc. (Generally these samples w
ill not be tested by buyer for anything. And even if we get some comments from b
uyers, we can save ourselves by saying that these samples were sent from the lef
t over garments after the shipment; hence there might be some mistakes. If we ex
pect any comments in these samples, it is better to inform the buyer during send
ing these samples).
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21.0. Product Zones Zoning defects and Appearance

In product zoning, the company recognizes that some parts of a product are more
crucial in terms of appearance than the other parts. Those parts or zones that a
re more visible are of greater importance than the other parts that are less vis
ible. A definition of each zone or priority area should be included in specifica
tions because terminology and designators for zones are not standard within indu
stry. For example, one company might use numbers, such as 1, 2 & 3 or Roman nume
rals, such as I, II & III to describe the product zones and another company migh
t use letters such as A, B & C for their Zones. Zone 1for one company might be t
he part with the greater demands for appearance, while another company might use
Zone C to describe similar requirements. Typically, zones of highest priority a
re those areas most likely to be viewed during face- to-face conversation with s
omeone or those areas most likely to be seen when using the product. Thus, the a
reas of the garment closest to face are of greater importance for apparel. For u
pholstery furniture, these areas would include backs, armrests and cushions. Are
as not as likely to be seen, but remain visible, are assigned to the next zone i
n terms of priority. Areas that are rarely seen by others, such as under the arm
s, the crotch, and inside for apparel and areas under the seat cushions and bott
om of the upholstered furniture, are assigned lower zone priorities. In addition
to defining the zones, many companies also identify types of defects that would
be unacceptable in each area. For example in mens dress shirts, a company may st
ate that no fabric, construction, or appearance defects are allowed in Zone 1 (t
he neckline, cuffs, and center front placket area). The company may further stat
e that in Zone 1, an absence of thread ends, a button and buttonhole match withi
n + 0.16 cm (+ 1/16 inch), and collar points within + 0.16 cm (+ 1/16 inch), of
specified length are required. If a shirt does not meet all requirements for thi
s zone, the shirt has to meet specifications and is not acceptable. 21.1. Produc
t Zones Explanation of Zones When a construction flaw or defect occurs in a prod
uct, acceptance or rejection of the defective product is prioritized by the area
, or zone, in which it occurs. Product zones that are more visible to the custom
ers are more crucial in maintaining higher levels of quality. Each product has s
pecific zones that are more important than others, and guidelines are defined ac
cordingly. Zone 1 Areas with extremely high visibility that is likely to be view
ed from a close distance at the time of purchase or receipt. Cosmetic flaws loca
ted in these zones would be considered major and would be cause for the rejectio
n of the product.
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Zone 2 Areas that are not visibly dominant, but are visible in normal use. Cosme
tic flaws would be evaluated based upon the size of the defect, color, and inten
ded end use of the product to determine acceptability. Zone 3 Areas normally hid
den in everyday use, but could be visible on occasion. Cosmetic flaws in this zo
ne are more acceptable than in any other location on the garment. Flaws occurrin
g in this zone would be evaluated product by product based upon the intended use
of the garment.
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22.0. Packaging
Packaging is the manner in which a product is prepared for transportation, shipp
ed, and presented to the customer or the ultimate consumer. Packaging standards
describe general aspects of how the product is packaged, whereas the packaging s
pecs describes the materials that should be used and the manner in which the gar
ment should be folded, blocked, supported, or manipulated when packaged. In addi
tion, packaging indicates how many products will be shipped together in the same
box or container and the kind of labeling or product information that is to be
attached to the outside of the individual product packages and on boxes, cartons
, or other containers. Companies that ship from a distribution centre have very
specific requirements for packaging because of their automation systems and the
number of items that are processed on a daily basis. Bar-coding is essential in
such circumstances. Suppliers who do not meet packaging specs may find orders re
fused, even though each individual product meets or exceeds the minimum product
specs. 22.1. Apparel Packing Merchandise - Each Master Shipping Carton must cont
ain only one SKU (Stock Keeping Unit). The buyer will not accept any Master Ship
ping Carton that contains multiple SKUs. - Merchandise must be bulk placed witho
ut multiple units boxing or bagging inside of the master shipping carton. - The
merchandise inside the Master Shipping Carton must not be tied together in bundl
es with string, bands, ribbons, etc. - Do not ship merchandise on hangers or in
hanger packs. - The minimum case quantity is 4 selling units per master shipping
carton - The buyer encourages its vendors to send full cartons. If you are unab
le to fill a standard master shipping carton with one SKU, you may choose one of
the two options. (1). Reduced Carton Size (Preferred) If a shipment is small an
d a full case of one size and style is not possible, you can reduce the standard
carton by no more than 6 inches, thus making the carton dimension 22 in. X 10 i
n. X 6 in. (minimum carton dimension). (2). Quantity Adjustment Discuss order qu
antity adjustments with inventory control. For example, if you have a request fo
r 20 units and the carton will hold 26 units, you may request increasing the qua
ntity by 6 more units to make a full carton. Another example would be a request
for 35 units, and the carton holds only 26. You may request a decrease in the qu
antity by 9, and include them in a subsequent order.
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22.2. Diagram for Packaging a shirt Lay item front down, flat and smooth with th
e sleeves extended.
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Sleeves must be folded flat and smooth with cuffs placed even with the shoulders
at top of the package.
Shirt must be folded neatly, bulkiness smoothed out by hand. Clips can be used t
o secure shirt in position, however pins of any sort are unacceptable
The tail of the shirt must be tightened around the folding template, extend slig
htly beyond the top of the shoulders and taper in on each side. The shirt tail i
s then tucked in between the sleeve fold and the sleeve cuffs
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Place folded item in an appropriately sized polybag. Seal and label with stock n
umber and country of origin
116