Research J. Science and Tech.

8(2): April-June, 2016

ISSN

0975-4393 (Print)
2349-2988 (Online)

www.anvpublication.org

REVIEW ARTICLE

Impotentia Coeundi and Impotentia Generandi: A Male Infertility

Sanjay C. Parmar
Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat 388 001, India
*Corresponding Author E-mail: dr.sanjayparmar@yahoo.in

ABSTRACT:
The fertility of a male is related to several phenomenon includes sperm production, viability and fertilizing capacity
of the ejaculated sperm, sexual desire and the ability to copulate. Reproductive problems causing absolute or relative
infertility in male animals mainly includes reduced to complete lack of sexual desire or libido, failure of normal
service and failure of conception after normal service. The sterile males are readily identified, but the males with
reduced fertility poses serious problems and causes economic losses to breeders and AI industry.

KEY WORDS: Male infertility, Impotentia coeundi, Impotentia generandi

INTRODUCTION:
Reduced infertility in male may be due to hereditary or
may originate from psychic disturbances, hormonal
imbalances, nutritional deficiencies or environmental
factors. Even though semen characteristics may be
satisfactory, fertility may be adversely affected as a
result of poor libido. Nutritional deficiencies denotes
delay onset of puberty and depress production and
characteristics of semen. Ration deficient in vitamin A,
proteins and minerals may reduce sex drive. Young
bulls are mostly affected by protein deficiency. Dietary
vitamin A deficiency leads to testicular degeneration in
all farm male animals. Iodine deficiency also leads to
poor libido. Plant estrogens exert adverse effect on
male accessory organs. Overfeeding and obesity reduce
libido and sexual activity in male animals. A
management and psychic factors also affects the libido
like young males may be slow at service due to
inexperience while lack of exercise and proper training
also leads to poor sex drive.

Received on 12.05.2016
Modified on 21.05.2016
Accepted on 05.06.2016 A&V Publications All right reserved
Research J. Science and Tech. 2016; 8(2):113-121
DOI: 10.5958/2349-2988.2016.00015.2

Psychic factors play an important role in altering the

sex drive of males of low genetic makeup. Injuries
during semen collection are usually remembered by the
bulls and may inhibit the sex drive and abusive
handling of bull during semen collection. Size and
colour of dummy also affect the libido of male animals.
A chronic and acute debilitating disease like
tuberculosis, johns disease, pneumonia, severe mange,
actinomycosis etc seriously affects the libido. Climatic
factors like high temperature especially during summer
reduces libido. Hormones like thyroxine, testosterone
and gonadotrophins deficiency reduced sexual desire.
Impotentia Coeundi:
Bull may have normal or slightly decreased libido but is
unable to copulate. Inability to copulate may be due to
following conditions like joint, muscle, nerve, bone and
tendon injuries.
Gonitis:
Gonitis is common in bulls, characterized by a short,
stiff gait and distention and enlargement of the capsule
of the stiffle joint. Rupture of anterior cruciate ligament
of stiffle occurs commonly in smaller breeds of dogs.

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Coxitis:
Coxitis is common in dogs and boars, characterized by
a short stride and adduction of the limb. Rupture of
round ligament may be observed in bulls with
degenerative coxitis. Other conditions like overgrown
claws or hooves, suppurative pododermitis, interdigital
granuloma tendonitis, suppurative arthritis of coffin
joint, myositis or rupturing of muscles like
gastrocnemius or large gluteal and also hip dislocation
are responsible for the reduce libido. In spastic
syndrome, crampiness or stretches in bulls, severe acute
attacks may interfere with or prevent copulation due to
prolonged spasms of the skeletal muscles of the rear
limbs and back. It is observed most commonly in HF
and Guernsey breeds.
Affections of penis and prepuce:
Short penis:
This is a heritable and can cause infertility because of
the difficulty in the copulation.
Short retractor penis:
The short retractor penis prevents penile extension.
Diagnosis is by feeling a tight band at erection where
the retractor penis muscle is situated. A short unilateral
retractor penis results in a bulge unilaterally by the
scrotum on erection.
Balanoposthitis:
Balanitis is an inflammation of glans penis and posthitis
is an inflammation of prepuce. When inflammation of
penis and prepuce are involved together, it is called
balanoposthitis. Balanoposthitis is a relatively common
condition of the male sheep, in which it is colloquially
known as pizzle-rot. The condition may be due to
infectious or non-infectious causes. Infections of the
penis and prepuce are common in the dog, bull and ram,
occasional in the stallion, and rare in the boar and cat.
Severe balanoposthitis can cause pain, unwillingness to
mate, preputial stenosis, adhesions between penis and
prepuce, and peripenile adhesions. Occasionally, a
canine herpesvirus causes a more severe balanoposthitis
which is characterised by ulceration of the penis and
unwillingness to copulate1. Bulls are also susceptible to
granulomatous formation on the penis, which is a nontransmissible and usually asymptomatic condition2.
Tuberculous balanoposthitis has been described in areas
where the disease is epizootic3. The most serious cause
of balanoposthitis in the stallion is the notifiable disease
of dourine4,5. Prognosis is depending upon severity of
trauma or infection. Prognosis is good in mild cases and
guarded in chronic cases with severe adhesions in
between penis and prepuce. In mild cases, douching the
prepuce can be done with antiseptics (1:2000 acriflavin
or potassium permanganate solution, 1% H2O2 solution)

or antibiotics. Application of oily preparation of

antiseptics and antibiotics are also helpful. Systemic
antibiotics given in severe cases and sexual rest require
during treatment.
Phimosis:
Phimosis or stenosis of the prepucial orifice leads to
prevention of normal protrusion of penis and thus male
is unable to perform coitus. The main causes are
congenital (especially in dog, cat and horse) and
acquired due to injuries, wounds and infections. In
dogs, particularly in the German shepherd and Golden
retriever breeds are suspected. Prognosis is guarded and
depends upon extent of trauma, necrosis and
promptness to handling of case. Phimosis of congenital
origin may be corrected by surgical operation. Severely
congenitally affected puppies may be unable to urinate
adequately, with the consequential balanoposthitis
leading to septicaemia and death6. In stallions, prolapse
of the penis is the sequel to many conditions. For
example, it generally occurs transiently after the
administration of phenothiazide tranquillisers7,8.
Paraphimosis:
Inability of penis to retracted back into prepuce after
protrusion resulting into swelling, oedema and
balanoposthitis. Inability to withdraw the penis into the
prepuce results from congenital or acquired structures
of the prepuce, paralysis of the penis due to spinal
diseases. The condition is most common in the dog and
stallion. Paraphimosis following copulation or
spontaneous erection is relatively common in the dog.
It may also occur when the preputial opening becomes
constricted by a band of hair, thereby preventing return
of the penis to the prepuce. Prognosis is guarded and
depends upon degree of trauma, degree of necrosis and
promptness of treatment. Removal of necrotic tissue
and over it uses of broad spectrum antibiotic ointments.
Cold pack may help reduce swelling. Sometime,
surgically enlarge the prepucial opening in order to
replace the penis. Penis should be wrapped with gauze
and penis with its gauze dressing should be replaced
inside sheath. Support of prolapsed penis and sheath
using tight suspensory bandage would help minimize
the oedema. In severe case, amputation of penis is
recommended.
Priapism:
Persistent erection in absence of sexual stimulation
occurs most often in dogs. Consequences are generally
similar to those of paraphimosis and as irreversible
damage to the penis may rapidly occur. Penile
amputation is only feasible treatment.

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Phallocampsis or Deviations of the penis:

Ventral or Rainbow deviation:
It is less common. Ventral deviation prevents
intromission and occurs when the dorsal ligament is
thin and stretched to the point that it is incapable of
holding up the distal portion of the penis during
erection.
Lateral deviation:
It may occur due to secondary to trauma of the penis or
prepuce. Scars or adhesions of the elastic tissue pull the
penis to one side or the other.
Spiral or corkscrew type:
The most common deviation observed in bulls between
2 and 5 years of age. Spiral deviation occurs at the
peak of erection. The spiral configuration is caused by
the dorsal apical ligament slipping off to the left hand
side of the penis resulting in a counter clockwise spiral
as viewed from the rear. Up to 50 per cent of normal
bulls have been shown to develop spiral deviation
during copulation. The condition is often noticed in
normal bulls during masturbation, following
intromission and when erection is produced by an
electro ejaculator. Spiral deviation may be due to
deficiency of the dorsal apical ligament of the penis9.
Spiraling of the tip of the penis is a normal part of the
process of ejaculation in the bull, occurring after
intromission, during the ejaculatory thrust10-14. The
onset of the condition may be at any age, although it is
least common in yearlings and most common in
animals in their second or third season of use15. It is not
considered pathologic until its occurrence is observed
on repeated natural breeding trials in which it occurs
prior to entrance into the vulva and thereby prevents
intromission.
S-shaped deviation:
It is relatively rare deviation and usually occurs in older
bulls with an excessively long penis. The apical
ligament is sufficient in strength but insufficient in
length and the S-shape results during erection.
Persistent penile frenulum:
This condition is characterized by a fibrous band
attaching the prepuce to the free portion of the penis
along the median raphe immediately caudal to the
glans. It manifests as a marked ventral deviation of the
bull's penis during attempts at coitus. It is noted chiefly
in Angus and Shorthorn bulls (also reported in Brangus,
Santa Gertrudis, Beef Master and Hereford). The
anomaly is congenital and suspected to be a heritable
condition. Persistence of the penile frenulum is most
frequently encountered in young bulls, in which it
either limits the amount of penis that can be protruded

or causes the protruded penis to be deviated

ventrally16,17. Transecting the frenulum after ligating the
frenular blood vessels (if they are sufficiently
prominent) gives a good prognosis for the recovery of
breeding ability18. Persistence of the penile frenulum
has also been occasionally reported in boars and dogs19.
This condition prevents intromission in Bos taurus
breeds but may not interfere with breeding in Bos
indicus bulls due to the length of the prepuce. The
epithelial surfaces of the penis and prepuce of bulls are
fused at birth. At approximately 4 months, the penis
and prepuce begin to separate under the influence of
male hormones. Separation should be complete by 8 to
11 months of age. The frenulum normally ruptures
during separation of the penis from the prepuce. If such
failure of growth is confined to the sigmoid flexure, it
may be impossible to exteriorise the penis1. Although
treatable by myectomy, this condition like so many
others affecting the bovine penis is probably inherited20.
Ruptured or broken penis:
Ruptured or broken penis with secondary hematoma is
most commonly observed in young bulls. It also occurs
sporadically in boars and rams. The condition has many
names likes rupture of the CCP (Corpus Cavernosum
Penis), ruptured penis, fractured penis or broken penis.
Rupture occurs most commonly either in the region of
the insertion of the retractor penis muscle, or on the
dorsal aspect of the distal sigmoid flexure where the
trabeculae of the CCP are relatively weak. Rupture of
the tunica albuginea occurs spontaneously if pressures
within the CCP rise substantially above the pressures
achieved during normal copulation21,22. The injury
usually occurs at the time of coitus when cow suddenly
goes down or suddenly falls under the weight of bull or
the erected penis is bended due to strike on abnormal
site on cow at the movement of bull thrust. The site of
rupture of penis is generally behind the attachment of
retractor penis muscle.
Hematoma of the penis:
Hematoma of the penis occurs during coitus when the
cow slips or goes down under the weight of the bull or
when the penis is thrust against the escutcheon of the
cow during breeding attempts. Penile hematoma results
from a tear of the tunica albuginea into the CCP. The
tear usually occurs on the dorsum of the penis at the
distal sigmoid flexure opposite the insertion of the
retractor penis muscles; the tunica albuginea is thinner
in this area. The swelling due to hematoma is a result of
blood from the CCP being forced into the peripenile
tissues.

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Adhesions of the penis and prepuce:

Adhesion in the region of sigmoid flexure may be due
to horn injuries in bull and ram. Due to these adhesions
normal penile protrusion is prevented. Vigorous thrust
during semen collection with artificial vagina may
produce injury or even tear the prepuce or injure the
circumference of the penis. Subsequent infections may
produce abscesses and may even produce adhesion.
Surgical treatment of the adhesion leads to more severe
form of adhesion. Treatment with antibiotics both
locally in oily base as well as by parenteral route along
with complete sexual rest is given.
Preputial trauma or Laceration or Prolapse:
Habitual prolapse of the prepuce is common especially
in the breeds like Brahman, Angus and Polled Hereford.
The predisposition to preputial prolapse probably
involves four anatomic features; pendulousness of the
sheath (prepuce below the carpus, low preputial angle),
length of the prepuce, size of the preputial orifice and
presence of retractor prepuce muscles (frequently
absent in polled breeds - 1/3 of all polled bulls lack
these small paired muscles). The sheath and prepuce of
bos indicus bulls are more pendulous averaging 5.5 cm
longer than bos taurus breeds. In cattle, intermittent
protrusion of varying lengths of preputial mucosa is a
normal occurrence, which normally coincides with nonerectile movement of the penis within the sheath23-25. It
is most commonly observed in naturally polled
members of breeds with a pendulous prepuce26-28.
Preputial prolapse and trauma often occurs one of two
ways. First, Bulls which frequently have some prepuce
exposed may develop abrasions and lacerations of the
prepuce from exposure to environmental factors
(including frostbite). This may lead to oedema, further
prolapse, more trauma, abscess and eventually fibrosis
of the preputial tissue. Second, laceration of the prepuce
during breeding may occur which usually leads to
preputial prolapse. Lacerations of this type occur when
there is a bunching of excess preputial tissue
immediately prior to the breeding. Because of the
elastic layers and retraction of the penis there is a
marked tendency for healing to occur in a transverse
manner which shortens the effective length of the
prepuce as it heals. The traumatic injury results in
edema formation and preputial prolapse.
Preputial avulsion:
Preputial avulsion usually occurs during semen
collection with an artificial vagina. If the artificial
vagina is too tight, a transverse or oblique laceration
may occur at the dorsum of the preputial ring or fornix.
These injuries should be sutured immediately using 2-0
vicryl in an interrupted pattern. Allow 60 to 90 days of
sexual rest.

Retropreputial abscess:
Retropreputial abscess is frequent sequelae to preputial
laceration in Bos taurus bulls. The bull retracts the
prepuce into the preputial cavity after injury. Drainage
is impaired causing abscess formation and the abscess
dissects into the elastic layers. Prognosis is guarded;
there is less than 30 per cent chance of return to service.
Conservative approaches include 6 months pasture rest
and re-examination; abscesses will occasionally
effectively heal on their own. More aggressive
treatment is drainage of the abscess into the preputial
cavity followed by antiseptic flushes. If the abscess is
drained through the skin, adhesions almost always
develop which will eventually prevent penile extension.
Actinomyces pyogenes is most frequently isolated from
such abscesses; therefore, penicillin is the antibiotic of
choice. Regardless of the method of treatment, possible
complications include stricture formation and adhesion
formation resulting in a useless breeding animal.
Penile neoplasia:
Fibropapilloma of the penis is common and is caused
by the Bovine papilloma virus. The penile integument,
particularly its terminal 5 cm, is a common site for such
tumors, which may be single or multiple. Tumors can
be found in intact and castrated animals, but rarely
persist beyond 3 years of age. The condition occurs as a
result of homosexual tendencies of young bulls (1 to 3
years) housed together. The virus gains entrance into
the skin through wounds and causes neoplastic growth
of fibroblasts. There is no associated metastasis or local
invasion. The warts may be single or multiple and
usually occur on the glans and free portion of the penis.
Penile papillomata also occur in the dog but, unlike
those of the bull, are generally ulcerative, locally
keratinized and poorly circumscribed29. The tumor
develops in response to the carcinogenic properties of
the smegma that accumulates around the penis of
geldings30. A fetid, bloody preputial discharge may be
present and, on exteriorisation of the penis,
characteristic fleshy, greyish red, nodular masses are
observed31. Clinical effects vary according to the size
and the morphology of the lesions. Hemorrhage and
ulceration are the most common sequelae, the pain
caused by the ulceration sometimes being sufficiently
severe to impair libido. Large tumors can lead to either
paraphimosis or phimosis. The papillomas are removed
by dissecting through the epithelium at the base of the
growth. Penile carcinomata are best treated by radical
amputation of the penis, with an urethrostomy on the
penile stump within the sheath or directly to the
preputial skin32. Administration of an autogenous tissue
vaccine markedly reduces the incidence of
recurrences33. Sexual rest is provided for 2 to 4 weeks
after surgery. Recurrence is common if the bull is in an

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active stage of the disease. Administration of a wart

vaccine (commercial or autogenous) may reduce
recurrence.

Inherited enzymatic disturbances:

That may cause early death of the spermatozoa in the
female genital organs.

Impotentia Generandi:
It is characterized by normal sexual desire and normal
ability to copulate but the fertility is either subnormal or
absent. Impotentia generandi may be of following
types; a) Impotentia generandi associated with
production of apparently normal semen. It may be due
to either infectious diseases or inherited sperm defects,
and b) Impotentia generandi associated with production
of semen, which is abnormal in morphology,
concentration, motility and other qualities.

Atypical basic nuclear proteins:

It may be formed due to defect in sperm cell chromatin
which occurs during spermiogenesis. The semen picture
is revealed as normal. The atypical basic nuclear
proteins possibly interfere with activation of ova and/or
penetration of sperm into ova.

A) Impotentia generandi associated with production

of apparently normal semen:
Infectious diseases:
The sperm ejaculate of bulls infected with brucellosis,
campylobacteriosis, trichomoniasis and IBR-IPV etc.
may be normal in motility, concentration, and
morphology but such samples result in embryonic/fetal
death, abortion and signs of infertility.
Inherited sperm defects:
Diadem defect:
It is eversion of galea capitis and crater shaped
depressions in the nucleus or nucleus pouch formation
defect. The bulls are infertile or nearly sterile through
the semen has normal motility and concentration of
spermatozoa. This defect is sign of the severe
disturbance in spermatogenesis. Feulgen stain and
phase contrast microscopy are helpful in revealing this
defect.
Knobbed spermatozoa:
This is an acrosomal defect and there is accentrically
placed thickening of the acrosome. It is an inherited
autosomal recessive, sex linked defect related to
defective spermiogenesis involving golgi apparatus.
This defect has been noted in bulls, boars and dog. The
semen samples have normal spermatozoa motility and
concentration but are associated with infertility. The
defect can be seen after staining with Eosin-B, Fast
green or with phase contrast microscopy.
Gene or chromosomal defects:
Gene or chromosomal defects may occur at the time of
meiosis resulting in infertility with semen appearing
good to excellent. The decline in fertility is due to
intrachromosomal aberrations. Greater the number of
genes involved in translocation and inversion, greater
are the chances of infertility or sterility.

B) Impotentia generandi associated with production

of apparently abnormal semen:
This type of infertility may be associated with
pathology of testes, epididymis, vas deferens and
accessory sex glands or may be associated with
abnormal semen production due to congenital or
hereditary causes or due to acquired causes.
Affections of testis
Cryptorchidism:
Cryptorchidism occurs when the normal process of
testicular descent is impaired, such that one or both
testes fail to complete their descent into the scrotum.
Spermatogenesis is generally markedly impaired or
absent in testes that are not scrotal, due to high
intratesticular temperature. Cryptorchidism occurs most
commonly in the stallion34, the boar35 and in some
breeds of dog36. Animals that have a single cryptorchid
testis are usually fertile, although the inhibition of
spermatogenesis in retained testes means that the sperm
density is often below expectation for the species.
Where both testes are cryptorchid, the ejaculate is either
aspermic or very severely oligospermic. Testosterone
secretion is unaffected by a cryptorchid position, so the
libido of affected animals is normal.
Testicular hypoplasia:
Testicular hypoplasia is unilateral or bilateral condition
noted at the time of puberty or later. The condition is
commonly noted in bulls, rams, boars and stallions. In
bull, the incidence is up to 23 per cent of the testicular
pathology cases. Testicular hypoplasia is a congenital
and hereditary condition caused by single recessive
autosomal gene with incomplete penetration. The
condition is due to lack of marked reduction in
spermatogonia in the gonad during the fetal life. There
may be failure of germ cells to develop in the yolk sac,
failure of germ cell to migrate to the gonad, failure of
the germ cell to multiply in the gonad, and extensive
degeneration of the germ cells after they reached the
gonads. Left side testicular hypoplasia is more common
(66.70%) compared to right side testicular hypoplasia.
Klinefelters syndrome (karyotype XXY) is a sporadic
cause of testicular hypoplasia in bulls37 and has been

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reported in rams, boars and dogs38-40. Symptoms are

varying greatly depending upon degree of testicular
hypoplasia. Lowered conception rate are associated
with bilateral testicular hypoplasia. Only in bilateral
complete testicular hypoplasia, animal is sterile. The
affected testes are reduced in size and usually firmer.
The affected bulls have small and firm epididymis
indicating reduction in spermatogenesis as well as
gonadal sperm reserves. Semen evaluation of affected
animals resulted in to low concentration of
spermatozoa, low motility, high incidence of proximal
protoplasmic droplets and abnormal spermatozoa. In
bilateral cases, the semen is usually clear and watery
with only few or no spermatozoa. Giant cells and
medusa cells from efferent tubules may be observed in
ejaculate. Histologically the seminiferous tubules are
very much underdeveloped with only the basal layer of
the cells being present. Diagnosis of testicular
hypoplasia should not be done before 2 years of age in
bulls and horses and before 1 year of age in boar, ram,
dog and cat, unless male is well grown. Prognosis in
testicular hypoplasia is poor since the condition is
hereditary. The affected animal should not be used for
breeding purpose. Treatment of testicular hypoplasia is
not successful and the animals should be culled.
Testicular degeneration:
It is estimated that 75 to 80 per cent of testicular
pathology is related to testicular degeneration.
Generalized disease processes bring about bilateral
testicular degeneration and local testicular lesions bring
about unilateral testicular degeneration. Testicular
degeneration is very rapid (may be within hours or
days) but testicular regeneration process is very slow
and it may take several weeks to several months for
recovery. Epithelium of testis is most sensitive to any
adverse influence.
Thermal influence:
Prolonged elevated body temperature as in certain
infectious diseases, prolonged high environmental
temperature, direct heating of scrotum, and increase in
scrotal temperature due to any other cause e.g. irritants,
dermatitis, cryptorchidism. Summer infertility in exotic
bulls and rams is common phenomenon.
Vascular lesions of the testes:
Torsion of testes leads to impaired circulation in testis.
Presence of strongyle larvae in testicular artery of horse
and varicoceles of spermatic vein may cause infarction.
Irradiation:
Spermatocytes are the most sensitive and leyding cells
and sertoli cells are quite resistant to radiation. Increase

in number of abnormal spermatozoa and decrease in

concentration of spermatozoa.
Hormonal causes:
Tumors of anterior pituitary gland or hypothalamus
interfere with production of gonadotrophic hormones.
This is seen most commonly in dog. In dog, this tumor
is also associated with testicular atrophy and
degeneration and with obesity and is referred to as
dystrophia adiposogenatilis. Leyding cell tumors
produce excessive amount of testosterone and estrogen.
Excessive steroids suppress production of FSH.
Age effects:
Generally old age e.g. dogs over 10 years of age, cat
over 12 years of age and bulls over 8 to 10 years of age
affected the most.
Trauma, Stress or Diseases:
Severe fatigue, traumatic gastritis, internal abscesses,
severe arthritis, laminitis, foot rot and traumatic lesions
of testis and scrotum are also responsible causes.
Localized or systemic infectious diseases:
Infection causing orchitis or epididymitis by Brucella
abortus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Corynebacterium
pyogenes, Actinomyces bovis, IBR-IPV virus, Epivag
virus, Canine distemper virus etc. Inflammatory process
produces heat, oedema and congestion leads to
alteration in physiological environment of testis and
epididymis.
Nutrition:
Underfeeding and malnutrition producing debility and
loss of body weight suppress the release of
gonadotrophic hormone from anterior pituitary gland.
Severe vitamin A deficiencies produce testicular
degeneration. High feeding levels and obesity generally
do not affect semen quality in males but it does affect
willingness to mount.
Poisons:
Dipping of rams in arsenic solutions cause degeneration
of seminiferous tubules. Antimony compounds (for
treating heart worms) in dog causes temporary
infertility. Chlorinated naphthalene produces testicular
degeneration in bulls and rams. Testicular degeneration
occurs in response to raised intratesticular temperature,
toxins, endocrine disturbances and infection41,42. In
rams, raised scrotal temperature can result from
excessive amounts of wool over the scrotum, or from
leaving animals unshorn during the summer43.
Excessive deposition of fat in the scrotum, such as
occurs in rapidly grown bulls and rams, can prevent
heat loss from the scrotum and result in infertility44.

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Conversely, scrotal frostbite can also result in testicular

degeneration45. Testicular size is usually reduced
because of atrophy of seminiferous tubules.
Consistency of testes is generally soft. In acute cases,
there is tense swelling and enlargement with pain and
heat. In chronic cases may show fibrosis and
calcification. Sex drive is usually not affected except in
painful conditions or in severe debilitating conditions.
Semen may be watery and translucent with
azoospermia and oligozoospermia. Sperm motility is
reduced because of increased percentage of abnormal
cells, dead cells and poorly viable cells. There is an
increase in abnormal heads, middle piece and tails
abnormalities. The occurrences of large number of
primary abnormalities are more indicative of testicular
degeneration. Giant or multinucleated cells are
increased. Fertility may vary from only slight reduction
in conception rate to severe infertility.

organism for the animal species (e.g. Actinomyces

pyogenes in cattle). Ascending infection from the
urinary tract is postulated, but haematogenous spread
seems more probable. Treatment includes dressing with
antiseptics and application of ice packs. Sexual rest is
given to affected animals. Broad range antibiotics with
glucocorticoids may give through parenteral routes.
Brucella infected bulls should never be used on
Brucella free herds either naturally or through artificial
insemination.

Prognosis is variable depending upon the causative

factor, duration, degree of degeneration and age of
animal. In young animal, in slight and mild cases and
correctable causes, the prognosis is fair to good.
Prognosis is poor in chronic cases. Severe testicular
degeneration leads to fibrosis and calcification and
recovery is never possible. Correction of causative
factors and gives sexual rest. Balanced diet
supplemented with vitamin A and quality proteins.
Exercise require in some cases. Air conditioning and
cooling may recommended for exotic bulls and rams in
tropical climate. Use of hormones has not been found
satisfactory. Testosterone, FSH preparation and
thyroxin have not been found to be of therapeutic value
in cases of testicular degeneration. Cold packs may be
applied. In case of acute orchitis, sexual rest and broad
range antibiotics together with glucocorticoids may
used. If orchitis is unilateral, affected testes may be
removed to hasten recovery and to save breeding life of
valuable animals.

Testicular tumors or Testicular neoplasia:

It is rare in the bull, ram and boar, although common in
dogs. Usually tumors are observed in older age. The
large tumors may cause testicular degeneration either
due to their compressing effect or due to excess of
steroids produced by interstitial or sertoli cell tumors.
Testicular tumors may originate from interstitial cells,
sertoli cells and from germinal epithelium. Interstitial
cell tumors are the most common tumor of the dog, and
are recorded occasionally as incidental findings in aged
bulls. They are very rare in stallions. Seminomas, the
next most common canine testicular tumor, are also
occasionally found in bulls (and stallions), while Sertoli
cell tumors rarely occur in species other than the dog.

Orchitis:
Inflammation of testis caused mostly by bacterial
infections (e.g. Brucella abortus) and some viral agents
(e.g. Epivag virus). Orchitis can arise from a primary
infection or by haematogenous spread of bacteria into
the testis superinfecting pre-existing traumatic viral or
parasitic damage. Orchitis is more commonly unilateral
than bilateral and may involve the epididymis. In acute
cases, scrotum becomes hot, painful and oedematous.
Brucella species cause orchitis in many domestic
animals like Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, brucella
melatensis and Brucella suis affecting bulls, dogs, goats
and boars, respectively. However, the majorities of
isolates from cases of orchitis are both non-specific
bacteria and mycoplasma, or are the particular pyogenic

Testicular fibrosis:
Testicular fibrosis is usually the end result of testicular
inflammation and testicular degeneration. In testicular
fibrosis, the leyding cells and seminiferous tubules are
replaced by fibrous tissue. Areas of necrosis,
calcification and lymphocytic infiltration observed. The
ejaculates are watery and contain few or no sperms.

Interstitial cell tumor:

It seen mainly in dogs and bulls. It may or may not
produce androgens or estrogens. It looks tan yellow,
soft and nodular and prone to haemorrhage and
necrosis. Polygonal cells with eosinophilic vacuolated
cytoplasm like leyding cells.
Sertoli cell tumor:
It is usually benign, rarely malignant, but often
produces estrogen and feminizing effects. Prostate may
also be enlarged. It appears firm to hard, white and
lobulated mass. Cells form tubular structures
surrounded by abundant connective tissue.
Seminoma:
It seen mainly in dogs and horses and prevalent in
cryptorchid testis. It is a firm and white mass like
lymphoid tissue. Cells are large, polyhedral and in
sheets with little or no stroma. Giant cells and mitotic
figures are common, but tumor is benign in dogs and

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produces no hormones. In case of horses, it is often

malignant.

cross section of affected part, cavities up to 1 cm in

diameter containing thick suspension of spermatozoa
and cellular debris are found.

Lesions of epididymis and mesonephric duct

Epididymitis:
Inflammation of epididymis usually occur secondary to
orchitis. It can also occur as a primary infection or by
spread from an infected testis. Orchitis in the associated
testis can also occur following a primary epididymitis.
The general signs of epididymitis are similar to those of
orchitis, like heat, swelling and pain of the affected
organ. Any inflammation of the epididymis causes
obstruction of the single, highly convoluted tube of
which the organ is composed, so a loss of function
takes place. Unilateral epididymitis results in reduced
fertility, whereas bilateral obstruction results in sterility.
Epididymitis can also occur as a primary infection or by
spread from an infected testis41. Furthermore with
orchitis, unilateral epididymitis causes temperature
induced degeneration in the contralateral testis, so early
removal of the affected epididymis and its associated
testis should be recommended.
Spermiostasis:
Spermiostasis
caused
by
blind
rudimentary
mesonephric tubules. These defective tubules are
attached to rete testis or epididymis and produce lesions
mainly in head of epididymis. The condition is common
in bucks and rams, less common in bulls and rare in
other domestic animals. The condition is probably
genetic in origin. No treatment for this condition and
because of hereditary nature of this condition, the
affected animals should be culled.
Aplasia of the mesonephric ducts:
Segmental aplasia of the mesonephric ducts are most
commonly manifested as an absence of parts of the
epididymis. In the bull, the condition is probably
inherited. The body and tail or all the epididymis and
even part of the vas deferens may be missing. In
majority cases, the condition is unilateral and the bull is
fertile. The bilateral cases are sterile and semen is
watery with no sperm. Absence of the head or tail of
epididymis can be determined relatively easily by
careful palpation of the scrotum, but the medially sited
epididymal body is rarely palpable. There is no
treatment and the affected animals should not be used
in breeding programmes as the condition is hereditary.
Spermatocele:
It is an obstruction of epididymis after infection and
inflammatory changes in epididymis, will lead to
obstruction and enlargement of epididymis. It is
common in ram, boars and male goats, but infrequent in
others. The condition may be unilateral or bilateral. On

Lesions of the accessory glands Seminal vesiculitis:

Inflammation of vesicular glands may caused by variety
of organisms including specific pathogens (like
Brucella, Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Mycobacterium
bovis, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, Epivag and
IBR-IPV virus) and nonspecific opportunistic
pathogens
(like
Streptococci,
Staphylococci,
Actinobacilli, Corynebacterium etc.) Seminal vesiculitis
occurs most commonly in young bulls of less than 2
years old and in aged bulls. Seminal vesiculitis may be
acute or chronic. In acute seminal vesiculitis, affected
glands may enlarged and firm and pain on palpation.
Purulent exudate is present in semen consistency. In
chronic cases, enlargement, fibrosis and loss of
lobulations from the gland may found. Pain on
palpation is usually absent. The main consequence of
infection of the vesicular gland is a decline in semen
quality, decrease in motility, elevated pH, low fructose
concentrations and presence of polymorphonuclear
leucocytes. In moderate or severe cases, the semen may
appear overtly purulent and may be tinged brownish,
due to the presence of degenerating blood from the
damaged gland. Prognosis in seminal vesiculitis may be
fair to poor depending upon duration and severity of
infection. Broad range antibiotics may give for 2 to 3
weeks. Massage of gland may helpful. In chronic cases,
affected gland may be removed surgically.
Prostatitis:
Prostatitis is uncommon in animals except in dogs.
Prostatitis in dog above 5 years of age is common and
often associated with hyperplasia of the gland. It may
occur as ascending or descending infections or from
haematogenous infections. Organisms responsible for
this condition are Brucella canis, E. coli, Streptococci
and Proteus species. Leucocytes are frequently found in
urine. Condition may be characterized by stiff gait in
rear limbs, elevated temperature and pulse rate,
constipation, anorexia and vomiting. Prostatitis
frequently respond to broad range antibiotics for
prolong period. Prostatitis due to Brucella canis does
not respond to treatment.
Prostatic hyperplasia:
Prostatic hyperplasia is reported in dogs above 5 years
of age that have not been castrated. The condition is
probably due to an altered androgen-estrogen ratio with
an excess of testosterone secreted causing hyperplasia
of the prostate gland. The enlarged gland may contain
small cysts and cyst may be calcified. Dogs with
prostatic hyperplasia are usually constipated. Diagnosis

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can be done by per rectal examination and by

abdominal palpation of prostate gland. The size,
location and contour of prostate can also be evaluated
by caudal abdominal radiography. The most effective
treatment for prostatic enlargement is castration. In
hormonal treatments, diethylstilbestrol may give orally
as dose of 1 mg per day for 5 days or estradiol
cypionate as 0.1 mg per kg with maximum dose of 2
mg may be given intramuscularly.
Future prospect and conclusions:
Fertility is a fragile parameter that may vary
temporarily or be permanently depressed. The ability to
maintain body condition and the existence of
conformational abnormalities may alter fertility.
Abnormalities of the external genitalia may directly
affect the ability to copulate or may alter the quality of
semen. Testicular disease alters semen quality,
sometimes transiently and other times permanently. The
fertility prognosis for testicular problems can be judged
on the basis of repeated examinations.

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