Feature Report

Engineering
Practice

Immersion Heaters:
Selection & Implementation
Immersion heaters are widely
used in the chemical industry.
These basics outline
what is available, and
how to select and maintain
an immersion heater
Robert Klein,
Watlow Electric Manufacturing Co.

mmersion heaters are used in a

wide variety of applications in the
chemical process industries (CPI).
Knowing which heater to specify
for a particular application and how to
maintain it can make a manufacturing process more cost-efficient. This
article describes the types of immersion heaters available, explains how to
select them and provides guidance on
installing and using the heaters.
As the name implies, immersion
heaters are directly immersed in the
fluids they heat. These fluids may include water, oils, viscous materials,
solvents, process solutions, molten
materials and gases. By transmitting
all of their heat within the liquid or
gas, immersion heaters are virtually
100% energy efficient.
Heater designs include numerous choices in size, kilowatt ratings
(power), voltages (electrical potential), termination connections, sheath
materials and accessories. Suppliers
carry many units as stock items. For
unusual applications, custom engineering an immersion heater is also
an option.

44

FIGURE 1. Circulation heaters are among the many varieties of immersion heaters available. This selection includes rapid response, booster,
flanged and explosion-resistant heaters.

Heater types

The basic types of immersion heaters

are the screw plug, flange, pipe insert,
circulation and over-the-side. They
are usually available in either a round
tubular or flat tubular design. One
design may be chosen over the other
due to considerations such as coking
(see Selecting a heater, p. 45). Heaters
are often grouped into two categories,
pressurized (closed) systems and nonpressurized (open tank) systems.
Pressurized systems. Common applications for the square-flange immersion heater are industrial water
boilers and storage tanks that hold
degreasing solvents, fuel oils, heattransfer fluids and caustic solutions.
The assembly consists of either a
round or flat tubular heater that is
brazed or welded to a four- or sixbolt flange. Screw lugs or threadedstud terminals are used for wiring
connections. Square-flange heaters
bolt directly to a mating, companion
flange that is welded to a tank wall
or nozzle. Easy assembly changes are
made by unbolting the flange and replacing it with another heater. This

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

can minimize equipment downtime.

Screw-plug heaters can be found in
applications such as de-ionized, demineralized and process waters, hydraulic and crude oils, caustic cleaners,
chemical baths, antifreeze (glycol) solutions, liquid paraffin and industrial
and clean-water rinse tanks. A screwplug heater is installed by inserting it
into a threaded opening of a tank wall,
or into a full or half coupling. Screwplug immersion heaters are available
in a variety of National Pipe Thread
(NPT) sizes and are typically used for
pressures less than 1,000 psi, with
maximum wattages around 36 kW.
For large tanks requiring a wattage of up to 3,000 kW or even higher,
ANSI-flange heaters are used (see Fig.
2, p. 45). These through-the-side immersion heaters can handle high-pressure applications up to 3,000 psi. They
are used in a wide variety of situations
such as in tanks of superheated steam
and compressed gases, and they are
also used in nonpressurized tanks.
Pipe insert, or bayonet heaters are
used for heating liquids in huge storage tanks with volumes in the mil-

glycol in an engine is heated to

ensure rapid and easy startup.
Booster heaters are typically
about 3-6 kW, but can be as high
as 12 kW. With copper and steel
sheaths, these heaters are widely
used for heating water and oils.
An innovative circulation
heater is available for applications that demand precise temperature control for gases and
other fluids. The rapid-response
heat exchanger is a small-diameter tube with a heater that runs
the entire length of the tubes center. The assembly can be formed
into a coil shape or any number
of configurations to allow for
size constraints. These heat exchangers provide faster thermal
response and higher power in a
smaller footprint when compared
to most other conventional circulation heaters.
Nonpressurized systems. Overthe-side heaters are formed into
L and O shapes and are inFIGURE 2. Immersion heaters include these
stalled in the top of a tank, with
tubular designs: an ANSI-flange heater, screwthe heated portion directly implug heater and circulation heater.
mersed along the side or at the
lions of gallons. The heater is mounted bottom. They are portable, easily reinside a pressure-tight bayonet pipe, moved for cleaning and provide ample
which is a sealed pipe with an end- working area inside the tank. A varicap. The unit goes into the tank and ety of optional sheath materials, kilocreates the pressure boundary with a watt ratings, terminal enclosures, and
mating flange. Alternatively, the pipe mounting methods are available.
is welded directly to the tank. The
Over-the-side heaters evenly disheater can be removed from the open tribute heat to liquids and viscous soend of the bayonet without draining lutions. They are often used for freeze
the tank.
protection and are ideal for heating
Circulation or inline heaters are all- small quantities of water, oils, solin-one units with the heater mounted vents, salts and acids.
inside its own insulated tank (see Fig.
The thin-profile, vertical-loop heater
1, p. 44). The unit has inlet and outlet is available in a round tubular design
piping and the liquid or gas is heated and hangs over the side of an open
as it flows through the tank. Once tank. Another over-the-side type is
at the outlet, the material has been the drum heater which easily fits into
heated to the proper temperature. the bung hole of a 55-gallon drum. It
This design has a fast response and an typically melts heat-sensitive materieven heat distribution. Heaters can be als, such as paraffin wax, lard, grease
as small as an NPT screw-plug size of and coconut oil. A pre-wired thermo1.25 in. or have a diameter as large as stat protects against overheating the
14 in. Custom units have been made material.
up to a 44-in. nominal pipe size.
Booster heaters are a type of circu- Selecting a heater
lation heater. They are ideal for low- Many heater choices are limited by
wattage applications, including inline specific characteristics or requireoperations or engine preheating a ments of the application. Square
specific application where ethylene flanges and screw plugs are generally

the most economical solution while

ANSI-flange heaters and circulation
heaters are usually more costly as
their size and power requirements are
much greater.
Most electrical heaters are chosen
by first determining the heat required
to do the job. The heat requirement is
converted to electrical power, and the
most practical heater for the job can
then be selected. Whether the problem
is heating solids, liquids or gases, the
method for determining the power requirement is the same.
In selecting a heater, the following
factors should be considered:
Properties of the material to be
heated. It is very important to know
the type and quality of the fluid to be
heated. For example, if the fluid is
rinse water for parts, the water may
be clean or contaminated with traces
of acids or alkalis that are often left
behind from the rinsing process. Acids
cause corrosion and buildup on the
sheath of the heater. This buildup
can act as an insulator and cause the
heater coil to fail prematurely due to
overheating.
If the fluid is an oil, consider its
properties. For instance, a crude petroleum is in many cases very thick and
viscous and requires a very low-watt
density, whereas a very-light oil such
as vegetable oil, could use up to 30-40
W/in.2 The watt density depends on
the viscosity, specific heat, and thermal conductivity of the oil. Choosing
the proper watt density brings protection against coking.
Coking potential. Coking is a deposit or buildup on the heater sheath
from the chemical breakdown of the
material being heated. The amount
of buildup that can occur varies
greatly, depending upon the maximum operating temperature of the
oil being heated. Often occurring in
petroleum or other viscous products,
coking increases as sheath temperatures increase and it can lead to
early heater failure. Heater design
can help prevent or minimize coking.
A flat tubular elements sheath runs
cooler than that of a round tubular
element when operated at the same
watt density, so the flat element has
a lower potential for coking.
Startup and maximum operating

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

45

Engineering Practice
temperatures. This is the temperature change from startup to operating
conditions.
Maximum flowrate of the material being heated. This is needed to
determine the wattage requirements.
The minimum flowrate may also be
required to help determine the wattdensity requirements. If the flowrate
is too low and the watt density too
high, excessive coking can occur in
oils or excessive sheath temperature
can occur in air and other gases. For
circulation or inline heaters, a toolow flowrate can cause the heater to
overheat and fail prematurely. A flow
switch can be used to monitor or shut
off the heater if a blockage occurs in
the system. Alarms are often used in
conjunction with flow switches.
Required time for startup heating
and process-cycle times. The longer
the startup time allowed, the lower
the power (kilowatt) requirement.
Volume or weight of the heated material. These are needed to determine
power requirements for startup.
Characteristics of the containing
vessel. The weight of the vessel is a
factor in determining the startuppower requirement. The container
dimensions are required to determine
heat losses in the initial startup equations and to determine the power
required to maintain the operating
temperature. The vessels material of
construction, especially if it is a plastic, can affect the heater choice and its
placement in the tank. Other factors
involved in material selection include
the threat of galvanic corrosion and
structural support.
Whether the vessel has an open or
closed top will greatly affect heat loss.
A closed top will significantly reduce
the kilowatt requirement for heating
and maintaining the process. For pressurized vessels, the requirements of a
pressure-vessel code, such as ASME,
may be applied to the manufacture of
the heater.
Vessel insulation. If any insulation
is present, its thickness and thermal
properties will affect the heat loss
from the vessel. Heat loss on connecting piping is normally compensated
for by alternative heating, such as
mineral-insulated cable or heat-tracing cable.
46

SIZING THE HEATER

To size an immersion heater, the following basic information is needed:
1. Power required for initial heating of the fluid and the tank. Use the basic heat-transfer
equation to calculate the fluid heating requirement:
Q=WCpT (heat equals mass multiplied by heat capacity and temperature change )
2. Power required to heat the fluid during the operating cycle.
3. Heat required to melt or vaporize materials during the initial heating.
4. Heat required to melt or vaporize materials during the operating cycle.
5. Thermal system heat losses. The heat losses are calculated by multiplying the exposed
surface area, the startup time and a surface loss factor.
6. Total startup power requirements. The results of Steps 1 and 3 are added together
and an appropriate safety factor (typically 10 %) is applied.
7. Total operating power requirements. The results of Steps 2, 4 and 5 are added and
the safety factor applied.
8. Watt density. The total wattage is divided by the active heater surface area. The latter
is calculated based on the length of heater element immersed in the fluid, the surface
area per linear inch, and the total number of heater element lengths.

Temperature monitoring and control. Sensing and control methods

vary greatly depending upon the precision requirements for the process
and heater-sheath temperatures. For
example, a simple freeze-protection
application may require only the use
of an economical mechanical bulband-capillary thermostat to monitor
the process. For more precise measurement and control, a thermocouple
or resistance-detector (RTD) sensor
may be used in conjunction with a microprocessor-based controller.
A high-limit sensor located on the
sheath prevents overheating, which
could lead to premature failure or accelerated buildup of contaminants. The
temperature sensor should be located at
the point where the process temperature
is most critical. For instance, in a circulation application, the sensor should be
located in or nearest to the outlet nozzle
of the vessel. In an open tank, the sensor should be positioned high enough to
avoid contamination from sludge, and
low enough to receive maximum, natural, fluid convection without obstructing
the operation of the system.
Electrical
requirements
and
limitations. Voltage and phase are
governed primarily by independent
agencies, such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), National Electrical Code
(NEC) and the Canadian Standards
Association (CSA). The heater manufacturer should be consulted regarding the agency approvals for heatervoltage and diameter limitations.
Voltage is normally limited by the
dielectric properties of the heater.
Typically the limiting factor is the
amount of magnesium oxide between
the resistance wire and the outer
metal sheath1. The maximum voltage
for most heaters, depending upon the

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

diameter, typically does not exceed

600 V.
Resistance limitations are encountered when there are voltage and wattage extremes, either too low or too high.
For example, if the voltage is high and
the wattage is low, the resistance on
the heater coil could be so high that the
thin-gauge wire typically used would be
too fine. The reverse, high wattage and
low voltage, creates a need for a wire of
such heavy gauge that it is impractical
to manufacture the heater. Suppliers
can assist with various manufacturing
capabilities. Agency approvals should
always be considered.
The electrical phase is not limited by
anything other than possibly the type
of heater and the number of elements
making up the heater assembly.
Environmental conditions. Ambient temperature and wind conditions
can affect heat loss and should be
taken into consideration when calculating power requirements. Hazardous environments, such as corrosive
and explosive situations, are also important considerations.
A stainless-steel enclosure, for example, may be chosen for its resistance
to corrosive processes. In explosive atmospheres, a NEMA 7 explosion-resistant, electrical enclosure must be used.
NEMA 4 ratings are for moisture resistance and may be needed outdoors
and for wash- and rinse-down cleaning. Often, a combination NEMA 4
and 7 rating is required. General-purpose NEMA 1 enclosures are typically
used when environmental conditions
pose no problem.
Contingencies. Even with careful
1. Heaters are typically a metal tube (usually a
stainless or nickel alloy, copper, steel or titanium)
with a nichrome wire embedded in magnesium
oxide inside the tube. Solid pins or terminals exit
out of the ends.

TABLE 1. WATTAGE RATINGS

Engineering Practice
planning, the design of the heating
system may not take into account all
of the possible or unforeseen heating requirements. Therefore, a safety
or contingency factor that increases
heater capacity beyond calculated
requirements is applied. A factor of
10% is typically used. However, when
there are many variables and some
unknowns, safety factors of up to 20%
may be considered.
Physical factors and wattage requirements. A 10-kW heater can be a
screw plug, square flange, ANSI flange
or even an over-the-side heater. Sometimes the choice is based simply on the
tank configuration. A larger flange size
may be needed with a short heater, or if
there is a lot of length, a plug or square
flange may be sufficient.
Make sure the sheath material and
watt-density ratings are compatible
with the liquid being heated. Application and specification guides supplied
by manufacturers provide a complete
listing of materials along with maximum temperatures and watt-density
recommendations. Commonly used
sheath materials include Incoloys,
copper and steels.

A shortcut for heater sizing

The basic information needed to size a

heater is outlined in the box on p. 46.
For many specific applications, some
relatively simple formulas are available for quick power-requirement estimates. As an example, Table 1 can be
used for applications where water is
heated.
To use the chart, find the amount of
water to be heated in gallons on the
left and the desired temperature rise
at the top. The wattage needed to heat
the water in one hour can be read from
the table.
Alternatively, one of the following
equations can be used for heating
flowing water:
kW = QG (0.16 Tf)

or

kW = QL (0.076 Tc)
An equation for heating water in
tanks is:
kW = QGTf / 375 Th or
kW = QLTc / 790 Th
In these four equations,
48

FOR HEATING WATER

Amount
of
water,
gal
5
10
13
20
25
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
125
150
175
200
250
300
400
500

Temperature rise (T), F

20 40 60 80
100 120 140
0.3
0.5
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.3
3.7
4.3
5.0
5.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
11.0
13.0
16.0
21.0
27.0

0.5
1.1
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.2
4.0
5.4
6.4
7.5
8.5
10.0
11.0
13.0
16.0
18.0
21.0
27.0
32.0
43.0
53.0

0.8
1.6
2.4
3.2
4.0
4.8
6.4
8.0
9.6
11.2
13.0
14.5
16.0
20.0
24.0
28.0
32.0
40.0
47.0
64.0
80.0

1.1
2.1
3.2
4.3
5.3
6.4
8.5
10.7
12.8
15.0
17.0
19.0
21.0
27.0
32.0
37.0
43.0
53.0
64.0
85.0
107.0

1.3
2.7
4.0
5.3
6.7
8.0
11.0
13.0
16.0
19.0
21.0
24.0
27.0
33.0
40.0
47.0
53.0
67.0
80.0
107.0
133.0

QG = flowrate in gal/min,
Tf = temperature rise in F,
QL = flowrate in L/min,
Tc = temperature rise in C, and
Th = the heating time in hours.

Installation tips

The following guidelines are generally

applicable; but in all cases, the heater
manufacturer should be consulted for
details about the specific heater.
Moisture absorbed by the heaters insulation during shipping and storage
can affect its performance. To prevent
this, each heaters current should be
checked before installation. The same
problem may occur if the heater has
been idle for a week or more.
Each heater circuit should be
checked using a 500-V d.c. megohm
meter, and the electrical resistance
should read at least 10 M. Lower
values may be acceptable as recommended by the supplier.
A low-resistance reading does not
mean that the heater is bad and must
be returned. There are several ways
to increase the megohm level. One is
to put the heater in an oven at 200
300F and leave it overnight or until
the readings are acceptable. The second way is to energize the heater at no
greater than 50% of the rated voltage
until the resistance reaches its proper
specification.
It is important that the wire com-

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JANUARY 2006

ing into the heater has the

proper temperature rating.
A minimum of 200C wire
for process heaters is recommended, although higherrated wire may be required
for some applications. All
wiring, such as power feedlines, should be installed in
accordance with the NEC
and other state and local
codes and must be compatible with the heater.
Immersion heaters used
in tanks should be mounted
horizontally near the tank
bottom to allow convective circulation. They must
be located high enough to
be above scale or sludge
buildup.
The entire heated length
of the heater should be immersed at all times. Heaters should
not be located in a restricted space
where free boiling or a steam buildup
could occur. Low-level shutoff switches
can be installed to avoid heater failure
should the liquid level drop.

1.6
3.2
4.8
6.4
8.0
9.6
13.0
16.0
19.0
22.0
26.0
29.0
32.0
40.0
48.0
56.0
64.0
80.0
96.0
128.0
160.0

1.9
3.7
5.6
7.5
9.3
12.0
15.0
19.0
22.0
26.0
30.0
34.0
37.0
47.0
56.0
65.0
75.0
93.0
112.0
149.0
187.0

Maintenance guidelines

Proper maintenance can maximize

the lifespan and performance of an
immersion heater. Before doing any
maintenance procedures, be sure to
make sure the power is turned off.
Here are a few tips.
Corrosion of the heater can lead to
problems ranging from equipment
downtime to serious safety hazards.
Because sheath temperature plays
such an important role in the corrosion process, it is important to accurately monitor the heater during
operation. Place temperature sensors
on the areas of the sheath where the
highest temperatures are expected
on the top of the heater bundle
in an open tank with a horizontally
mounted heater, or nearest the vessel
outlet in a circulation heater.
Make sure the interior of the terminal enclosure is clean and dry, and free
of dirt, dust, oil and rust. The inside
of the housing should be inspected
for corrosion. This can occur due to
ambient conditions or loose line connections. If oxidation is present on the
line connections, clean and retighten

Engineering Practice
them. If moisture or fumes are present, a different terminal housing may
be required. Once the maintenance is
complete, thoroughly blow the housing clean with dry, oil-free air.
Extreme caution should be taken
to not get silicone lubricant on the
heated section of the unit. Silicone will
prevent wetting of the sheath by the
liquid and act as an insulator, possibly
causing the heater to fail.
Scale buildup on the sheath and
sludge on the bottom of the tank must
be minimized. If not controlled, they
will inhibit heat transfer to the liquid
and possibly cause overheating and
failure.
Use of the flat, tubular-heater design
prevents the buildup of scale in water
applications. Because of its unique geometry, the flat surface breathes by
expanding and contracting, thereby
breaking scale and deposits away from
its sheath. If scale buildup is discovered
on other tubular elements, it is impor-

tant to clean the units as required.

A wire brush can be used to remove
the scale or the heater element can be
cleaned in a mildly caustic, chemical
solution. Select a brush and chemical
that will not harm the heater sheath.
A gentle sandblasting of virtually any
type of heater sheath is often very effective as long as great care is taken to
prevent damage to the sheath. There
are also various brands of cleaning chemicals that can remove scale
buildup. Water treatment companies
are a good source for this information.
In addition to coking and scaling,
poor wiring connections account for
a large percentage of problems in the
field. Process temperature and the
amperage going through the terminal area create heat in the terminal
enclosure. When the process heats up
and cools down, the connections can
loosen and eventually cause heater
failure. Electrical connections need to
be checked for tightness on a regular

basis. A torque of 20 lbf-in. on each

heater stud is recommended. In addition, the connections should be free of
oxide, dust and dirt buildup.
Thermal cycling may also cause
sealed joints, such as flange mounting bolts, to relax and develop leaks.
Tighten threads and flange bolts.
Periodically check the sensing probes
(thermostat or thermocouple) to make
sure that they are operating properly
and that the connections are all good.
Check proper grounding for safety.
Edited by Dorothy Lozowski

Author
Robert C. Klein is a key
account manager, supporting major global customers
for Watlow Electric Manufacturing Co. in Hannibal,
Mo.(Phone:
573-406-6888;
fax: 573-221-3723; email:
BKlein@watlow.com) He has
worked for Watlow in design,
application and technical
support for nearly 30 years.
Bob graduated from Truman
State University in 1975 with a B.S. in Industrial Occupations.

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