.Water Treatment & Bacteria

NT3037
TroublesomeBactria
Psedomonas
Solphate Reducing Bacteria
Nitrite Oxidising Bacteria
Iron Bacteria
Psedomonas
Pseudomonas (1)
These organisms are widespread in the environment
and when they gain access to treated water they may
pro-liferate by utilising nutrients present in the water,
including those derived from unsuitable materials used
in the construction of the distribution system.
They are most common in large domestic' plumbing
systems.
The problem is exacerbated by the use of unapproved
materials (e.g. pipes, tanks, jointing compounds, tap
washers and seals), long pipe runs, dead legs,
infrequent use and localised warming.
NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance
(Supplementary Information from Dr. Aman WONG)
Pseudomonas (2)
They may affect the taste, odour, colour and turbidity
of the water; in extreme cases slimes may be
produced. Infected systems must be disinfected and
flushed using the procedure recommended by the
water undertaking.
Excessive growths will generate a high chlorine
demand and the procedure may have to be repeated
to obtain satisfactory results.
Disinfection will only provide temporary respite unless
the causal defects are identified and corrected.

Pseudomonas (3)

Flavobacteria
Flavobacteria
Flavobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative, non-motile and
motile, rod-shaped bacteria that consists of ten recognized
species, as well as 3 newly proposed species (F.
gondwanense, F. salegens, and F. scophthalmum).
Flavobacteria are found in soil and fresh water in a variety of
environments.
Several species are known to cause disease in freshwater
fish.
Flavobacterium psychrophilum causes the Bacterial Cold
Water Disease (BCWD) on salmonids and the Rainbow Trout
Fry Disease (RTFS) on rainbow trouts.
Flavobacterium columnare causes the cotton-wool disease on
freshwater fishes.
Flavobacterium branchiophilum causes the Bacterial Gill
Disease (BGD) on trouts.
SolphateReducingBacteria
Steel and iron surfaces act as a substratum for microbial communities to form
biofilms at the steel and iron surface, electrochemical corrosion occurs
Chemical dissolution of iron then results in the formation of hydrogen
Sulphate-reducing Bacteria (1)

These genera reduce sulphate SO42- to sulphide S2- which
will subsequently attack mild steel and cast iron.
Copper is also believed to be affected.
Attack only occurs under anaerobic conditions and uses the
sulphate present in many soils and most water supplies.
The species involved are:
- Desulphobacter
- Desulphobulbus
- Desulphococcus
- Desulphonema
- Desulphosarcina
- Desulphovibrio
- Desulphotomaculum, previously Clostridium nigrificans
-Desulphuromonas

Sulphate-reducing Bacteria (2)

Thiobacillus
Beggiatoa
Thiothrix
Thiopediac

NitriteOxidisingBacteria
Nitrite Oxidising Bacteria (1)

These genera oxidise nitrite NO2- to nitric acid HNO3.
Free nitric acid does not last long in the natural
environment, but can cause corrosion and destroy
nitrite inhibitors.
The Nitrobacter species is one such nitrite oxidiser.
Note that Nitrosomonas converts ammonia NH3 to
nitrite, but does not produce nitric acid.

Nitrite Oxidising Bacteria (2)

Nitrobacter

IronBacteria
Iron Bacteria (1)

Iron bacteria convert soluble iron to insoluble iron in
the form of oxide deposits, and can increase
corrosion.
The genera involved are :
- Clanothrix
- Gallionella
- Grenothrix
- Leptothrix
- Matallogenium
- Siderocapsa
- Spaerotilus

Iron Bacteria (2)

Leptothrix
Caulobacter

Objectives
Assure public health and safety by preventing
any potential risks associated with water-cooled
air conditioning system;
Achieve better / maintain energy efficiency and
operational performance of water-cooled air
conditioning system;
Minimize nuisances caused by water-cooled air
conditioning system to the public;
Prevent pollution and mis-use of water;
Assure occupational safety and health of the
staff concerned.
DesignConsideration
As early as possible the designer should aim to

clarify the roles of the installing contractor and
cleaning specialist during the cleaning process.
In particular the designer should outline:
Which methods of cleaning are most appropriate
for the system
Whether chemical cleaning is important to the
successful operation of the system
What design features need to be incorporated to
facilitate the cleaning process
Design & Commissioning Records

Formal design and commissioning records of a cooling tower system
shall be kept by the cooling tower owner for the whole life of the system.
The records shall be made available for inspections upon request by
Government appointed officials. The record shall include, but not limited
to the following:
The name, contact phone and address of the owner of the cooling
tower system;
The name, contact phone and address of the cooling tower specialist
contractor(s) (CTSC), who is responsible for the design, installation,
testing and commissioning of the cooling tower system;
Design details of the cooling tower system;
Descriptions of the cooling towers and water treatment equipment,
including their locations, technical specifications, models, capacities
and year of manufacture / installation as well as correct operation
procedure;
Testing results of all equipment in the cooling tower system; and
Water sampling results.

TheContractorResponsibilities
The flushing is carried out in accordance with the procedures

described in good practice guide / Specifications / BS
The flushing and chemical cleaning procedures are planned

so that the whole operation is carried out as a continuous
process, i.e. there are no delays during the flushing stage, or
between the flushing and chemical cleaning stages
The cleaning specialist is allowed to satisfy himself that the

flushing has been properly conducted and that the system is
ready for chemical cleaning.
Contractor Responsibilities
Chemical cleaning of the system should always
be the responsibility of the appointed chemical
cleaning specialist sub-contractor.
However, in order to ensure that the chemical
clean is successful, the installing contractor must
be prepared to commit resources to assist with
the process.
In particular, the installer will need to be aware
of the system conditions which must be
maintained during the clean.

COSHHRegulations
The COSHH Regulations require that the employers, ie the contractor
and the chemical cleaning sub-contractor (including the self-employed),
implement a number of measures in compliance with the Regulations.
Under the COSHH Regulations, the employers must carry out suitable
and sufficient assessments, so that all the necessary measures to control
any hazardous substances can be implemented.
Substances that are hazardous to health include any substances that are labelled as
dangerous under the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply)
Regulations 2002, ie pesticides, chemicals generally, micro-organisms, dust
and any material, mixture or compound used at work or arising from
work activities that may cause harm to peoples health and well-being.
What is COSHH Regulations?

The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
(COSHH) Regulations 2002 is a United Kingdom
Statutory
Instrument
that
states
general
requirements on employers to protect employees
and other persons from the hazards of substances
used at work by risk assessment, control of
exposure, health surveillance and incident planning.
There are also duties on employees' to take care of
their own exposure to hazardous substances and
prohibitions on the import of certain substances into
the European Economic Area.
Ordinances, Technical Memorandum

and
Code
of
Practice
in
Hong
Kong
The following Ordinances, Technical Memorandum and Code of Practice
shall be compiled with in selecting water treatment methods for cooling
towers:
Waterworks Ordinance (WWO) (Cap. 102)

Buildings Ordinance (BO) (Cap. 123)
Sewage Services Ordinance (SSO) (Cap. 463)
Water Pollution Control Ordinance (WPCO) (Cap. 358)
Air Pollution Control Ordinance (APCO) (Cap. 311)
Noise Control Ordinance (NCO) (Cap. 400)
Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance (OSHO) (Cap. 509)
Technical Memorandum on Standards for Effluent Discharged into Drainage
and Sewerage System, Inland and Coastal Waters, EPD
Technical Memorandum for the Assessment of Noise from Places other
than Domestic Premises, Public Places or Construction Sites, EPD
Pilot Scheme for Wider Use of Fresh Water in Evaporative Cooling Towers
for Energy-efficient Air Conditioning Systems, EMSD
Code of Practice for the Prevention of Legionnaires Disease 2000,
HKPLDC
ChemicalCleaningConsideration
System size
Whether the system is open or closed
System materials
Complexity of system and sensitivity of plant items
Extension or modernisation of existing systems
The length of the construction period
Chemical Cleaning Consideration

Several major chemical treatment methods can be used to
minimize operational problems arising from corrosion and to
assure efficient and reliable operation of water-cooled air
conditioning systems. Selection of water treatment
programme for a specific system depends on the system
characteristics, including:
System design, including system capacity, cooling tower type,
basin depth, materials of construction, flow rates, heat
transfer rates, temperature drop and associated accessories;
Water, including make up water composition / quality,
availability of pre-treatment and assumed cycle of
concentration;
Contaminants, including process leaks and airborne debris;
Wastewater discharge restrictions;
Surrounding environment and air quality.
TechnicalRequirements
The designer, and /or water treatment advisor, to define

clearly:
The scope of works, such as the systems to be cleaned,
their functions, and method of operation
The scope and extent of the cleaning process,
The duties of the various parties (client, designer, main or

managing contractor, installation contractor,
commissioning engineer chemical cleaning specialist so
there can be no doubt as to who is responsible for each
activity.
Continued
The layout of the system in relation to the building

The anticipated method by which flushing velocities are
to be achieved, such as the pumping requirements and
motor power requirement for temporary pumping
facilities.
Schematic diagrams and data sheets illustrating the
design intent and including all the design information
Schedules of major plant, equipment and components
as well as the schedules of materials
SchematicDiagram

Themaincontaminantsfoundinwatersystemsare
Installation debris , These include millscale, welding slag and metal

swarf , soldering flux.
Scale:
Is a build-up of solid material which normally occurs on internal heatexchanger surfaces in boilers or condensers these are : Calcium,
magnesium and iron salts such as calcium carbonate, calcium
sulphate, magnesium carbonate and magnesium silicate are the
most common scales.
Scale is formed when the water is heated or when the pH or alkalinity

of the water is changed.
The risk of scale forming is greatest with hard water and smallest with
soft water
Causes of Scaling Problems (1)

Scale is caused by the precipitation of mineral particles in
water to form a hard deposit on heating transfer surfaces. The
most common type of scaling is formed by carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium, as well as iron salts
in water. Calcium dominates in fresh water while magnesium
dominates in seawater. Therefore, consideration on make up
water composition is required to select an appropriate scale
inhibition method.
Scale leads to reduction in heat transfer efficiency due to the
formation of an insulating deposit on heat transfer surface and
reduction of water flow resulting from partial or complete
blockage of valves, strainers, pipes and heat exchangers, etc.

Causes of Scaling Problems (2)

Hardness is considered as the major cause of scale formation,
with chain effect connecting to other principle factors, such as
evaporation, alkalinity, pH value, total dissolved solids and
ambient temperature that influencing the rate of scale
formation.
Evaporation causes the salt remaining in the circulating water
becomes more concentrated and results in an increase of
total dissolved solids. Negative solubility of calcium and
magnesium salts, biocarbonate decomposition is other factors
that cause scale formation.
Optimum scale control for water-cooled air conditioning
system depends on make up water composition (mineral
concentration), operating parameters of the cooling tower
system, cycle of concentration adopted and the effluent
restrictions.
Scale Prevention Methods

The common methods to prevent scale in watercooled air conditioning system are:
Remove scale forming minerals in make up water by
means of softening process;
Limit the concentration of scale forming minerals in
circulating water by bleed-off process;
Apply scale inhibitors in circulating water;
Dose acid to increase the solubility of scale-forming
salts; and
Remove scale forming minerals and prevent
deposition of hard deposit using physical methods.
Physical Water Treatment Method

Physical treatment methods can also used to prevent scale
formation in water-cooled air conditioning systems and are
always considered as effective supplement in water treatment
process.
Also, many physical methods can improve water quality by
minimizing corrosion, scale formation and biofouling
simultaneously.
Examples - Filtration System and Equipment
- Bleed-off
- Magnetic devices
- Electronic de-scaling technology

Corrosionproducts
Corrosion products are typical contaminants of water systems
There are two main causes of corrosion in steel pipework:
Electrolytic reaction: Involves Iron Pipework and Oxygen and
Hydrogen in water
Bacteria-induced corrosion involving sulphate-reducing bacteria
Principal Factors are:
Temp
Type of concentration and impurities
Water Flow rate
All controlled by
dissolved Oxygen concentration
CO2
PH level
Dissolved solids
Causes of Corrosion Problems

Corrosion is defined as the destruction or loss of metal
through chemical or electrochemical reaction with its
surrounding environment.
Common problems arising from corrosion are reduction in
heat transfer due to deposits of corrosion products on the
heat transfer surface of a heat exchanger and reduction of
water flow resulting from a partial or complete blockage of
pipes, valves, strainers, etc.
Also, excessive wear of moving parts, such as pump, shaft,
impeller and mechanical seal, etc. may resist the
movement of the equipment.
Hence, thermal and energy performance of a cooling tower
may degrade.
Corrosion Prevention Methods

The principle methods to prevent corrosion in
water-cooled air conditioning system include:
Selecting suitable materials of construction to
resist corrosion;
Controlling corrosion process using corrosion
inhibiting chemicals;
Controlling scaling;
Controlling micro-biological growth.

Biologicalfouling
The causes of biological fouling in water systems may be attributed

to the source of the water, or the introduction of impurities during
installation
During Installation period (repeated fillings and draining offs)
Pseudomonas ( in high levels) were linked to series of damaging

contamination problems in valves, strainers , and sever gassing
affecting flow rates .
Although other bacteria were also present , H.L Pseudomonas Used

as a indicator for biological quality of water systems
Causes of Bacterial and

Microbiological Problems
Microbiological organisms enter the cooling tower system through make

up water and airborne particulates scrubbed in the cooling tower.
Normally, micro-organisms that proliferate in cooling water systems
include algae, fungi (yeast and mould) and bacteria.
Bacteria - Impact on cooling tower system
Some types of pathogenic bacteria, such as Legionella, may cause
health hazards
Sulphate reducing bacteria can reduce sulphate to corrosive
hydrogen sulphide
Cathodic depolarization by removal of hydrogen from the cathodic
portion of corrosion cell
Acid producing bacteria produce organic acids, which cause
localized corrosion of deposit laden distribution piping and also
provide the potential for severe pitting corrosion of heat exchanger
surface
In order to effectively control the growth of micro-organisms in cooling
water, chemical and physical water treatment methods (e.g. Ultraviolet
Disinfection, Copper and Silver Ionisation) can be adopted.
Chemical Cleaning & Passivation (1)

Chemical cleaning procedures are employed for 2 main
purposes:
to thoroughly clean the pipework system of oils, greases, millscale and other corrosion-forming deposits (in the precommissioning phases); this follows the flushing out of the
pipework system to remove loose scale, magnetite and other
debris
in order to descale or clean individual items of plant which
have built up deposits during operation, e.g. boiler scale, heat
exchanger fouling, etc.

Chemical Cleaning & Passivation (2)

The chemicals employed and the method of application must
be agreed between the client and the specialist chemical
cleaning contractor.
The latter normally provides all the necessary operating
labour, chemicals, temporary pipework connections,
temporary circulating pumps and test facilities.
Passivation is necessary in order to prevent corrosion of the
metal surfaces after the chemical cleaning has been
completed.

whichchemicalsaremostappropriateforsystem
cleaning
Decided by :
Designer / treatment specialist
The method of construction, i.e. fabrication and jointing methods
The materials of construction, e.g. for pipework, jointing compounds gaskets, seals
valves
Whether prefabricated parts of the system have been pressure tested off site,
and if so how long ago?
The anticipated period between installation of the system and first fill
The anticipated period between first fill of the system and the start of the
chemical clean?
Whether the system has been previously dosed with chemicals, and if so what
type and for what purpose,
Any known restrictions on the disposal of chemicals through public drains
Chemical Cleaning Procedures (a)(b)

A typical pre-commissioning flushing and chemical cleaning
procedure should be as follows:
a) Isolate components or materials liable to be damaged by the
chemical cleaning fluid. Remember that obstructions such as
valves and low points in pipework can trap debris during
flushing and chemical cleaning and that isolated components
also contain corrosion and debris.
b) Remove as much of the large debris as possible by water
flushing. Flushing requires temporary high-volume, high-head
pumps with a volume output ideally at least 3 times greater
than the normal circulating pumps.

Chemical Cleaning Procedures (c)

The cleaning solution is circulated via the contractor's
temporary tanks and pumps.
Typically, the solution may contain citric acid and will be
circulated at an elevated temperature.
This could entail the use of temporary boiler plant if the
installed boiler plant is not commissioned.
The chemicals should be circulated until the periodic sampling
and analysis indicates that the pipework is clean.
The chemicals are then drained down and removed from the
site.
Care must be taken in the disposal of the chemicals since
certain mineral acids cannot be discharged into normal
drainage systems and arrangements must be made to
neutralize and dispose of the effluent in an acceptable
manner.

Chemical Cleaning Procedures (d ~ f)

d)Further water flushing to remove acid residues
must then be undertaken.
e)A suitable passivating chemical solution is then
circulated through the pipework system in order
to promote the formation of a magnetite layer on
the metal surfaces.
f) Finally, the passivating fluid is drained down and
the system filled with softened, treated water
which contains an oxygen scavenger and is pHcorrected to an appropriate value.
Chemical Cleaning Procedures

It is important that all these procedures are carried
out within a reasonable timescale and monitored as
necessary.
Leaving aggressive solutions, even oxygenated
water, in contact with steel panel radiators, for
instance, for any unnecessary period of time, can
adversely affect the service life.
The chemical cleaning of individual plant items such
as boilers is carried out in a similar manner by
circulating chemicals through the plant item.
Again the chemicals must be carefully chosen to be
compatible with all the metals of construction.
A) Importance of pre-flushing
Properly executed clean water flushing is an
essential pre-requisite to any effective chemical
cleaning programme.
If a system contains significant amounts of loose
installation or corrosion debris and flushing is
not carried out before the chemical clean, then
the result will be a high consumption of
chemicals, while the cleaning effect will be
minimal.
Chemical cleaning must be carried out
immediately after the pre-flush (within 24 hours).
Theimportanceofflow
Proper system flow ensures ;
Fresh cleaning agents are continually presented to the deposits, to speed up
their dissolution.
The penetration of deposits by the chemicals is assisted by the mechanical
action of the fluid flow
The temperature of cleaning agents (and metal) are kept even around the
system
Insoluble material is kept in suspension and does not re-deposit in the pipework
Accurate quality control is possible due to uniform sample availability
Any gases produced due to the cleaning agent are carried to vent in the flow
stream.
B) The importance of flow

Proper circulation in all parts of the system is essential to effect thorough
cleaning within a predictable time scale. Proper system flow ensures that;
Fresh cleaning agents are continually presented to the deposits, helping to

speed up their dissolution.
The penetration of deposits by the chemicals is assisted by the mechanical
action of the fluid flow.
The temperature of cleaning agents (and metal) are kept even around the
system.
Insoluble material is kept in suspension and does not re-deposit in the
pipework.
Accurate quality control is possible due to uniform sample availability.
Any gases produced due to the cleaning agent are carried to vent in the
flow stream.
It must be noted that, for hydrochloric acid cleans, high flow rates must be
avoided as this can result in a breakdown of the acid inhibitor film and may
result in corrosion at impingement areas.
Theimportanceoftemperature
there will be a need to maintain certain minimum

temperatures in the system the boiler may need to be
reconnected to the system.
A high temperature is usually needed to speed up the
reaction of the chemicals and therefore reduce the
cleaning period to an acceptable limit.
In chilled water systems, if the optimum temperature
cannot be achieved, the cleaning period may have to
be extended.
C) The importance of temperature

For some chemical cleaning operations , there will be a
need to maintain certain minimum temperatures in the
system.
In heating systems the boiler may need to be reconnected
to the system.
A high temperature is usually needed to speed up the
reaction of the chemicals and therefore reduce the cleaning
period to an acceptable limit.
The installing contractor may therefore need to ensure that
boiler plant and controls are available to achieve the
required temperature.
In chilled water systems, if the optimum temperature cannot
be achieved, the cleaning period may have to be extended.

Durationofchemicalcirculationwithinthesystem
The required chemical circulation time for a

successful clean is usually between 12 and 72 hours,
to run either continuously or intermittently (in 8 hour
periods) and depends on:
Concentration of cleaning solution
Ph of cleaning solution
Temperature of cleaning solution
The type of iron oxide deposits
The types of non-iron oxide constituents in a deposit
Thickness of deposit
Surface condition (hard or soft) of deposit.
D) Duration of chemical
circulation within the system
The required chemical circulation time for a successful
clean is usually between 12 and 72 hours, to run either
continuously or intermittently (in 8 hour periods for
example).
The circulation period depends on the following operating
conditions:
Concentration of cleaning solution
pH of cleaning solution
The type of iron oxide deposits
The types of non-iron oxide constituents in a deposit
Thickness of deposit
Surface condition (hard or soft) of deposit

Disposalofchemicals
Before any chemical can be discharged into the

public drains:
Permission must be obtained from the local Water
Undertaking and
The chemicals must comply with the requirements of
existing legislation, including the Control of Pollution Act
1974, the Water Act 1989, and The Trade Effluents
(Prescribed Processes and Substances).
Based on these directives, the Water Undertaking can
specify the limits for temperature, pH and
concentrations of substances which may be permitted
for discharge.
In some areas ( London ) only100% recycling of
treated water is permitted.
E) Disposal of chemicals (1)

It is sometimes possible to discharge chemicals into
foul water drains. Under no circumstances should
chemicals be discharged into surface water drains.
Before any chemical can be discharged into the
public drains, permission must be obtained from the
local Water Undertaking. Application must be made
and details given of the chemicals o be discharged,
the maximum quantity, the maximum rate of
discharge, the temperature, and the proposed date
on which the discharge will take place.


Permission to allow the discharge will depend primarily on the
nature of the chemicals.
The chemicals must comply with the requirements of the
existing legislation, including the Control of Pollution Act 1974,
the Water Act 1989, and the Trade Effluents (Prescribed
Process and Substances) regulations 1989 amended by SI
1990 / 1629 and the Trade Effluents (Prescribed Process and
Substances) Regulations 1992.
Based on these directives, the Water Underaking can specify
the limits for temperature, pH and concentrations of
substances which may be permitted for discharge.
Effluents which do not meet these criteria will not be permitted.


In addition to an assessment of the substances in
the effluent, the Water Undertaking must also take
into account the size and condition of the local
sewers and sewage works, together with the degree
of downstream usage for the local rivers into which
the treated effluent will eventually be deposited.
As here is considerable re-usage of river water in
the London are, this imposes greater restrictions on
the quantities of chemicals permitted for discharge.

Typicalstagesofaclean
Static flushing
Dynamic flushing
Degreasing
Biocide wash (for systems at risk from bacteria)
Removal of surface oxides (for systems with mild steel components)
Effluent disposal/final flushing
Neutralisation (for inhibited acid cleans only)
Passivation
Corrosion inhibitor and biocide dosing.
Chemical cleaning should not be attempted unless the system has

been thoroughly clean-water-flushed to the satisfaction of the
cleaning specialist.
F) Cleaning Options
There are a number of options for cleaning which arise due to the
different categories of chemicals commonly used. Different
chemicals may be used by different chemicals cleaning specialists
to achieve the same basic results.
A typical chemical cleaning programme is likely to include some or
all of the following procedures:
1. Static flushing
2. Dynamic flushing
3. Degreasing
4. Biocide wash (for systems at risk form bacteria)
5. Removal of surface oxides
(for systems with mild steel components)
6. Effluent disposal / final flushing
7. Neutralisation (for inhibited acid cleans only)
8. Passivation
9. Corrosion inhibitor and biocide dosing
Choiceofchemicals
Degreasing
If the internal pipework surface of the system is

contaminated with grease or oil, it is important that this
is removed to ensure that the subsequent chemical
cleaning operations are successful.
The most commonly used degreasing agents are mild

alkali formulations, such as caustic solutions or
detergents.
These are used at various concentrations together with

a wetting agent (surfactant) at system temperatures of
up to 100C.
F3) Degreasing
If the internal pipework surface of the system is contaminated
with grease or oil it is important that this is removed to ensure
that the subsequent chemical cleaning operations are
successful.
The most commonly used degreasing agents are mild alkali
formulations, such as caustic solutions or detergents.
These are used at various concentrations together with a
wetting agent (surfactant) at system temperatures of up to
100C.
An alternative option would be to use an organic solvent.

Biocidewash
In order to control bacteria and biofilms which may

become established inside pipework during the
installation process, it is sometimes advisable to
carry out a biocide wash as an additional stage of
the chemical cleaning procedure.
In view of the increasing incidence of bacterial
contamination, biocide washes are sometimes
viewed as an essential precautionary measure to
avoid the problem.
F4) Biocide wash (1)

Biocide
A physical or chemical agent that kills bacteria and other
microorganisms.
Chemical biocides are the most common products to control
the growth of micro-organisms.
Different types of biocides shall be used together to
supplement the deficiency of each other.
To dose 2 types of biocides alternatively can avoid microorganisms to build up immunity against specific type of
biocides.
Selection of biocides depends on the required dose rates and
contact times, field trails and prior experience of water
treatment services providers.

F4) Biocide wash (2)
In order to control bacteria and biofilms which may become established

inside pipework during the installation process, it is sometimes advisable to
carry out a biocide wash as an additional stage of the chemical cleaning
procedure.
In view of the increasing incidence of bacterial contamination, biocide
washes are sometimes viewed as an essential precautionary measure to
avoid the problem. However, a biocide wash may not always be necessary
and the advice of the chemical cleaning specialist should be sought.
In general, there may be less need for a biocide wash when:
Temporary fill mains have been disinfected prior to use for system filling
There has been a pre-clean monitoring period during which water
samples have shown low, stable (non increasing) bacteria levels
A bacteria resistant, wrc-approved compound has been used for
pipework jointing
A biocide has been added to all fill water
Incidences of bacteria related problems in the region or locality of the
buildings are rare
Removalofsurfaceoxides
Thereareanumberofdifferentchemicalprocessesusedforthis activity
Inhibited acid cleaning

Formulated products, such as polymers, chelants,
(A chemical compound) and other formulated products.
The most commonly used acids for the removal of
oxides from ferrous materials are hydrochloric acid
and ammoniated citric acid.
Hydrochloric acid is not suitable where there are
major components made of stainless steel.
Ammoniated citric acid is recommended where
austenitic steels or non-ferrous alloys are present
The monoammonium form of citric acid, neutralized to pH 35-40 is a
useful solvent for iron oxides.
F5) Removal of surface oxides

There are a number of different chemical
processes used for this activity:
a) Inhibited acid cleaning
b) Formulated product, such as polymers,
chelants and other formulated products

F5a) Removal of surface oxides

(Inhibited acid cleaning)
Acid cleaning involves the circulation of acid at low
concentration and can be used for the removal of unwanted
oxides and deposited scales from pipe surfaces.
The most commonly used acids for the removal of oxides
from ferrous materials are hydrochloric acid and ammoniated
citric acid.
Other organic acids may also be used for this purpose where
availability and cost favour them.
Hydrochloric acid is not suitable where there are major
components made of stainless steel.
Ammoniated citric acid is recommended where austenitic
steels or non-ferrous alloys are present.
The monoammonium form of citric acid, neutralized to pH 3.54.0 has proved to be a useful solvent for iron oxides.
Formulatedproducts
Polymer cleaning:
Polymer cleaners, otherwise known as dispersants, act by
creating repellent forces between individual particles in the
solution;
They are therefore able to break down the loose surface
deposits on the pipework and ensure that they stay in
suspension until the chemical is flushed away to drain.
Chelants: Oxides can be removed by application of chelant
formulated agents, otherwise known as complexing agents.
Probably the most established example of a complexing
agent is ethylene diamine tetracetic acid AKA (EDTA).
F5b) Removal of surface oxides

(Formulated products)
1. Polymer cleaning
Polymer cleanings, otherwise known as dispersants, act by
creating repellent forces between individual particles in the
solution; they are therefore able to break down the loose
surfaces deposits on the pipework and ensure that they stay
in suspension until the chemical is flushed away to drain.
They differ from acids and chelant complexing agents in that
they are not intended to dissolve the metal oxides.
Treatment of steel pipes with polymers will leave the original
hard layer of impervious magnetite, which will not deteriorate
and which will offer some degree of protection against further
corrosion of the metal underneath.

F5b) Removal of surface oxides

(Formulated products)
2.Chelants
Oxides can be removed by application of
chelant formulated agents, otherwise
known as compexing agents.
Probably the most established example of
a complexing agent is ethylene diamine
tetracetic acid (EDTA).

ChemicalCleaning
Effluent disposal/final flushing

Passivation, this is a procedure where the exposed
pipework surfaces treated immediately after the final
flushing in order to render the active metal surfaces
passive.
Corrosion inhibitor/biocide dosing
On completion, the system must be dosed with
corrosion inhibitors and biocides to help control the
subsequent corrosion of the metal, and the possible
development of microbiological growth.
Biocides
Must be selected by the cleaning specialist to suit the
system and the particular stage of system cleaning and
bactera found in the system.
F6) Effluent disposal / final flushing
The disposal of chemicals should be as agreed with the contractor in

advance.
All chemicals should be removed by clean water rinsing and flushing
at this stage, so decreasing their corrosive effects by achieving
neutral conditions, ie. A pH value of approximately 7, depending
upon the quality of the water used.
The procedure for final flushing must be devised and agreed by the
cleaning specialist.
The final flush may be a series of static flushes whereby the system
is drained, refilled and circulated a number of times.
In most cases, however, it will involve a dynamic flush of the system,
taking particular care to ensure that no dead-legs are left unflushed.
The use of flocculants or dispersants during the final flushing stages
may further assist in mobilising and loosely adherent particles.

F7) Neutralisation
A neutralisation stage may be necessary if an inhibited acid
cleaning agent is used.
The final flushing will have removed the majority of the
cleaning chemical, but to ensure that any isolated pockets of
chemical are rendered harmless, an alkali solution may need
to be introduced to the system.
This may be a separate stage in the process, or it may be
achieved by introducing an alkali water treatment chemical.
The same chemical will then perform the functions of
neutralising agent, passivating agent and corrosion inhibitor.

F8) Passivation (1)

Passivation
The formation of a protective film, visible or invisible, which controls
corrosion.
In order to prevent corrosion on galvanized steel cooling towers and
associated pipes (usually known as white rust), formation of a nonporous surface layer of basic zinc carbonate is one of the effective
methods.
The zinc carbonate layer is a barrier layer to protect galvanized steel
from corrosion, which normally protects the metal for many years.
The formation of zinc carbonate layer is called passivation, which
shall be accomplished by controlling pH during initial operation of
the cooling tower.
Control of the cooling water pH in the range of 7 to 8 for 45 to 60
days usually allows passivation of galvanized surfaces to occur.
In addition to pH control, operation and moderate hardness levels of
100 to 300 ppm as CaCO3 and alkalinity levels of 100 to 300 ppm as
CaCO3 will promote passivation.
F8) Passivation (2)

After the system has been finally flushed, the pipework
surfaces are left in an 'active' state, ie they are clean and
exposed and are particularly prone to further corrosion.
Therefore, passivation of the exposed pipework surfaces must
take place immediately after the final flushing in order to
render the active metal surfaces passive.
Passivation is achieved by introducing a passivating agent to
the system.
This may be a separate chemical or it may be part of the
function of the water treatment corrosion inhibitor chemicals.

F9) Corrosion inhibitor & biocide dosing

On completion of the chemical clean, the
system must be dosed with corrosion
inhibitors and biocides to help control the
subsequent corrosion of the metal, and the
possible development of microbiological
growth.
One week after dosing, samples of the
system water should be taken for record
purposes.
F9a) Corrosion inhibitor (1)

Chemical which protects metals by:
a) passivating the metal by the promotion of a thin
metal oxide film (anodic inhibitors); or
b) physically forming a thin barrier film by
controlled deposition (cathodic inhibitors).
Corrosion inhibitors are almost universally used to
prevent deterioration of carbon steel and other
alloys in water-cooled air conditioning systems. In
general, there are 4 types of inhibitor, including
anodic, cathodic, mixed and adsorption, commonly
adopted in cooling tower water treatment.
F9a) Corrosion inhibitor (2)

Although highly effective as a protection against corrosion in
steel systems, nitrite-based corrosion inhibitors can, in certain
circumstances, cause microbiological problems.
Nitrite-reducing bacteria (including some Pseudomonas
species) are able to use nitrate, thereby encouraging their
multiplication while, at the same time, depleting inhibitor levels.
For this reason, molybdate-based inhibitors are sometimes
recommended as alternatives to nitrite.
However, they tend to be slower acting, resulting in higher
iron levels in the final treated water.
A blend of low level nitrite with molybdate is a compromise
solution offered by some chemical cleaning / water treatment
specialists.

F9b) Biocide dosing (1)

Biocide
A physical or chemical agent that kills bacteria and other
microorganisms.
Non-oxidising biocide
A non-oxidising biocide is one that functions by mechanisms
other than oxidation, including interference with cell
metabolism and structure.
Oxidising biocide
Agents capable of oxidizing organic matter, e.g. cell material
enzymes or proteins which are associated with
microbiological populations resulting in death of the microorganisms.

F9b) Biocide dosing

Biocides must be selected by the cleaning specialist to suit
the system and the particular stage of system cleaning.
Biocides may be dosed into static systems to prevent bacteria
multiplying when there is a delay between pressue testing and
the commencement of flushing and chemical cleaning.
They may also be used in conjunction with biodispersants to
kill bacteria and remove biofilms during a biocide wash.
Finally after the final fill of the system they will be used to
provide ongoing protection for the system against bacteria.

Treatmentuptosystemhandover
If the building is not to be put into normal (occupied)

operation for a prolonged period, ie more than one
week, then the system water should
be regularly monitored and circulated during this time,
and if necessary further dosed until the system is
handed over and put into normal operation.
Protective measures:
Dry out the system with hot air. This may be difficult
in complex components and pipe runs.
Fill the system with an inert gas such as nitrogen. All
joints have to be gas tight to prevent gas losses.
G) Treatment up to system handover
If the building is not to be put into normal (occupied) operation for a

prolonged period, i.e. more than one week, then the system water
should be regularly monitored and circulated during this time, and if
necessary further dosed until the system is handed over and put into
normal operation.
This may also necessitate the inclusion of an appropriate antifreeze,
where there is a danger of the system freezing.
If draining of the system, or part of the system, is unavoidable, one
of the following proective measures must be taken:
Dry out the system with hot air. This may be difficult if sumps exist in
complex components and pipe runs.
Fill the system with an inert gas such as nitrogen. All joints have to be
gas tight to prevent gas losses.
The preferred measure will depend on the geometry of the system

and the availability of equipment and materials.

H) On going water treatment
Water treatment is necessary throughout the operating life of the

system.
The various options and considerations involved in the
implementation of an effective water treatment regime are the
subject of BSRIA.
The main considerations for chemical water treatment regarding the
different system types are as follows:
Condenser water (open) circuits
Cleaned water circuits should be treated (dosed):
With inhibitors to limit corrosion and scale formation in the
pipework
With dispersants to keep particles in suspension
With alternating biocides to reduce the incidence of legionella
and to minimise the growth of algae and slime
Furthermore, softened make-up water may be required. Systems
should also be periodically disinfected.
Sidestreamfiltrationunit.
Hydrocyclone unit.
Tutorial
How does the Biofilm forms in the pipework

Where is the micro Organism are come from?
How do the problems (scales , corrosion) manifest themselves.
How and when Sampling should be carried out
Briefly describe stages involved for carrying out chemical
cleaning
Briefly described the main type of BSE system flushing.
Describe the difference between Chemical and Biocide
cleaning.
List and briefly describe the preventative measures that can
be employed for cleaning and treatment of Water systems
prior to commissioning
Briefly describe the role of the designer and estimator /QS in
the Treatment process.
Describe how water quality can be maintained after
completion of treatment process
FaultFinding
Describe the causes associated with the following BSE

issues.
Poor Thermal transfer
Failed pipework/ fitting
Equipment failure
Poor water quality testing
Tutorial
The BT offices in Cardiff are to be refurbished on a floor by -floor
basis. The company will vacate one floor at a time on a rotational
basis. The building is served by domestic water, Low temperature
hot water (LTHW) and chilled water systems, these are to be
maintained in an operational condition at all times unless prior
agreement to the contrary is obtained . The LTHW and chilled
water feed the fan coil units on all the floors, all the pipework on
the floors are to be replaced, The existing air handling unit,
chillers , boilers and pumps are to be retained , no alteration are
being made to the domestic water system.
1.
2.
3.
Suggests what water treatment investigations should be carried

out prior commencing work on site
If the existing services are found to be in poor condition what
steps could be considered to ensure that the services in the
building are operational on completion of the refurbishment work.
The new pipework system is to be cleaned using temporary pump
set, list and briefly describe your action plan
Tutorial (Typical Answers) (1)

1.
Suggests what water treatment investigations should be carried

out prior commencing work on site
History of water treatment,

Water velocity at each floor,
Install filter at each floor if not fitted ,
Identify suitable heat source ,
Check for dead legs ,
Identify drain position


2.
If the existing services are found to be in poor condition what

steps could be considered to ensure that the services in the
building are operational on completion of the refurbishment work.
Investigate the pipe condition and replace,

Install heat exchanger with By pass and filter see BSRIA APG for
further info
Carry out the same treatment as new installation.
Fit drain, and test points
Seek permission to drain systems into public drains or arrange for
alternative solutions
Ensure the pipework can withstand the stress of cleaning if not
replaced


3.
The new pipework system is to be cleaned using temporary pump

set , list and briefly describe your action plan
Do not recommend this course of action

Pump to be designed to meet the system pressure and flow,
Order in time to meet contract programme
Any temporary equipment must be cleaned and treated prior to be
put into operation ,
Ensure no back-syphonage


.Water Treatment &amp; Bacteria

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

.Water Treatment &amp; Bacteria

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

NT3037

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Sulphate-reducing Bacteria (1)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Sulphate-reducing Bacteria (2)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Nitrite Oxidising Bacteria (1)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Nitrite Oxidising Bacteria (2)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Iron Bacteria (1)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Iron Bacteria (2)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

As early as possible the designer should aim to

Design & Commissioning Records

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

The flushing is carried out in accordance with the procedures

The flushing and chemical cleaning procedures are planned

The cleaning specialist is allowed to satisfy himself that the

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

What is COSHH Regulations?

Ordinances, Technical Memorandum

Waterworks Ordinance (WWO) (Cap. 102)

Chemical Cleaning Consideration

The designer, and /or water treatment advisor, to define

The scope and extent of the cleaning process,

The duties of the various parties (client, designer, main or

The layout of the system in relation to the building

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Installation debris , These include millscale, welding slag and metal

Scale is formed when the water is heated or when the pH or alkalinity

Causes of Scaling Problems (1)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Causes of Scaling Problems (2)

Scale Prevention Methods

Physical Water Treatment Method

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Causes of Corrosion Problems

Corrosion Prevention Methods

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

The causes of biological fouling in water systems may be attributed

During Installation period (repeated fillings and draining offs)

Pseudomonas ( in high levels) were linked to series of damaging

Although other bacteria were also present , H.L Pseudomonas Used

Causes of Bacterial and

Microbiological organisms enter the cooling tower system through make

Chemical Cleaning & Passivation (1)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Chemical Cleaning & Passivation (2)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Chemical Cleaning Procedures (a)(b)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Chemical Cleaning Procedures (c)

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

Chemical Cleaning Procedures (d ~ f)

Chemical Cleaning Procedures

B) The importance of flow

Fresh cleaning agents are continually presented to the deposits, helping to

there will be a need to maintain certain minimum

C) The importance of temperature

NT 3037 Plant & Maintenance

.Water Treatment & Bacteria

.Water Treatment & Bacteria