ELECTRIC

LOCOMOTIVE
An electric locomotive is a locomotive powered by electricity from overhead lines, a third rail or onboard energy storage such as a battery or fuel cell. Electric locomotives with on-board fueled
by prime movers, such as diesel engines or gas turbines, are classed as diesel-electric or gas
turbine-electric locomotives because the electric generator/motor combination serves only as
a power transmission system. Electricity is used to eliminate smoke and take advantage of the high
efficiency of electric motors, but the cost of electrification means that usually only heavily used lines
can be electrified.

CHARACTERISTICS
One advantage of electrification is the lack of pollution from the locomotives. Electrification results in
higher performance, lower maintenance costs and lower energy costs.
Power plants, even if they burn fossil fuels, are far cleaner than mobile sources such as locomotive
engines. The power can come from clean or renewable sources, including geothermal
power, hydroelectric power, nuclear power, solar power and wind turbines.[1] Electric locomotives are
quiet compared to diesel locomotives since there is no engine and exhaust noise and less
mechanical noise. The lack of reciprocating parts means electric locomotives are easier on the track,
reducing track maintenance.
Power plant capacity is far greater than any individual locomotive uses, so electric locomotives can
have a higher power output than diesel locomotives and they can produce even higher short-term
surge power for fast acceleration. Electric locomotives are ideal for commuter rail service with
frequent stops. They are used on high-speed lines, such as ICE in Germany, Acela in the
U.S., Shinkansen in Japan, China Railway High-speed in China and TGV in France. Electric
locomotives are used on freight routes with consistently high traffic volumes, or in areas with
advanced rail networks.
Electric locomotives benefit from the high efficiency of electric motors, often above 90% (not
including the inefficiency of generating the electricity). Additional efficiency can be gained
from regenerative braking, which allows kinetic energy to be recovered during braking to put power

back on the line. Newer electric locomotives use AC motor-inverter drive systems that provide for
regenerative braking.
The chief disadvantage of electrification is the cost for infrastructure: overhead lines or third rail,
substations, and control systems. Public policy in the U.S. interferes with electrification: higher
property taxes are imposed on privately owned rail facilities if they are electrified. U.S. regulations on
diesel locomotives are very weak compared to regulations on automobile emissions or power plant
emissions.[citation needed]
In Europe and elsewhere, railway networks are considered part of the national transport
infrastructure, just like roads, highways and waterways, so are often financed by the state. Operators
of the rolling stock pay fees according to rail use. This makes possible the large investments
required for the technically, and in the long-term also, economically advantageous electrification.
Because railroad infrastructure is privately owned in the U.S., railroads are unwilling to make the
necessary investments for electrification.

A BRIEF HISTORY
OF LOCOMOTIVES
von Siemens experimental train, 1879

Electric locomotive of the Baltimore Belt Line, 1895: The steam locomotive was not detached for passage
through the tunnel. The overhead conductor was a section bar at the highest point in the roof, so a flexible,
flat pantographwas used

Alco-GE Prototype Class S-1, NYC & HR no. 6000 (DC)

A GE steeplecab electric locomotive with trolley poles, for an interurbanrailroad.

A Milwaukee Road class ES-2, an example of a larger steeplecab switcherfor an electrified heavy-duty railroad

The first known electric locomotive was built in 1837 by chemist Robert Davidson of Aberdeen. It
was powered by galvanic cells(batteries). Davidson later built a larger locomotive named Galvani,
exhibited at the Royal Scottish Society of Arts Exhibition in 1841. The seven-ton vehicle had
two direct-drive reluctance motors, with fixed electromagnets acting on iron bars attached to a
wooden cylinder on each axle, and simple commutators. It hauled a load of six tons at four miles per
hour for a distance of one and a half miles. It was tested on the Edinburgh and Glasgow Railway in
September of the following year, but the limited power from batteries prevented its general use. It
was destroyed by railway workers, who saw it as a threat to their security of employment. [2][3][4]
The first electric passenger train was presented by Werner von Siemens at Berlin in 1879. The
locomotive was driven by a 2.2 kW, series-wound motor, and the train, consisting of the locomotive
and three cars, reached a speed of 13 km/h. During four months, the train carried 90,000
passengers on a 300-metre-long circular track. The electricity (150 V DC) was supplied through a
third insulated rail between the tracks. A contact roller was used to collect the electricity. The world's
first electric tram line opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin, Germany, in 1881. It was built by Werner
von Siemens (see Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway and Berlin Straenbahn). Volk's Electric
Railway opened in 1883 in Brighton. Also in 1883, Mdling and Hinterbrhl Tram opened near
Vienna in Austria. It was the first in the world in regular service powered from an overhead line. Five
years later, in the U.S. electric trolleys were pioneered in 1888 on the Richmond Union Passenger
Railway, using equipment designed by Frank J. Sprague.[5]
Much of the early development of electric locomotion was driven by the increasing use of tunnels,
particularly in urban areas. Smoke from steam locomotives was noxious and municipalities were
increasingly inclined to prohibit their use within their limits. The first electricallyworked underground line was the City and South London Railway, prompted by a clause in its
enabling act prohibiting use of steam power.[6] It opened in 1890, using electric locomotives built
by Mather and Platt. Electricity quickly became the power supply of choice for subways, abetted by

the Sprague's invention of multiple-unit train control in 1897. Surface and elevated rapid
transit systems generally used steam until forced to convert by ordinance.
The first use of electrification on a main line was on a four-mile stretch of the Baltimore Belt Line of
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) in 1895 connecting the main portion of the B&O to the new
line to New York through a series of tunnels around the edges of Baltimore's downtown. Parallel
tracks on the Pennsylvania Railroad had shown that coal smoke from steam locomotives would be a
major operating issue and a public nuisance. Three Bo+Bo units were initially used, at the south end
of the electrified section; they coupled onto the locomotive and train and pulled it through the
tunnels.[7] Railroad entrances to New York City required similar tunnels and the smoke problems
were more acute there. A collision in the Park Avenue tunnel in 1902 led the New York State
legislature to outlaw the use of smoke-generating locomotives south of the Harlem River after 1 July
1908. In response, electric locomotives began operation in 1904 on the New York Central Railroad.
In the 1930s, the Pennsylvania Railroad, which had introduced electric locomotives because of the
NYC regulation, electrified its entire territory east of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.
The Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific Railroad (the Milwaukee Road), the last
transcontinental line to be built, electrified its lines across the Rocky Mountains and to the Pacific
Ocean starting in 1915. A few East Coast lines, notably the Virginian Railway and theNorfolk and
Western Railway, electrified short sections of their mountain crossings. However, by this point
electrification in the United States was more associated with dense urban traffic and the use of
electric locomotives declined in the face of dieselization.[8] Diesels shared some of the electric
locomotives advantages over steam and the cost of building and maintaining the power supply
infrastructure, which discouraged new installations, brought on the elimination of most main-line
electrification outside the Northeast. Except for a few captive systems (e.g. the Black Mesa and Lake
Powell), by 2000 electrification was confined to the Northeast Corridor and some commuter service;
even there, freight service was handled by diesels. Development continued in Europe, where
electrification was widespread.

A.C CURRENT USE IN

LOCOMOTIVES
Introduction of alternating current[edit]

A prototype of a Ganz AC electric locomotive in Valtellina , Italy, 1901

The first practical AC electric locomotive was designed by Charles Brown, then working for Oerlikon,
Zrich. In 1891, Brown had demonstrated long-distance power transmission, using three-phase AC,
between a hydro-electric plant at Lauffen am Neckar andFrankfurt am Main West, a distance of
280 km. Using experience he had gained while working for Jean Heilmann on steam-electric
locomotive designs, Brown observed that three-phase motors had a higher power-to-weight ratio
than DC motors and, because of the absence of a commutator, were simpler to manufacture and
maintain.[9] However, they were much larger than the DC motors of the time and could not be
mounted in underfloor bogies: they could only be carried within locomotive bodies.[10]
In 1894, Hungarian engineer Klmn Kand developed a new type 3-phase asynchronous electric
drive motors and generators for electric locomotives. Kand's early 1894 designs were first applied
in a short three-phase AC tramway in Evian-les-Bains (France), which was constructed between
1896 and 1898.[11][12][13][14][15] In 1918,[16] Kand invented and developed the rotary phase converter,
enabling electric locomotives to use three-phase motors whilst supplied via a single overhead wire,
carrying the simple industrial frequency (50 Hz) single phase AC of the high voltage national
networks.[17]
In 1896, Oerlikon installed the first commercial example of the system on the Lugano Tramway.
Each 30-tonne locomotive had two 110 kW (150 hp) motors run by three-phase 750 V 40 Hz fed
from double overhead lines. Three-phase motors run at constant speed and provide regenerative
braking, and are well suited to steeply graded routes, and the first main-line three-phase locomotives
were supplied by Brown (by then in partnership with Walter Boveri) in 1899 on the 40 km Burgdorf
Thun line, Switzerland. The first implementation of industrial frequency single-phase AC supply for

locomotives came from Oerlikon in 1901, using the designs of Hans Behn-Eschenburgand Emil
Huber-Stockar; installation on the Seebach-Wettingen line of the Swiss Federal Railways was
completed in 1904. The 15 kV, 50 Hz 345 kW (460 hp), 48 tonne locomotives used transformers and
rotary converters to power DC traction motors.[18]
Italian railways were the first in the world to introduce electric traction for the entire length of a main
line rather than just a short stretch. The 106 km Valtellina line was opened on 4 September 1902,
designed by Kand and a team from the Ganz works. [19][17] The electrical system was three-phase at
3 kV 15 Hz. The voltage was significantly higher than used earlier and it required new designs for
electric motors and switching devices.[20][21] The three-phase two-wire system was used on several
railways in Northern Italy and became known as "the Italian system". Kand was invited in 1905 to
undertake the management of Societ Italiana Westinghouse and led the development of several
Italian electric locomotives.[20] During the period of electrification of the Italian railways, tests were
made as to which type of power to use: in some sections there was a 3,600 V 16 23 Hz three-phase
power supply, in others there was 1,500 V DC, 3 kV DC and 10 kV AC 45 Hz supply. After WW2, 3
kV DC power was chosen for the entire Italian railway system. [22] 1,500 V DC is still used on some
lines near France and 25 kV 50 Hz is used by high-speed trains.[4]

A Swiss Re 420 leads a freight train down the South side of the Gotthard line, which was electrified in 1922.
The masts and lines of the catenary can be seen.

A later development of Kand, working with both the Ganz works and Societa Italiana Westinghouse,
was an electro-mechanical converter, allowing the use of three-phase motors from single-phase AC,
eliminating the need for two overhead wires.[23] In 1923, the first phase-converter locomotive in
Hungary was constructed on the basis of Kands designs and serial production began soon after.
The first installation, at 16 kV 50 Hz, was in 1932 on the 56 km section of the Hungarian State
Railways between Budapest and Komrom. This proved successful and the electrification was
extended to Hegyeshalom in 1934.[24]
In Europe, electrification projects initially focused on mountainous regions for several reasons: coal
supplies were difficult, hydroelectric power was readily available, and electric locomotives gave more
traction on steeper lines. This was particularly applicable in Switzerland, where close to 100% of
lines are electrified. An important contribution to the wider adoption of AC traction came

from SNCF of France after World War II. The company had assessed the industrial-frequency AC
line routed through the steep Hllental Valley, Germany, which was under French administration
following the war. After trials, the company decided that the performance of AC locomotives was
sufficiently developed to allow all its future installations, regardless of terrain, to be of this standard,
with its associated cheaper and more efficient infrastructure. [25] The SNCF decision, ignoring as it did
the 2,000 miles (3,200 km) of high-voltage DC already installed on French routes, was influential in
the standard selected for other countries in Europe.[25]
The 1960s saw the electrification of many European main lines. European electric locomotive
technology had improved steadily from the 1920s onwards. By comparison, theMilwaukee Road
class EP-2 (1918) weighed 240 t, with a power of 3,330 kW and a maximum speed of 112 km/h; in
1935, German E 18 had a power of 2,800 kW, but weighed only 108 tons and had a maximum
speed of 150 km/h. On 29 March 1955, French locomotive CC 7107 reached 331 km/h. In 1960
the SJ Class Dm 3 locomotives on Swedish Railways produced a record 7,200 kW. Locomotives
capable of commercial passenger service at 200 km/h appeared in Germany and France in the
same period. Further improvements resulted from the introduction of electronic control systems,
which permitted the use of increasingly lighter and more powerful motors that could be fitted inside
the bogies (standardising from the 1990s onwards on asynchronous three-phase motors, fed
through GTO-inverters).
In the 1980s, development of very high-speed service brought further electrification. The
Japanese Shinkansen and the French TGV were the first systems for which devoted high-speed
lines were built from scratch. Similar programs were undertaken in Italy, Germany and Spain; in the
United States the only new main-line service was an extension of electrification over the Northeast
Corridor from New Haven, Connecticut to Boston, Massachusetts, though new electric light
rail systems continued to be built.
On 2 September 2006, a standard production Siemens electric locomotive of the Eurosprinter type
ES64-U4 (BB Class 1216) achieved 357 km/h (221 mph), the record for a locomotive-hauled train,
on the new line between Ingolstadt and Nuremberg. [26] This locomotive is now employed largely
unmodified by BB to haul their Railjet which is however limited to a top speed of 230 km/h due to
economic and infrastructure concerns.

Electric locomotive types[edit]

The operating controls of VL80R freight locomotive from Russian Railways. The wheel controls motor power.

Electric locomotive used in mining operations in Flin Flon, Manitoba. This locomotive is on display and not
currently in service.

An electric locomotive can be supplied with power from

Rechargeable energy storage systems, such as battery or ultracapacitorpowered mining locomotives.

A stationary source, such as a third rail or overhead wire.

A diesel-electric combines an onboard diesel engine with an electrical power transmission or storage
(battery, ultracapacitor) system.
The distinguishing design features of electric locomotives are:

The type of electrical power used, AC or DC.

The method of storing (batteries, ultracapacitors) or collecting (transmission) electrical

power.

The means used to couple the traction motors to the driving wheels (drivers).

Direct and alternating current[edit]

The most fundamental difference lies in the choice of AC or DC. The earliest systems used DC as
AC was not well understood and insulation material for high voltage lines was not available. DC
locomotives typically run at relatively low voltage (600 to 3,000 volts); the equipment is therefore
relatively massive because the currents involved are large in order to transmit sufficient power.
Power must be supplied at frequent intervals as the high currents result in large transmission system
losses.
As AC motors were developed, they became the predominant type, particularly on longer routes.
High voltages (tens of thousands of volts) are used because this allows the use of low
currents; transmission losses are proportional to the square of the current (e.g. twice the current
means four times the loss). Thus, high power can be conducted over long distances on lighter and
cheaper wires. Transformers in the locomotives transform this power to a low voltage and high
current for the motors.[27] A similar high voltage, low current system could not be employed with direct
current locomotives because there is no easy way to do the voltage/current transformation for DC so
efficiently as achieved by AC transformers.
AC traction still occasionally uses dual overhead wires instead of single phase lines. The
resulting three-phase current drives induction motors, which do not have sensitive commutators and
permit easy realisation of a regenerative brake. Speed is controlled by changing the number of pole
pairs in the stator circuit, with acceleration controlled by switching additional resistors in, or out, of
the rotor circuit. The two-phase lines are heavy and complicated near switches, where the phases
have to cross each other. The system was widely used in northern Italy until 1976 and is still in use
on some Swiss rack railways. The simple feasibility of a fail-safe electric brake is an advantage of
the system, while speed control and the two-phase lines are problematic.

The Swedish Rc locomotive was the first series locomotive that usedthyristors with DC motors.

Rectifier locomotives, which used AC power transmission and DC motors, were common, though DC
commutators had problems both in starting and at low velocities.[further explanation needed] Today's advanced
electric locomotives use brushless three-phase AC induction motors. These polyphase machines are
powered from GTO-, IGCT- or IGBT-based inverters. The cost of electronic devices in a modern
locomotive can be up to 50% of the cost of the vehicle.
Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and
become generators that transforms the motion of the train into electrical power that is then fed back

into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending
locomotives can produce a large portion of the power required for ascending trains. Most systems
have a characteristic voltage and, in the case of AC power, a system frequency. Many locomotives
have been equipped to handle multiple voltages and frequencies as systems came to overlap or
were upgraded. American FL9 locomotives were equipped to handle power from two different
electrical systems and could also operate as diesel-electrics.
While recently designed systems operate on AC, many DC systems are still in use e.g. in South
Africa and the United Kingdom (750 V and 1,500 V); Netherlands, Japan,Mumbai, Ireland (1,500
V); Slovenia, Belgium, Italy, Poland, Russia, Spain (3,000 V) and Washington DC (750 V).

Power transmission[edit]

A modern half-pantograph.

See also: Railway electrification system

Electrical circuits require two connections (or for three phase AC, three connections). From the
beginning, the track was used for one side of the circuit. Unlike model railroads the track normally
supplies only one side, the other side(s) of the circuit being provided separately.
The original Baltimore and Ohio Railroad electrification used a sliding shoe in an overhead channel,
a system quickly found to be unsatisfactory. It was replaced by a third rail, in which a pickup (the
"shoe") rode underneath or on top of a smaller rail parallel to the main track, above ground level.
There were multiple pickups on both sides of the locomotive in order to accommodate the breaks in
the third rail required by trackwork. This system is preferred in subways because of the close
clearances it affords.
Railways generally tend to prefer overhead lines, often called "catenaries" after the support system
used to hold the wire parallel to the ground. Three collection methods are possible:

Trolley pole: a long flexible pole, which engages the line with a wheel or shoe.

Bow collector: a frame that holds a long collecting rod against the wire.

Pantograph: a hinged frame that holds the collecting shoes against the wire in a fixed
geometry.

Of the three, the pantograph method is best suited for high-speed operation. Some locomotives use
both overhead and third rail collection (e.g. British Rail Class 92).

Electric traction around the world[edit]

Asia[edit]
India[edit]

Electrified routes in India use 25 kV AC railway electrification at 50 Hz. Until 2013-2014, the Mumbai
area used the older 1500 V DC electrification. Dual-current WCAM locomotives were used in
Mumbai sections which could use both types of power supply; these locomotives still exist but now
use only AC power. As of 2015, Indian railways haul 85% of freight and passenger traffic with electric
locomotives.
In Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore all local trains use electric locomotive and speed is
also high.
Japan[edit]
The rail system consists of the following (As of 2005):[28]

20,264 km (12,591 mi) of 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in), of which 13,280 kilometres (8,250 mi) is
electrified;

3,204 km (1,991 mi) of 1,435 mm (4 ft 8 12 in) standard gauge, all electrified;

117 km (73 mi) of 1,372 mm (4 ft 6 in) Scotch gauge, all electrified;

11 km (6.8 mi) of 762 mm (2 ft 6 in) narrow gauge, all electrified.

Electrification systems used by the JR group, Japan's formerly state-owned operators, are 1,500 V
DC and 20 kV AC for conventional lines and 25 kV AC for Shinkansen. Electrification at 600 V DC
and 750 V DC are also seen in private lines. The frequency of the AC power supply is 50 Hz in
Eastern Japan and 60 Hz in Western Japan.
See also: List of railway electrification systems in Japan
Japan has come close to complete electrification largely due to the relatively short distances and
mountainous terrain, which make electric service a particularly economical investment. Additionally,
the mix of freight to passenger service is weighted much more toward passenger service (even in
rural areas) than in many other countries, and this has helped drive government investment into
electrification of many remote lines.
Electrification began in earnest for local railways in the 1920s and main lines electrification began
following World War II using a universal 1,500 V DC standard and eventually, a 20 kV standard for
rapid intercity main lines (often overlaying 1,500 V DC lines) and 25 kV AC for highspeed Shinkansen lines). Because most of the electrification infrastructure was destroyed in the war,
the only variances to this standard with significant traffic are a few of the older subway lines in Tokyo
and Osaka. The Tkaid Main Line, Japan's busiest line, completed electrification in 1956
and Tkaid Shinkansen was complete in 1964. By the mid 1970s, most main lines had been
converted. During the 1970s and into the 1980s, when a fast-growing Japanese economy

encouraged massive infrastructure spending, almost every line with any significant traffic was
electrified. Though the massive debts incurred for these upgrades (along with the more publicised
expense of Shinkansen expansions) led to the privatization and break-up of the national rail
company. By the time of the breakup in 1987, electric service had penetrated to every line with
significant traffic. In the 1990s, and 2000s, rural infrastructure was the focus of a lot of government
stimulus funding and this included some rail electrification on infrequently used lines, and funding for
expanding the Shinkansen network (which, as with all high speed trains, is electric). The latter was
mostly in the form of loans rather than direct investment as in the former.
Malaysia[edit]
Keretapi Tanah Melayu of Malaysia operates 25 kV AC electric multiple units, starting from their KTM
Komuter in 1995. In December 2009, a fleet of new ETS arrived.
Australia[edit]
Both Victorian Railways and New South Wales Government Railways, which pioneered electric
traction in Australia in the early 20th century and continue to operate 1,500 V DCElectric Multiple
Units, have withdrawn their electric locomotives.
In both states, the use of electric locomotives on principal interurban routes proved to be a qualified
success. In Victoria, because only one major line (the Gippsland line) had been electrified, the
economic advantages of electric traction were not fully realised due to the need to change
locomotives for trains that ran beyond the electrified network. VR'selectric locomotive fleet was
withdrawn from service by 1987[29] and the Gippsland line electrification was dismantled by 2004.
[30]

The 86 class locomotives introduced to NSW in 1983 had a relatively short life as the costs of

changing locomotives at the extremities of the electrified network, together with the higher charges
levied for electricity use, saw diesel-electric locomotives make inroads into the electrified network.
[31]

Electric power car trains are still used for urban passenger services.

Queensland Rail implemented electrification relatively recently and utilises the more recent 25 kV
AC technology with around 1,000 km of the narrow gauge network now electrified. It operates a fleet
of electric locomotives to transport coal for export, the most recent of which the 3,000 kW (4,020 HP)
3300/3400 Class.[32] Queensland Rail is currently rebuilding its 3100 and 3200 class locos into the
3700 class, which use AC traction and need only three locomotives on a coal train rather than five.
Queensland Rail is getting 30 3800 class locomotives from Siemens in Munich, Germany, which will
arrive during late 2008 to 2009. QRNational (Queensland Rail's coal and freight after separation) has
increased the order of 3800 class locomotives. They continue to arrive late into 2010.
In South Australia, the Seaford railway line was electrified in 2013; electric services commenced in
February 2014.[33]

Europe[edit]

NER No.1, Locomotion museum, Shildon

A French electric locomotive, of similar design to NER No.1, at the Muse Franais du Chemin de Fer

FS Class E656, an articulated Bo'-Bo'-Bo' locomotive, manages more easily the tight curves often found on the
Italian railways

Electrification is widespread in Europe. Due to higher density schedules, operating costs are more
dominant with respect to the infrastructure costs than in the U.S. and electric locomotives have much
lower operating costs than diesels. In addition, governments were motivated to electrify their railway
networks due to coal shortages experienced during the First and Second World Wars.
Diesel locomotives have less power compared to electric locomotives for the same weight and
dimensions. For instance, the 2,200 kW of a modern British Rail Class 66 was matched in 1927 by
the electric SBB-CFF-FFS Ae 4/7 (2,300 kW), which is lighter. However, for low speeds, tractive
effort is more important than power. This is why diesel engines are competitive for slow freight traffic
(as it is common in the U.S.) but not for passenger or mixed passenger/freight traffic like on many
European railway lines, especially where heavy freight trains must be run at comparatively high
speeds (80 km/h or more).

These factors led to high degrees of electrification in most European countries. In some countries
like Switzerland, even electric shunters are common and many private sidings can be served by
electric locomotives. During World War II, when materials to build new electric locomotives were not
available, Swiss Federal Railways installed electric heating elements, fed from the overhead supply,
in the boilers ofsome steam shunters to deal with the shortage of imported coal.[34][35]
Recent political developments in many European countries to enhance public transit have led to
another boost for electric traction. High-speed trains like the TGV, ICE, AVE and Pendolino can only
be run economically using electric traction and the operation of branch lines is usually less in deficit
when using electric traction, due to cheaper and faster rolling stock and more passengers due to
more frequent service and more comfort. In addition, gaps of un-electrified track are closed to avoid
replacing electric locomotives by diesels for these sections. The necessary modernisation and
electrification of these lines is possible due to financing of the railway infrastructure by the state.

Russia and former USSR[edit]

Main article: Railway electrification in the Soviet Union

Soviet electric locomotive VL60pk(60), c. 1960

Soviet electric locomotive VL-23 (-23)

Russia and other countries of the former USSR have a mix of 3,300 V DC and 25 kV AC for
historical reasons.
The special "junction stations" (around 15 over the former USSR - Vladimir, Mariinsk near
Krasnoyarsk etc.) have wiring switchable from DC to AC. Locomotive replacement is essential at
these stations and is performed together with the contact wiring switching.

Most Soviet, Czech (the USSR ordered passenger electric locomotives from Skoda), Russian and
Ukrainian locomotives can operate on AC or DC only. For instance, VL80 is an AC machine, with
VL10 a DC version. There were some half-experimental small series like VL82, which could switch
from AC to DC and were used in small amounts around the city of Kharkov in Ukraine. Also, the
latest Russian passenger locomotive EP10 is dual-system.
Historically, 3,300 V DC was used for simplicity. The first experimental track was in Georgian
mountains, then the suburban zones of the largest cities were electrified for EMUs - very
advantageous due to much better dynamic of such a train compared to the steam one, which is
important for suburban service with frequent stops. Then the large mountain line
between Ufa and Chelyabinsk was electrified.
For some time, electric railways were only considered to be suitable for suburban or mountain lines.
In around 1950, a decision was made (according to legend, by Joseph Stalin) to electrify the highly
loaded plain prairie line of Omsk-Novosibirsk. After this, electrifying the major railroads at 3,000 V
DC became mainstream.
25 kV AC started in the USSR in around 1960, when the industry managed to build the rectifierbased AC-wire DC-motor locomotive (all Soviet and Czech AC locomotives were such; only the postSoviet ones switched to electronically controlled induction motors). The first major line with AC power
was Mariinsk-Krasnoyarsk-Tayshet-Zima; the lines in European Russia like Moscow-Rostov-on-Don
followed.
In 1990s, some DC lines were rebuilt as AC to allow the usage of the huge 10 MWt AC locomotive of
VL85. The line around Irkutsk is one of them. The DC locomotives freed by this rebuild were
transferred to the St Petersburg region.
The Trans-Siberian Railway has been partly electrified since 1929, entirely since 2002. The system
is 25 kV AC 50 Hz after the junction station of Mariinsk near Krasnoyarsk, 3,000 V DC before it, and
train weights are up to 6,000 tonnes.[36]

United States[edit]
Main article: Railroad electrification in the United States
Electric locomotives are used for passenger trains on Amtrak's Northeast
Corridor between Washington, DC and Boston, with a branch toHarrisburg, Pennsylvania, and on
some commuter rail lines. Mass transit systems and other electrified commuter lines use electric
multiple units, where each car is powered. All other long-distance passenger service and, with rare
exceptions, all freight is hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.
In North America, the flexibility of diesel locomotives and the relative low cost of their infrastructure
has led them to prevail except where legal or operational constraints dictate the use of electricity. An
example of the latter is the use of electric locomotives by Amtrak andcommuter railroads in the

Northeast. New Jersey Transit New York corridor uses ALP-46 electric locomotives, due to the
prohibition on diesel operation in Penn Station and the Hudson and East River Tunnels leading to it.
Some other trains to Penn Stations use dual-modelocomotives that can also operate off third-rail
power in the tunnels and the station. Electric locomotives are planned for the California High Speed
Rail system.
During the steam era, some mountainous areas were electrified but these have been discontinued.
The junction between electrified and non-electrified territory is the locale of engine changes; for
example, Amtrak trains had extended stops in New Haven, Connecticut as locomotives were
swapped, a delay which contributed to the decision to electrify the New Haven to Boston segment of
the Northeast Corridor in 2000.[37]

Canada[edit]
No main-line railways in Canada use electric locomotives As of January 2011.
Agence mtropolitaine de transport (AMT) operates the ALP-45DP dual-mode electro-diesel
locomotives for the Repentigny-Mascouche Line (AMT). They run as electric while in the poorly
ventilated Mount Royal Tunnel, otherwise they run as diesel locomotives.
GO Transit has completed a study on electrifying some of the Georgetown/Air Rail Link & Lakeshore
lines, but so far, no target date or purchases have been initiated. [38]

Battery locomotives [edit]

A London Underground battery-electric locomotive at West Ham stationused for hauling engineers' trains

A battery locomotive (or battery-electric locomotive) is powered by on-board batteries; a kind

of battery electric vehicle. Such locomotives are used where a conventional diesel or electric
locomotive would be unsuitable. An example is maintenance trains on electrified lines when the
electricity supply is turned off, such as by the London Underground battery-electric locomotives.
Another use for battery locomotives is in industrial facilities where a combustion-powered locomotive
(i.e., steam- or diesel-powered) could cause a safety issue, due to the risks of fire, explosion or
fumes in a confined space. Battery locomotives are preferred for mines where gas could be ignited
by trolley-powered units arcing at the collection shoes, or where electrical resistance could develop

in the supply or return circuits, especially at rail joints, and allow dangerous current leakage into the
ground.[39] An early example was at the Kennecott Copper Mine, Latouche, Alaska, where in 1917 the
underground haulage ways were widened to enable working by two battery locomotives of 4 12 tons.
[40]

In 1928, Kennecott Copper ordered four 700-series electric locomotives with on-board batteries.
These locomotives weighed 85 tons and operated on 750-volt overhead trolley wire with
considerable further range whilst running on batteries.[41] The locomotives provided several decades
of service using Nickel-iron battery (Edison) technology. The batteries were replaced with lead-acid
batteries, and the locomotives were retired shortly afterward. All four locomotives were donated to
museums, but one was scrapped. The others can be seen at the Boone and Scenic Valley Railroad,
Iowa, and at the Western Railway Museum in Rio Vista, California.

Power Electronics in railways

AC Locomotives with DC Drives

This diagram (above) shows a simplified schematic for a 25 kV AC electric

locomotive used in the UK from the late 1960s. The 25 kV AC is collected by the pantograph and
passed to the transformer. The transformer is needed to step down the voltage to a level which can
be managed by the traction motors. The level of current applied to the motors is controlled by a "tap
changer", which switches in more sections of the transformer to increase the voltage passing through
to the motors. It works in the same way as the resistance controllers used in DC traction, where the
resistance contactors are controlled by a camshaft operating under the driver's commands.
Before being passed to the motors, the AC has to be changed to DC by passing it through a rectifier.
For the last 30 years, rectifiers have used diodes and their derivatives, the continuing development of
which has led to the present, state-of-the-art AC traction systems.

The Diode

A diode is a device with no moving parts, known as a semi-conductor, which

allows current to flow through it in one direction only. It will block any current which tries to flow in
the opposite direction.

Four diodes arranged in a bridge configuration, as shown below, use this

property to convert AC into DC or to "rectify" it. It is called a "bridge rectifier". Diodes quickly
became popular for railway applications because they represent a low maintenance option.

They first

appeared in the late 1960s when diode rectifiers were introduced on 25 kV AC electric locomotives.

The Thyristor

The thyristor is a development of the diode. It acts like a diode in that it

allows current to flow in only one direction but differs from the diode in that it will only permit the
current to flow after it has been switched on or "gated". Once it has been gated and the current is
flowing, the only way it can be turned off is to send current in the opposite direction. This cancels the
original gating command. It's simple to achieve on an AC locomotive because the current switches its
direction during each cycle. With this development, controllable rectifiers became possible and tap
changers quickly became history. A thyristor controlled version of the 25 kV AC electric locomotive
traction system looks like the diagram here on the left.

A tapping is taken off the transformer for each DC motor and each has
its own controlling thyristors and diodes. The AC from the transformer is rectified to DC by chopping
the cycles, so to speak, so that they appear in the raw as half cycles of AC as shown on the left.

In reality, a smoothing circuit is added to remove most of the "ripple"

and provide a more constant power flow as shown in the diagram (left). Meanwhile, the power level
for the motor is controlled by varying the point in each rectified cycle at which the thyristors are fired.
The later in the cycle the thyristor is gated, the lower the current available to the motor. As the gating
is advanced, so the amount of current increases until the thyristors are "on" for the full cycle. This
form of control is known as "phase angle control".

SEPEX
In more recent thyristor control systems, the motors themselves are wired differently from the old
standard DC arrangement. The armatures and fields are no longer wired in series, they are wired
separately - separate excitement, or SEPEX. Each field has its own thyristor, which is used to control
the individual fields more precisely.
Since the motors are separately excited, the acceleration sequence is carried out in two stages. In the
first stage, the armature is fed current by its thyristors until it reaches the full voltage. This might
give about 25% of the locomotive's full speed. In the second stage, the field thyristors are used to
weaken the field current, forcing the motor to speed up to compensate. This technique is known
as field weakening and was already used in pre-electronic applications.
A big advantage of SEPEX is that wheel slip can be detected and corrected quickly, instead of the
traditional method of either letting the wheels spin until the driver noticed or using a wheel slip
relay to switch off the circuit and then restart it.

DC Choppers

The traditional resistance control of DC motors wastes current because it is

drawn from the line (overhead or third rail) and only some is used to accelerate the train to 20-25
mph when, at last, full voltage is applied.

The remainder is consumed in the resistances.

Immediately thyristors were shown to work for AC traction, everyone began looking for a way to use
them on DC systems. The problem was how to switch the thyristor off once it had been fired, in other
words, how to get the reverse voltage to operate on an essentially one-way DC circuit. It is done by
adding a "resonant circuit" using an inductor and a capacitor to force current to flow in the opposite
direction to normal. This has the effect of switching off the thyristor, or "commutating" it. It is shown

as part of the complete DC thyristor control circuit diagram (left). It has its own thyristor to switch it
on when required.
Two other features of the DC thyristor circuit are the "freewheel diode" and the "line filter".

The

freewheel diode keeps current circulating through the motor while the thyristor is off, using the
motor's own electro magnetic inductance.

Without the diode circuit, the current build up for the

motor would be slower.

Thyristor control can create a lot of electrical interference - with all that chopping, it's bound to. The
"line filter" comprises a capacitor and an inductor and, as its name suggests, it is used to prevent
interference from the train's power circuit getting into the supply system.

The thyristor in DC traction applications controls the current applied to the

motor by chopping it into segments, small ones at the beginning of the acceleration process, gradually
enlarging as speed increases.

This chopping of the circuit gave rise to the nickname "chopper

control". It is visually represented by the diagram below, where the "ON" time of the thyristor is
regulated to control the average voltage in the motor circuit.

If the "ON" time is increased, so does

the average voltage and the motor speeds up. The system began to appear on UK EMUs during the
1980s.

Dynamic Braking
Trains equipped with thyristor control can readily use dynamic braking, where the motors become
generators and feed the resulting current into an on-board resistance (rheostatic braking) or back into
the supply system (regenerative braking). The circuits are reconfigured, usually by a "motor/brake
switch" operated by a command from the driver, to allow the thyristors to control the current flow as
the motors slow down. An advantage of the thyristor control circuitry is its ability to choose either
regenerative or rheostatic braking simply by automatically detecting the state of receptivity of the
line. So, when the regenerated voltage across the supply connection filter circuit reaches a preset
upper limit, a thyristor fires to divert the current to the on-board resistor.

The GTO Thyristor

By the late 1980s, the thyristor had been developed to a stage where it could be turned off by a
control circuit as well as turned on by one. This was the "gate turn off" or GTO thyristor. This meant
that the thyristor commutating circuit could be eliminated for DC fed power circuits, a saving on
several electronic devices for each circuit. Now thyristors could be turned on and off virtually at will
and now a single thyristor could be used to control a DC motor.

It is at this point that the conventional DC motor reached its ultimate state in the railway traction
industry. Most systems now being built use AC motors.

AC Motors
There are two types of AC motor, synchronous and asynchronous.

The synchronous motor has its

field coils mounted on the drive shaft and the armature coils in the housing, the inverse of normal
practice. The synchronous motor has been used in electric traction - the most well-known application
being by the French in their TGV Atlantique train. This used a 25 kV AC supply, rectified to DC and
then inverted back to AC for supply to the motor. It was designed before the GTO thyristor had been
sufficiently developed for railway use and it used simple thyristors.

The advantage for the

synchronous motor in this application is that the motor produces the reverse voltages needed to turn
off the thyristors. It was a good solution is its day but it was quickly overtaken by the second type of
AC motor - the asynchronous motor - when GTO thyristors became available.

The Asynchronous Motor

The asynchronous motor, also called the induction motor, is an AC motor

which comprises a rotor and a stator like the DC motor, but the AC motor does not need current to
flow through the armature. The current flowing in the field coils forces the rotor to turn. However, it
does have to have a three phase supply, i.e. one where AC has three conductors, each conducting at a
point one third into the normal cycle period, as visually represented in the diagram on the left.
The two big advantages of the 3-phase design are that, one, the motor has no brushes, since there is
no electrical connection between the armature and the fields and, two, the armature can be made of
steel laminations, instead of the large number of windings required in other motors. These features
make it more robust and cheaper to build than a commutator motor.

AC Drive
Modern electronics has given us the AC drive. It has only become available with modern electronics
because the speed of a 3-phase AC motor is determined by the frequency of its supply but, at the
same time, the power has to be varied. The frequency used to be difficult to control and that is why,
until the advent of modern electronics, AC motors were almost exclusively used in constant speed
applications and were therefore unsuitable for railway operation. A modern railway 3-phase traction
motor is controlled by feeding in three AC currents which interact to cause the machine to turn. The
three phases are most easily provided by an inverter which supplies the three variable voltage,
variable frequency (VVVF) motor inputs. The variations of the voltage and frequency are controlled
electronically.

The AC motor can be used by either an AC or DC traction supply system. In

the case of AC supply (diagram left), the line voltage (say 25kV single phase) is fed into a transformer
and a secondary winding is taken off for the rectifier which produces a DC output of say 1500 - 2000
volts depending on the application. This is then passed to the inverter which provides the controlled
three phases to the traction motors. The connection between the rectifier and the inverter is called
the DC link. This usually also supplies an output for the train's auxiliary circuits.
All the thyristors are GTOs, including those in the rectifier, since they are now used to provide a more
efficient output than is possible with the older thyristors. In addition, all the facilities of DC motor
control are available, including dynamic braking, but are provided more efficiently and with less
moving parts. Applied to a DC traction supply, the 3-phase set-up is even more simple, since it
doesn't need a transformer or a rectifier. The DC line voltage is applied to the inverter, which provides
the 3-phase motor control.
Control of these systems is complex but it is all carried out by microprocessors.

The control of the

voltage pulses and the frequency has to be matched with the motor speed. The changes which occur
during this process produce a set of characteristic buzzing noises which sound like the "gear changing"
of a road vehicle and which can clearly be heard when riding on the motor car of an AC driven EMU.

IGBT
Having got AC drive using GTO thyristors universally accepted (well, almost) as the modern traction
system to have, power electronics engineers have produced a new development. This is the IGBT or
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor. The transistor was the forerunner of modern electronics, (remember
transistor radios?) and it could be turned on or off like a thyristor but it doesn't need the high currents
of the thyristor turn off. However it was, until very recently, only capable of handling very small
currents measured in thousanths of amps. Now, the modern device, in the form of the IGBT, can
handle thousands of amps and it has appeared in traction applications. A lower current version was
first used instead of thyristors in auxiliary supply inverters in the early 1990s but a higher rated
version has now entered service in the most recent AC traction drives. Its principle benefit is that it
can switch a lot faster (three to four times faster) than GTOs. This reduces the current required and
therefore the heat generated, giving smaller and lighter units. The faster switching also reduces the
complex "gearing" of GTOs and makes for a much smoother and more even sounding acceleration
buzz from under the train. With IGBTs, "gear changing" has gone.

Permanent Magnet Motor

The next development in electric motor design is the permanent magnet motor. This is a 3-phase AC
synchronous motor with the usual squirrel cage construction replaced by magnets fixed in the rotor.
The motor requires a complex control system system but it can be up to 25% smaller than a
conventional 3-phase motor for the same power rating. The design also gives lower operating
temperatures so that rotor cooling isn't needed and the stator is a sealed unit with integral liquid
cooling. By 2011, a number of different types of trains had been equipped with permanent magnet

motors, including 25 AGV high speed train sets, trams in France and Prague and EMUs in Euroe and
Japan. The reduced size is particularly attractive for low floor vehicles where hub motors can be an
effective way of providing traction in a compact bogie. Development of motor design and the
associated control systems continues and it is certain that the permanent magnet motor will be seen
on more railways in the future. A good description of the motor by Stuart Hillmansen, Felix Schmid
and Thomas Schmid is in Railway Gazette International, February 2011.

Electrification of Railways
A railway electrification system supplies electric power to railway trains and trams without an onboard prime mover or local fuel supply. Electrification has many advantages but requires significant
capital expenditure. Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply,
maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic.
Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some electric locomotives can switch to
different supply voltages to allow flexibility in operation.

Characteristics of railway electrification [edit]

Electric railways use electric locomotives to haul passengers or freight in separate cars or electric
multiple units, passenger cars with their own motors. Electricity is typically generated in large and
relatively efficient generating stations, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains.
Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and transmission lines but most
purchase power from an electric utility. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines,
switches and transformers.

Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous conductor running along the track that
usually takes one of two forms. The first is an overhead line or catenary wire suspended from poles
or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings. Locomotives or multiple units pick up
power from the contact wire with pantographs on their roofs that press a conductive strip against it
with a spring or air pressure. Examples are described later in this article.
The other is a third rail mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "pickup shoe". Both
overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor but some
systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.
In comparison to the principal alternative, the diesel engine, electric railways offer substantially better
energy efficiency, lower emissions and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are usually
quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesels. They have no local
emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems
provide regenerative braking that turns the train's kinetic energy back into electricity and returns it to
the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn
petroleum, electricity is generated from diverse sources including many that do not produce carbon
dioxide such asnuclear power and renewable forms
including hydroelectric, geothermal, wind and solar.
Disadvantages of electric traction include high capital costs that may be uneconomic on lightly
trafficked routes; a relative lack of flexibility since electric trains need electrified tracks or
onboard supercapacitors and charging infrastructure at stations;[1] and a vulnerability to power
interruptions. Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating
through service. The limited clearances available under catenaries may preclude efficient doublestack container service. The lethal voltages on contact wires and third rails are a safety hazard to
track workers, passengers and trespassers. Overhead wires are safer than third rails, but they are
often considered unsightly.

Classification[edit]

Electrification systems in Europe:

Non-electrified

750 V DC
1.5 kV DC
3 kV DC
15 kV AC
25 kV AC
High speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under
25 kV, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union as well.

Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:

Voltage

Current

Direct current (DC)

Alternating current (AC)

Frequency

Contact system

Third rail

Fourth rail

Overhead line (catenary)

Standardised voltages[edit]
Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for European and international
standardisation. These are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750 V DC
may be used with either third rail or overhead lines (the latter normally by trams).
There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and
the list of current systems for electric rail traction covers both standard voltage and non-standard
voltage systems.
The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards
BS EN 50163[2] and IEC 60850.[3] These take into account the number of trains drawing current and
their distance from the substation.

Voltage
Electrification
system

Min. non-

Min.

permanent

permanent

Nominal

Max.

Max. non-

permanent

permanent

600 V DC

400 V

400 V

600 V

720 V

800 V

750 V DC

500 V

500 V

750 V

900 V

1,000 V

1,500 V DC

1,000 V

1,000 V

1,500 V

1,800 V

1,950 V

3 kV DC

2 kV

2 kV

3 kV

3.6 kV

3.9 kV

11 kV

12 kV

15 kV

17.25 kV

18 kV

17.5 kV

19 kV

25 kV

27.5 kV

29 kV

15 kV AC,
16.7 Hz

25 kV AC,
50 Hz (EN
50163)
and 60 Hz
(IEC 60850)

Direct current[edit]

Railroad rotary converter at Illinois Railway Museum

Mercury arc rectifier

Railways must operate at variable speeds. Until the mid 1980s this was only practical with the brushtype DC motor, although such DC can be supplied from an AC catenary via on-board electric power
conversion. Since such conversion was not well developed in the late 19th century and early 20th
century, most early electrified railways used DC and many still do, particularly rapid transit (subways)
and trams. Speed was controlled by connecting the traction motors in various series-parallel
combinations, by varying the traction motors' fields, and by inserting and removing starting
resistances to limit motor current.
Motors have very little room for electrical insulation so they generally have low voltage ratings.
Because transformers (prior to the development of power electronics) cannot step down DC
voltages, trains were supplied with a relatively low DC voltage that the motors can use directly. The
most common DC voltages are listed in the previous section. Third (and fourth) rail systems almost
always use voltages below 1 kV for safety reasons while overhead wires usually use higher voltages
for efficiency. ("Low" voltage is relative; even 600 V can be instantly lethal when touched.)

Image of a sign for high voltage above railway electrification system

Since utilities supply high-voltage AC, DC railways use converter stations to produce relatively lowvoltage DC (usually 3000 volts or less). Originally they used rotary converters, a few of which are

even still in operation, but most were supplanted first by mercury arc rectifiers and then
by semiconductor rectifiers.
Because electrical power is equal to voltage times current, the relatively low voltages in existing DC
systems imply relatively high currents. If the DC power in the contact wire is to be supplied directly to
the DC traction motors, minimizing resistive losses requires thick, short supply cables/wires and
closely spaced converter stations.
The distance between feeder stations on a 750 V third-rail system is about 2.5 km (1.6 mi). The
distance between feeder stations at 3 kV is about 7.5 km (4.7 mi).
Because of these problems, modern high-speed rail projects have generally used high-voltage AC
once the technology became available. Some DC routes have been converted to AC.
There has, however, been interest among railroad operators in returning to DC use at higher
voltages than previously used. At the same voltage, DC often has less loss than AC, and for this
reason high-voltage direct current is already used on some bulk power transmission lines. DC avoids
the electromagnetic radiation inherent with AC, and on a railway this also reduces interference with
signalling and communications and mitigates hypothetical EMF risks. DC also avoids the power
factor problems of AC. Of particular interest to railroading is that DC can supply constant power with
a single ungrounded wire. Constant power with AC requires three-phase transmission with at least
two ungrounded wires. Another important consideration is that mains-frequency 3-phase AC must be
carefully planned to avoid unbalanced phase loads. Parts of the system are supplied from different
phases on the assumption that the total loads of the 3 phases will even out. At the phase break
points between regions supplied from different phases, long insulated supply breaks are required to
avoid them being shorted by rolling stock using more than one pantograph at a time. A few railroads
have tried 3-phase but its substantial complexity has made single-phase standard practice despite
the interruption in power flow that occurs twice every cycle. An experimental 6 kV DC railwaywas
built in the Soviet Union.
The increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more
efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.[4]
Some DC locomotives used motor-generator sets as "stepdown transformers" to produce more
convenient voltages for auxiliary loads such as lighting, fans and compressors but they are
inefficient, noisy and unreliable. Solid-state converters have replaced them. State-of-the-art
locomotives (diesel-electric as well as electric) have even replaced the traditional universal-type
traction motor with a 3-phase AC induction motor driven by a special-purpose AC inverter, a variable
frequency drive.

Overhead systems[edit]

Class EM1 locos on the 1,500 V DCWoodhead Line

Nottingham Express Transit in United Kingdom uses a 750 V DC overhead, in common with most modern tram
systems.

Main article: Overhead line

1,500 V DC is used in the Netherlands, Japan, Republic Of Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Republic
of Ireland, Australia (parts), India (around the Mumbai area alone,[5] has been converted to 25 kV AC
like the rest of India[6]), France (also using 25 kV 50 Hz AC), New Zealand (Wellington) and the
United States (Chicago area on the Metra Electric district and the South Shore Line interurban line).
In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a cog railway). In Portugal, it is
used in the Cascais Line and in Denmark on the suburban S-train system.
In the United Kingdom, 1,500 V DC was used in 1954 for the Woodhead trans-Pennine route (now
closed); the system used regenerative braking, allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and
descending trains on the steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban
electrification in East London and Manchester, now converted to 25 kV AC. It is now only used for
the Tyne and Wear Metro.
3 kV DC is used in Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, the northern Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia,
South Africa, Chile, and former Soviet Union countries (also using 25 kV 50 Hz AC). It was formerly
used by the Milwaukee Road from Harlowton, Montana to Seattle-Tacoma, across the Continental
Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by the Delaware, Lackawanna
& Western Railroad (now New Jersey Transit, converted to 25 kV AC) in the United States, and
the Kolkata suburban railway (Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25 kV
50 Hz AC.

DC voltages between 600 V and 800 V are used by most tramways (streetcars), trolleybus networks
and underground (subway) systems.

Third rail[edit]
Main article: Third rail

A bottom-contact third rail on theAmsterdam Metro, the Netherlands

Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to about 1,200 V. Third
rail systems exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is not feasible because the dimensions of
a third rail are physically very large compared with the skin depththat the alternating current
penetrates to (0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches) in a steel rail). This effect makes the resistance per
unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. [7] Third rail is more compact than
overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway
systems.

With top-contact third (and fourth) rail a heavy shoe suspended from a wooden beam attached to the bogies
collects power by sliding over the top surface of the conductor rail.

Third-rail systems can be designed to use top contact, side contact, or bottom contact. Top contact is
less safe, as the live rail is exposed to people treading on the rail unless an insulating hood is
provided. Side- and bottom-contact third rail can easily have safety shields incorporated, carried by
the rail itself. Uncovered top-contact third rails are vulnerable to disruption caused by ice, snow and
fallen leaves.

Arcs like this are normal and occur when the collection shoes of a train drawing power reach the end of a
section of power rail.

DC systems (especially third-rail systems) are limited to relatively low voltages and this can limit the
size and speed of trains and cannot use low-level platform and also limit the amount of airconditioning that the trains can provide. This may be a factor favouring overhead wires and highvoltage AC, even for urban usage. In practice, the top speed of trains on third-rail systems is limited
to 100 mph (160 km/h) because above that speed reliable contact between the shoe and the rail
cannot be maintained.
Some street trams (streetcars) used conduit third-rail current collection. The third rail was below
street level. The tram picked up the current through a plough (U.S. "plow") accessed through a
narrow slot in the road. In the United States, much (though not all) of the former streetcar system in
Washington, D.C. (discontinued in 1962) was operated in this manner to avoid the unsightly wires
and poles associated with electric traction. The same was true with Manhattan's former streetcar
system. The evidence of this mode of running can still be seen on the track down the slope on the
northern access to the abandoned Kingsway Tramway Subway in central London, United Kingdom,
where the slot between the running rails is clearly visible, and on P and Q Streets west of Wisconsin
Avenue in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington DC, where the abandoned tracks have not
been paved over. The slot can easily be confused with the similar looking slot for cable trams/cars (in
some cases, the conduit slot was originally a cable slot). The disadvantage of conduit collection
included much higher initial installation costs, higher maintenance costs, and problems with leaves
and snow getting in the slot. For this reason, in Washington, D.C. cars on some lines converted to
overhead wire on leaving the city center, a worker in a "plough pit" disconnecting the plough while
another raised the trolley pole (hitherto hooked down to the roof) to the overhead wire. In New York
City for the same reasons of cost and operating efficiency outside of Manhattan overhead wire was
used. A similar system of changeover from conduit to overhead wire was also used on the London
tramways, notably on the southern side; a typical changeover point was at Norwood, where the
conduit snaked sideways from between the running rails, to provide a park for detached shoes or
ploughs.
A new approach to avoiding overhead wires is taken by the "second generation" tram/streetcar
system in Bordeaux, France (entry into service of the first line in December 2003; original system

discontinued in 1958) with its APS (alimentation par sol ground current feed). This involves a third
rail which is flush with the surface like the tops of the running rails. The circuit is divided into
segments with each segment energized in turn by sensors from the car as it passes over it, the
remainder of the third rail remaining "dead". Since each energized segment is completely covered by
the lengthy articulated cars, and goes dead before being "uncovered" by the passage of the vehicle,
there is no danger to pedestrians. This system has also been adopted in some sections of the new
tram systems in Reims, France (opened 2011) and Angers, France (also opened 2011). Proposals
are in place for a number of other new services includingDubai, UAE; Barcelona, Spain; Florence,
Italy; Marseille, France; Gold Coast, Australia; Washington, D.C., U.S.A.; Braslia, Brazil andTours,
France.

Fourth rail[edit]

The unprotected third rail is at the right of the track and the fourth rail at the centre.

The London Underground in England is one of the few networks that uses a four-rail system. The
additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third rail and overhead networks, is provided by the
running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized
at +420 V DC, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails
at 210 V DC, which combine to provide a traction voltage of 630 V DC. The same system was used
for Milan's earliest underground line, Milan Metro's line 1, whose more recent lines use an overhead
catenary or a third rail.
The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This
scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by
the earthed (grounded) running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause
electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically bonded together. The
problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby
iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly Victorian mains that
predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no
adequate electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem.
Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using
resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can
be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for

running rails which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However,
elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by
insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running
rails.

London Underground track at Ealing Common on the District line, showing the third and fourth rails beside and
between the running rails

On tracks that London Underground share with National Rail third-rail stock (the Bakerloo and
District lines both have such sections), the centre rail is connected to the running rails, allowing both
types of train to operate, at a compromise voltage of 660 V. Underground trains pass from one
section to the other at speed; lineside electrical connections and resistances separate the two types
of supply. These routes were originally solely electrified on the four-rail system by the LNWR before
National Rail trains were rewired to their standard three-rail system to simplify rolling stock use.
Fourth-rail trains occasionally operate on the National third-rail system. To do so, the centre-rail
shoes are bonded to the wheels. This bonding must be removed before operating again on fourthrail tracks, to avoid creating a short-circuit.
A few lines of the Paris Mtro in France operate on a four-rail power scheme because they run on
rubber tyres which run on a pair of narrow roadways made of steel and, in some places, concrete.
Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two guide rails provided outside the running
'roadways' double up as conductor rails, so at least electrically it is a four-rail scheme. One of the
guide rails is bonded to the return conventional running rails situated inside the roadway so a single
polarity supply is required. The trains are designed to operate from either polarity of supply, because
some lines use reversing loops at one end, causing the train to be reversed during every complete
journey.[8] The loop was originally provided to save the original steam locomotives having to 'run
around' the rest of the train saving much time. Today, the driver does not have to change ends at
termini provided with such a loop, but the time saving is not so significant as it takes almost as long
to drive round the loop as it does to change ends. Many of the original loops have been lost as lines
were extended.

Alternating current[edit]

Railways and electrical utilities use AC for the same reason: to use transformers, which require AC,
to produce higher voltages. Power is voltage times current, so the higher the voltage, the lower the
current for the same power. Lower current means lower line loss and/or the ability to use lighter and
less expensive conductors.
Because in electric railroading the use of AC implies very high voltages, it is only used on overhead
wires, never on third rails. Inside the locomotive, another transformer steps the voltage down for use
by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.
An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting resistors used in DC locomotives for speed
control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the transformer can supply a range of
voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary
machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the
classic "universal" AC/DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase induction motor fed by
a variable frequency drive, a special inverter that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor
speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric
locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify crossborder operation.

Low-frequency alternating current[edit]

15 kV 16.7 Hz AC system used in Switzerland

DC commutating electric motors, if fitted with laminated pole pieces, become universal
motors because they can also operate on AC; reversing the current in both stator and rotor does not
reverse the motor. But the now-standard AC distribution frequencies of 50 and 60 Hz caused
difficulties with inductive reactance and eddy current losses. Many railways chose low AC
frequencies to overcome these problems. They must be converted from utility power by motorgenerators or static inverters at the feeding substations or generated at dedicated traction
powerstations.
These low frequencies were later made completely unnecessary by high power locomotive rectifiers
that can convert any AC frequency to DC: first the mercury-arc rectifier and then
the semiconductor rectifier. Some AC railways have been converted to standard grid frequencies but
low frequencies are still widely used due to large sunken equipment costs.

Five European countries, namely, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, standardized
on 15 kV 16 23 Hz (the 50 Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October
1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from 16 23 Hz to 16.7 Hz which is no longer
exactly 1/3 of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the rotary converters used
to generate some of this power from the grid supply.[9]
High-voltage AC overhead systems are not only for standard gauge national networks. The meter
gauge Rhaetian Railway (RhB) and the neighbouring Matterhorn Gotthard Bahn (MGB) operate on
11 kV at 16.7 Hz frequency. Practice has proven that both Swiss and German 15 kV trains can
operate under these lower voltages. The RhB started trials of the 11 kV system in 1913 on
the Engadin line (St. Moritz-Scuol/Tarasp). The MGB constituents Furka-Oberalp-Bahn (FO)
and Brig-Visp-Zermatt Bahn (BVZ) introduced their electric services in 1941 and 1929 respectively,
adopting the already proven RhB system.
In the United States, 25 Hz, a once-common industrial power frequency is used on Amtrak's 25 Hz
traction power system at 12 kV on the Northeast Corridor between Washington, D.C. and New York
City and on the Keystone Corridor between Harrisburg, Pennsylvania and Philadelphia. SEPTA's
25 Hz traction power system uses the same 12 kV voltage on the catenary in Northeast
Philadelphia. This allows for the trains to operate on both the Amtrak and SEPTA power systems.
Apart from having an identical catenary voltage, the power distribution systems of Amtrak and
SEPTA are very different. The Amtrak power distribution system has a 138 kV transmission network
that provides power to substations which then transform the voltage to 12 kV to feed the catenary
system. The SEPTA power distribution system uses a 2:1 ratio autotransformer system, with the
catenary fed at 12 kV and a return feeder wire fed at 24 kV. The New York, New Haven and Hartford
Railroad used an 11 kV system between New York City and New Haven, Connecticut which was
converted to 12.5 kV 60 Hz in 1987.
In the UK, the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway pioneered overhead electrification of its
suburban lines in London, London Bridge to Victoria being opened to traffic on 1 December 1909.
Victoria to Crystal Palace via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911. Peckham
Rye to West Norwood opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First
World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the Southern Railway serving Coulsdon
North and Sutton railway station.[10][11][12] The lines were electrified at 6.7 kV 25 Hz. It was announced
in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead electric service ran
in September 1929.

Polyphase alternating current systems[edit]

Double pantograph for three phase electrification on the Jungfraubahn, Switzerland

Three phase electrification on thePetit train de la Rhune, France

Main article: Three-phase AC railway electrification

Three-phase AC railway electrification was used in Italy, Switzerland and the United States in the
early twentieth century. Italy was the major user, for lines in the mountainous regions of northern
Italy from 1901 until 1976. The first lines were the Burgdorf-Thun line in Switzerland (1899), and the
lines of the Ferrovia Alta Valtellina from Colico to Chiavenna and Tirano in Italy, which were
electrified in 1901 and 1902. Other lines where the three-phase system were used were the Simplon
Tunnel in Switzerland from 1906 to 1930, and theCascade Tunnel of the Great Northern Railway in
the United States from 1909 to 1927.
The early systems used a low frequency (16 23 Hz), and a relatively low voltage (3,000 or 3,600
volts) compared with later AC systems. The system provides regenerative braking with the power fed
back to the system, so it is particularly suitable for mountain railwaysprovided the supply grid or
another locomotive on the line can accept the power.
Three-phase systems have the serious disadvantage of requiring at least two separate overhead
conductors plus rail return. Locomotives operate at one, two or four constant speeds. Most modern
locomotives with variable frequency drives can also do regenerative braking on both AC and DC
systems and are not limited to constant speeds.
The system is still used on four mountain railways, using 725 to 3000 V at 50 or 60 Hz: the
(Corcovado Rack Railway in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Jungfraubahn and Gornergratbahn in
Switzerland and the Petit train de la Rhune in France).

Standard frequency alternating current[edit]

Main article: 25 kV AC railway electrification

Close-up view of catenary onNortheast Corridor, United States

Workers electrifying parts of theRoca Line in Buenos Aires using 25 kV electrification.

Only in the 1950s after development in France (20 kV; later 25 kV) and former Soviet
Railways countries (25 kV) did the standard-frequency single-phase alternating current system
become widespread, despite the simplification of a distribution system which could use the existing
power supply network.
The first attempts to use standard-frequency single-phase AC were made in Hungary as far back as
1923, by the Hungarian Klmn Kand on the line between Budapest-Nyugati and Alag, using 16 kV
at 50 Hz. The locomotives carried a four-pole rotating phase converter feeding a single traction
motor of the polyphase induction type at 600 to 1,100 V. The number of poles on the 2,500 hp motor
could be changed using slip rings to run at one of four synchronous speeds. The tests were a
success so, from 1932 until the 1960s, trains on the Budapest-Hegyeshalom line (towards Vienna)
regularly used the same system. A few decades after the Second World War, the 16 kV was
changed to the Russian and later French 25 kV system.
Today, some locomotives in this system use a transformer and rectifier to provide lowvoltage pulsating direct current to motors. Speed is controlled by switching winding taps on the
transformer. More sophisticated locomotives use thyristor or IGBT circuitry to generate chopped or
even variable-frequency alternating current (AC) that is then supplied to the AC induction traction
motors.

This system is quite economical but it has its drawbacks: the phases of the external power system
are loaded unequally and there is significant electromagnetic interference generated as well as
significant acoustic noise.
A list of the countries using the 25 kV AC 50 Hz single-phase system can be found in the list of
current systems for electric rail traction. There are also a few lines listed with 50 kV (60 Hz)
electrification, mainly long isolated lines hauling coal or ore in the United States and Canada. The
first line (1973) using 50 kV was the Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad. In South Africa
the SishenSaldanha railway linehauling iron ore uses 50 kV (50 Hz).
The United States commonly uses 12.5 and 25 kV at 25 Hz or 60 Hz. 25 kV, 60 Hz AC is the
preferred system for new high-speed and long-distance railways, even if the railway uses a different
system for existing trains.
To prevent the risk of out-of-phase supplies mixing, sections of line fed from different feeder stations
must be kept strictly isolated. This is achieved by Neutral Sections (also known as Phase Breaks),
usually provided at feeder stations and midway between them although, typically, only half are in use
at any time, the others being provided to allow a feeder station to be shut down and power provided
from adjacent feeder stations. Neutral Sections usually consist of an earthed section of wire which is
separated from the live wires on either side by insulating material, typically ceramic beads, designed
so that the pantograph will smoothly run from one section to the other. The earthed section prevents
an arc being drawn from one live section to the other, as the voltage difference may be higher than
the normal system voltage if the live sections are on different phases and the protective circuit
breakers may not be able to safely interrupt the considerable current that would flow. To prevent the
risk of an arc being drawn across from one section of wire to earth, when passing through the
neutral section, the train must be coasting and the circuit breakers must be open. In many cases,
this is done manually by the drivers. To help them, a warning board is provided just before both the
neutral section and an advance warning some distance before. A further board is then provided after
the neutral section to tell drivers to re-close the circuit breaker, although drivers must not do this until
the rear pantograph has passed this board. In the UK, a system known as Automatic Power Control
(APC) automatically opens and closes the circuit breaker, this being achieved by using sets of
permanent magnets alongside the track communicating with a detector on the train. The only action
needed by the driver is to shut off power and coast and therefore warning boards are still provided at
and on the approach to neutral sections.
On French high-speed rail lines, the UK High Speed 1 Channel Tunnel rail link and in the Channel
Tunnel, neutral sections are negotiated automatically.
In Japanese Shinkansen lines, there are ground-operated switched sections installed instead of
neutral sections. The sections detect trains running within the section and automatically switch the
power supply in 0.3 s,[13] which eliminates the need to shut off power at any time.

World electrification[edit]
In 2006, 240,000 km (150,000 mi) (25% by length) of the world rail network was electrified and 50%
of all rail transport was carried by electric traction.
In 2012 for electrified kilometers, China surpassed Russia making it first place in the world with over
48,000 km (30,000 mi) electrified.[14] Trailing behind China were Russia 43,300 km (26,900 mi), India
26,200 km (16,300 mi),[15] Germany 21,000 km (13,000 mi), Japan 17,000 km (11,000 mi), and
France 15,200 km (9,400 mi).

Comparing electrification systems (including future

proposals)[edit]
Energy-efficiency, AC vs DC for mainlines[edit]
Modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid which is delivered to a locomotive
and converted to a DC voltage to be used by traction motors. These motors may either be DC
motors which directly use the DC or they may be 3-phase AC motors which require further
conversion of the DC to 3-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced with the
same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the
locomotive. Where should this conversion take place and at what voltage and current (AC or DC)
should the power flow to the locomotive? And how does all this relate to energy-efficiency? Both the
transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power
electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). [16] Power
conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more
efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard
the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher.[17] Also, the energy used to
blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware
must be accounted for.
In the Soviet Union, in the 1970s, a comparison was made between systems electrified at 3 kV DC
and 25 kV AC (50 Hz).[18] The results showed that percentage losses in the overhead wires (catenary
and contact wires) was over 3 times greater for 3 kV DC than for 25 kV AC. But when the conversion
losses were all taken into account and added to overhead wire losses (including cooling blower
energy) the 25 kV AC lost a somewhat higher percent of energy than for 3 kV DC. Thus in spite of
the much higher losses in the catenary, the 3 kV DC was a little more energy efficient than AC in
providing energy from the USSR power grid to the terminals of the traction motors (all DC at that

time). While both systems use energy in converting higher voltage AC from the USSR's power grid to
lower voltage DC, the conversions for the DC system all took place (at higher efficiency) in the
railway substation, while most of the conversion for the AC system took place inside the locomotive
(at lower efficiency). Consider also that it takes energy to constantly move this mobile conversion
hardware over the rails while the stationary hardware in the railway substation doesn't incur this
energy cost. For more details see: Wiki: Soviet Union DC vs. AC.

Advantages and disadvantages as compared to diesel

traction[edit]
Advantages[edit]

The Royal Border Bridge inEngland, a protected monument. Adding electric catenary to older structures may
be an expensive cost of electrification projects

lower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and multiple units

higher power-to-weight ratio (no onboard fuel tanks), resulting in

fewer locomotives

faster acceleration

higher practical limit of power

higher limit of speed

less noise pollution (quieter operation)

faster acceleration clears lines more quickly to run more trains on the track in urban rail uses

reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for power loss see Diesel engine)

independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices

service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons

reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if

electricity is produced by fossil fuels

easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors

more comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines

somewhat higher energy efficiency [19] in part due to regenerative braking and less power lost
when "idling"

can use coal, nuclear, water or wind as the primary energy source instead of oil (historically
mattered for e.g. South Africa)

Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems
leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue.[20] The reasons may include electric trains being
seen as more modern and attractive to ride,[21][22] faster and smoother service,[20] and the fact that
electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul /
replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved
by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is
well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. [20][21]

Disadvantages[edit]
Disadvantages include:

Large cargo may require special cars

Most overhead electrifications do not allow sufficient clearance for adouble-stack car.[citation needed]

Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the
existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other
obstructions have to be altered for clearance. Another aspect that can raise the cost of
electrification are the alterations or upgrades to railway signalling needed for new traffic
characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and track circuits from interference by traction
current. Electrification may require line closures while the new equipment is being installed.

Electrical grid load: adding a major new consumer of electricity can have adverse effects on
the electrical grid and may necessitate an increase in the grid's power output. However, a
railway can be electrified in such manner, that it has a closed and independent electrical network
of its own and backup power available if the national or state electrical grid suffers from
downtime.

Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape
impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional
signalling equipment above ground level.

Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due
to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the pantograph of a moving train
to become entangled with the catenary, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is
often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well,
causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time. Third-rail systems can suffer
disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail.[23]

Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make
overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves.[24] Attempts at theft of live 25 kV
cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. [25] In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be
one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services. [26]

People may climb onto standing train cars, and some are seriously hurt or killed when they
come too close to the overhead contact line.[27][28]

Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the
electrification system. Animals fallen to the ground are fetched by foxes or other predators. [29]

In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is
not sufficient for a double-stack container car.

Trade-offs[edit]

Lots Road Power Station in a poster from 1910. This private power station, used byLondon Underground, gave
London trains and trams a power supply independent from the main power network.

Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased, but many systems claim lower costs due to
reduced wear-and-tear from lighter rolling stock.[30]There are some additional maintenance costs
associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power sub-stations and the
catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine
maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.
Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the
connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been
removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any
benefit, time consuming engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive dual
mode engines must be used. This is mostly an issue for long distance trips, but many lines come to
be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers
to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it
can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is
electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are
electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic which is more efficient when utilizing
the double-stack car also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient

clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to
have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.
Additionally, there are issues of connections between different electrical services, particularly
connecting intercity lines with sections electrified for commuter traffic, but also between commuter
lines built to different standards. This can cause electrification of certain connections to be very
expensive simply because of the implications on the sections it is connecting. Many lines have come
to be overlaid with multiple electrification standards for different trains to avoid having to replace the
existing rolling stock on those lines. Obviously, this requires that the economics of a particular
connection must be more compelling and this has prevented complete electrification of many lines.
In a few cases, there are diesel trains running along completely electrified routes and this can be
due to incompatibility of electrification standards along the route.

Summary[edit]
Summary of advantages and disadvantages:

Lines with low frequency of traffic may not be feasible for electrification (especially
using regenerative braking), because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the
high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or
sparsely populated countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.

Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel
locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines
(see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost
all high speed trains are electric.

The high power of electric locomotives gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed
over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains
can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also be a
cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if trains weights are to be increased on a
system.

Energy efficiency[edit]

An early rail electrification substation at Dartford in England, UK

Electric trains need not carry the weight of prime movers, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset
by the weight of electrical equipment.
Regenerative braking returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere,
by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in
mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.
Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile
engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation
are roughly the same in the nominal regime,[31] diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal
regimes at low power [32] while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut
down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy
(as compared to diesel) by regenerative braking and by not needing to consume energy by idling as
diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling
blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.
Large fossil fuel power stations operate at high efficiency,[33][34] and can be used for district heating or
to produce district cooling, leading to a higher total efficiency.
Energy sources unsuitable for mobile power plants, such as nuclear power,
renewable hydroelectricity, or wind power can be used. According to widely accepted global energy
reserve statistics,[35] the reserves of liquid fuel are much less than gas and coal (at 42, 167 and 416
years respectively). Most countries with large rail networks do not have significant oil reserves and
those that did, like the United States and Britain, have exhausted much of their reserves and have
suffered declining oil output for decades. Therefore, there is also a strong economic incentive to
substitute other fuels for oil. Rail electrification is often considered an important route
towards consumption pattern reform.[36][37]However, there are no reliable, peer-reviewed studies
available to assist in rational public debate on this critical issue, although there are
untranslated Soviet studies from the 1980s.
Energy efficiency in the Soviet Union[edit]
In the former Soviet Union, electric traction eventually became somewhat more energy-efficient than
diesel. Partly due to inefficient generation of electricity in the USSR (only 20.8% thermal efficiency in
1950 vs. 36.2% in 1975), in 1950 diesel traction was about twice as energy efficient as electric
traction (in terms of net tonne-km of freight per kg of fuel). [38] But as efficiency of electricity generation
(and thus of electric traction) improved, by about 1965 electric railways became more efficient than
diesel. After the mid 1970s electrics used about 25% less fuel per ton-km. However diesels were
mainly used on single track lines with a fair amount of traffic

[39]

so that the lower fuel consumption of

electrics may be in part due to better operating conditions on electrified lines (such as double

tracking) rather than inherent energy efficiency. Nevertheless, the cost of diesel fuel was about 1.5
times[40] more (per unit of heat energy content) than that of the fuel used in electric power plants (that
generated electricity), thus making electric railways even more energy-cost effective.
Besides increased efficiency of power plants, there was an increase in efficiency (between 1950 and
1973) of the railway utilization of this electricity with energy-intensity dropping from 218 to
124 kwh/10,000 gross tonne-km (of both passenger and freight trains) or a 43% drop. [41] Since
energy-intensity is the inverse of energy-efficiency it drops as efficiency goes up. But most of this
43% decrease in energy-intensity also benefited diesel traction. The conversion of wheel bearings
from plain to roller, increase of train weight,[42] converting single track lines to double track (or partially
double track), and the elimination of obsolete 2-axle freight cars increased the energy-efficiency of
all types of traction: electric, diesel, and steam.[41] However, there remained a 1215% reduction of
energy-intensity that only benefited electric traction (and not diesel). This was due to improvements
in locomotives, more widespread use of regenerative braking (which in 1989 recycled 2.65% of the
electric energy used for traction,[43]) remote control of substations, better handling of the locomotive
by the locomotive crew, and improvements in automation. Thus the overall efficiency of electric
traction as compared to diesel more than doubled between 1950 and the mid-1970s in the Soviet
Union. But after 1974 (thru 1980) there was no improvement in energy-intensity (wh/tonne-km) in
part due to increasing speeds of passenger and freight trains.[44]

External cost[edit]
The external cost of railway is lower than other modes of transport but the electrification brings it
down further if it is sustainable.
Also, the lower cost of energy from well to wheel and the ability to reduce pollution and greenhouse
gas in the atmosphere according to the Kyoto Protocol is an advantage.

Gaps[edit]
Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as
phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become
a nuisance, if the locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power
to restart. Power gaps can be overcome by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems.

Capacitor[edit]
In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large capacitors to power electric vehicles between
stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations. [45]

Non-contact systems[edit]

It is possible to supply power to an electric train by inductive coupling. This allows the use of a highvoltage, insulated, conductor rail. Such a system was patented in 1894 byNikola Tesla, US Patent

25 kv AC electrification system
Overview[edit]

A CSR EMU on the Roca Line inBuenos Aires, using 25kV AC.

This electrification is ideal for railways that cover long distances or carry heavy traffic. After some
experimentation before World War II in Hungary and in the Black Forest in Germany, it came into
widespread use in the 1950s.
One of the reasons why it was not introduced earlier was the lack of suitable small and lightweight
control and rectification equipment before the development of solid-state rectifiers and related
technology. Another reason was the increased clearance distances required where it ran under
bridges and in tunnels, which would have required major civil engineering in order to provide the
increased clearance to live parts.
Railways using older, lower-capacity direct current systems have introduced or are introducing 25
kV AC instead of 3 kV DC/1.5 kV DC for their new high-speed lines.

History[edit]
The first successful operational and regular use of the 50 Hz system dates back to 1931, tests
having run since 1922. It was developed by Klmn Kand in Hungary, who used16 kV AC at 50 Hz,
asynchronous traction, and an adjustable number of (motor) poles. The first electrified line for testing
was BudapestDunakesziAlag. The first fully electrified line was BudapestGyrHegyeshalom
(part of the BudapestVienna line). Although Kand's solution showed a way for the future, railway
operators outside of Hungary showed a lack of interest in the design.
The first railway to use this system was completed in 1951 by SNCF between Aix-les-Bains and La
Roche-sur-Foron in southern France, initially at 20 kV but converted to 25 kV in 1953. The 25 kV
system was then adopted as standard in France, but since substantial amounts of mileage south of

Paris had already been electrified at 1,500 V DC, SNCF also continued some major new DC
electrification projects, until dual-voltage locomotives were developed in the 1960s. [1][2]
The main reason why electrification at this voltage had not been used before was the lack of
reliability of mercury-arc-type rectifiers that could fit on the train. This in turn related to the
requirement to use DC series motors, which required the current to be converted from AC to DC and
for that a rectifier is needed. Until the early 1950s, mercury-arc rectifiers were difficult to operate
even in ideal conditions and were therefore unsuitable for use in the railway industry.
It was possible to use AC motors (and some railways did, with varying success), but they did not
have an ideal characteristic for traction purposes. This was because control of speed is difficult
without varying the frequency and reliance on voltage to control speed gives a torque at any given
speed that is not ideal. This is why DC series motors were the best choice for traction purposes, as
they can be controlled by voltage, and have an almost ideal torque vs speed characteristic.
In the 1990s, high-speed trains began to use lighter, lower-maintenance three-phase AC induction
motors. The N700 Shinkansen uses a three-level converter to convert 25 kVsingle-phase AC
to 1,520 V AC (via transformer) to 3,000 V DC (via phase-controlled rectifier with thyristor) to a
maximum 2,300 V three-phase AC (via a variable voltage, variable frequency inverter
using IGBTs with pulse-width modulation) to run the motors. The system works in reverse
for regenerative braking.
The choice of 25 kV was related to the efficiency of power transmission as a function of voltage and
cost, not based on a neat and tidy ratio of the supply voltage. For a given power level, a higher
voltage allows for a lower current and usually better efficiency at the greater cost for high-voltage
equipment. It was found that 25 kV was an optimal point, where a higher voltage would still improve
efficiency but not by a significant amount in relation to the higher costs incurred by the need for
greater clearance and larger insulators.

Variations[edit]
This section may stray from the topic of the article. Please help improve this
section or discuss this issue on the talk page.(April 2015)
The Indian Traction Power uses a 25 kV autotransformer system to achieve efficiencies greater than
the 25 kV system and yet keeping the cost of installation similar to the 25 kV system. Supply,[3] in
common terms, the supply for the electric trains run by the Indian Rail uses only two phases of the
normal three-phase electric power supply. The usage of the two phases is a special one, feeding a
single phase transformer with the two phases instead of the conventional feeding of a phase and a
neutral. This increases the load that can be delivered. Feeding the two phases at different feeders
will be switched between R-Y, Y-B, R-B, to maintain the overall balance in the system. This results in
a slight imbalance on the three-phase supply locally which may affect other customers of the

Electricity Board but is better off than using a single phase. To an extent, imbalances can be
overcome by installing static VAR compensators[4] or reducing the traction load when the imbalance
becomes unacceptable. The system is not insulated from the distribution network, like other
systems. Older locomotives and the recuperating electrodynamic brakes on newer locomotives
create electrical noise. It is not necessarily practical to filter this noise from the electricity distribution
network, and this has led some countries to prohibit the use of recuperating brakes.
The high voltage leads to a requirement for a slightly higher clearance in tunnels and under
overbridges.
To avoid short circuits, the high voltage must be protected from moisture. Weather events, such as
"the wrong type of snow", have caused failures in the past. An example of atmospheric causes
occurred in December 2009, when four Eurostar trains broke down inside the Channel Tunnel.

Distribution networks[edit]
Electric power from a generating station is transmitted to grid substations using a three-phase
distribution system.
At the grid substation, a step-down transformer is connected across two of the three phases of the
high-voltage supply. The transformer lowers the voltage to 25 kV which is supplied to a railway
feeder station located beside the tracks. SVCs are used for load balancing and voltage control.[5]
In some cases dedicated single-phase AC power lines were built to substations with single phase AC
transformers. Such lines were built to supply the French TGV.[6]

Standardisation[edit]
Railway electrification using 25 kV, 50 Hz AC has become an international standard. There are two
main standards that define the voltages of the system:

EN 50163:2004 - "Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems" [7]

IEC 60850 - "Railway Applications. Supply voltages of traction systems"[8]

The permissible range of voltages allowed are as stated in the above standards and take into
account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.
Electrification

Voltage

system
Min.
non-

Min.

Nominal

Max.

Max.
non-

permanent

25000 V, AC,
50 Hz

17500 V

permanent

19000 V

permanent

25000 V

27500 V

permanent

29000 V

This system is now part of the European Union's Trans-European railway interoperability standards
(1996/48/EC "Interoperability of the Trans-European high-speed rail system" and 2001/16/EC
"Interoperability of the Trans-European Conventional rail system").

Variations[edit]
Systems based on this standard but with some variations have been used.

25 kV AC at 60 Hz[edit]
See also: List of current systems for electric rail traction: 25 kV AC, 60 Hz
In countries where 60 Hz is the normal grid power frequency, 25 kV at 60 Hz is used for the railway
electrification.

In the United States, newer electrified portions of the Northeast Corridor (i.e. the New HavenBoston segment) intercity passenger line and New Jersey Transit commuter lines.

In western Japan, Shinkansen lines (using 1,435 mm or 4 ft 8 12 in gauge) use 60 Hz,

eastern parts use 50 Hz.

In Taiwan, Taiwan High Speed Rail. Line (using 1,435 mm or 4 ft 8 12 in gauge) use 60 Hz

In Canada on the Deux-Montagnes line of the Montreal Metropolitan transportation Agency,

In South Korea on Korail (using 1,435 mm or 4 ft 8 12 in standard gauge ,

In Argentina on Roca Line ( using 1,676 mm or 5 ft 6 in gauge).

12.5 kV AC at 60 Hz[edit]
Some lines in the United States have been electrified at 12.5 kV 60 Hz or converted from 11 kV 25
Hz to 12.5 kV 60 Hz. Use of 60 Hz allows direct supply from the 60 Hz utility grid yet does not
require the larger wire clearance for 25 kV 60 Hz or require dual-voltage capability for trains also
operating on 11 kV 25 Hz lines. Examples are:

Metro-North Railroad's New Haven Line from Pelham, NY to New Haven, CT (Since 1985;
previously 11 kV 25 Hz).

New Jersey Transit's North Jersey Coast Line from Matawan, NJ to Long Branch, NJ (1988
2002; changed to 25 kV 60 Hz).

6.25 kV AC[edit]
Early 50 Hz AC railway electrification in the United Kingdom used sections at 6.25 kV AC where
there was limited clearance under bridges and in tunnels. Rolling stock was dual-voltage with
automatic switching between 25 kV and 6.25 kV. The 6.25 kV sections were converted to 25 kV
AC as a result of research work that demonstrated that the distance between live and earthed
equipment could be reduced from that originally thought to be necessary.
The research was done using a steam engine beneath a bridge at Crewe. A section of 25
kV overhead line was gradually brought closer to the earthed metalwork of the bridge whilst being
subjected to steam from the locomotive's chimney. The distance at which a flashover occurred was
measured and this was used as a basis from which new clearances between overhead equipment
and structures were derived.[citation needed]

50 kV AC[edit]
Occasionally 25 kV is doubled to 50 kV to obtain greater power and increase the distance between
substations. Such lines are usually isolated from other lines to avoid complications from interrunning.
Examples are:

The Black Mesa and Lake Powell Railroad which is an isolated coal railway (60 Hz).

The now closed Tumbler Ridge Subdivision of BC Rail (60 Hz).[9]

The SishenSaldanha iron ore railway (50 Hz).

2 25 kV autotransformer system[edit]

1. Supply transformer
2. Power supply
3. Overhead line
4. Running rail
5. Feeder line
6. Pantograph
7. Locomotive transformer
8. Overhead line
9. Autotransformer
10. Running rail

2 25 kV overhead line system in France between Paris and Caen

The 2 25 kV autotransformer system may be used on 25 kV lines to reduce energy losses. It

should not be confused with the 50 kV system. In this system, the current is mainly carried between
the overhead line and a feeder instead of the rail. The voltage between the overhead line (3) and the
feeder line (5) is 50 kV but the voltage between the overhead line (3) and the running rails (4)
remains at 25 kV and this is the voltage supplied to the train. This system is used byIndian Railways,
Russian Railways, French lines,Amtrak and some of the Finnish and Hungarian lines.

Boosted voltage[edit]
For TGV world speed record runs in France the voltage was temporarily boosted, to 29.5 kV and
31 kV at different times.

25 kV on narrow gauge lines[edit]

In Taiwan: see Rail transport in Taiwan (60 Hz).

In Tunisia (50 Hz): see Rail transport in Tunisia.

in Malaysia: see Rail transport in Malaysia

In Queensland, Australia: see Rail electrification in Queensland (50 Hz).

In Perth, Australia. Entire suburban network, see: Transperth Trains

In New Zealand: see North Island Main Trunk (50 Hz) and Auckland railway electrification

Multi-system locomotives and trains[edit]

Main article: multi-system (rail)
Trains that can operate on more than one voltage, say 3 kV/25 kV, are established technologies.
Some locomotives in Europe are capable of using four different voltage standards. [10]

RAILWAY TRACTION
SYSTEM
History[edit]
Railway electrification as a means of traction emerged at the end of the nineteenth century, although
experiments in electric rail have been traced back to the mid-nineteenth century.[1] Thomas
Davenport, in Brandon, Vermont, erected a circular model railroad on which ran battery-powered
locomotives (or locomotives running on battery-powered rails) in 1834. [1] Robert Davidson,
of Aberdeen, Scotland, created an electric locomotive in 1839 and ran it on the Edinburgh-Glasgow
railway at 4 miles per hour.[1] The earliest electric locomotives tended to be battery-powered.[1] In
1880, Thomas Edison built a small electrical railway, using a dynamo as the motor and the rails as
the current-carrying medium. The electric current flowed through the metal rim of otherwise wooden
wheels, being picked up via contact brushes.[1]
Electrical traction offered several benefits over the then predominant steam traction, particularly in
respect of its quick acceleration (ideal for urban (metro) and suburban (commuter) services) and
power (ideal for heavy freight trains through mountainous/hilly sections). A plethora of systems
emerged in the first twenty years of the twentieth century.

Unit types[edit]

DC traction units[edit]
Direct current (DC) traction units use direct current drawn from either a conductor rail or an overhead
line. AC voltage is converted into dc voltage by using rectifier.

AC traction units[edit]
All alternating current (AC) Traction units draw alternating current from an overhead line.

Multi-system units[edit]
Main article: Multi-system (rail)
Because of the variety of railway electrification systems, which can vary even within a country, trains
often have to pass from one system to another. One way to accomplish this is by changing
locomotives at the switching stations. These stations have overhead wires that can be switched from
one voltage to another and so the train arrives with one locomotive and then departs with another.
The switching stations have very sophisticated components and they are very expensive.
A less expensive switching station may have different electrification systems at both exits with no
switchable wires. Instead the voltage on the wires changes across a small gap in them near the
middle of the station. Electric locomotives coast into the station with their pantographs down and halt
under a wire of the wrong voltage. A diesel shunter can then return the locomotive to the right side of
the station. Both approaches are inconvenient and time-consuming, taking about ten minutes.
Another way is to use multi-system locomotives that can operate under several different voltages
and current types. In Europe, it is common to use four-system locomotives (1.5 kV DC, 3 kV DC,
15 kV 16 23 Hz AC, 25 kV, 50 Hz AC).[2] These locomotives do not have to stop when passing from
one electrification system to another, the changeover occurring where the train coasts for a short
time.
Eurostar trains through the Channel Tunnel are multisystem; a significant part of the route
near London is on southern England's 750 V DC third rail system, the route intoBrussels is 3,000 V
DC overhead, while the rest of the route is 25 kV 50 Hz overhead. The need for these trains to use
third rail ended upon completion of High Speed 1 in 2007. Southern England has
some overhead/third rail dual-system locomotives and multiple units to allow through running
between 750 V DC third rail south of London and the 25 kV AC overhead north and east of London.
Electro-diesel locomotives which can operate as an electric locomotive on electrified lines but have
an on-board diesel engine for non-electrified sections or sidings have been used in several
countries.

Battery electric rail vehicles[edit]

A few battery electric railcars and locomotives were used in the twentieth century, but generally the
use of battery power was not practical except in underground mining systems. See Accumulator
car and Battery locomotive.

High-speed rail[edit]
Many high-speed rail systems use electric trains, like the Shinkansen and the TG

MAGNETIC
LEVITATION
Maglev (derived from magnetic levitation) is a transport method that uses magnetic levitation to
move vehicles without touching the ground. With maglev, a vehicle travels along a guideway using
magnets to create both lift and propulsion, thereby reducing friction by a great extent and allowing
very high speeds.
The Shanghai Maglev Train, also known as the Transrapid, is the fastest commercial train currently
in operation and has a top speed of 430 km/h (270 mph). The line was designed to
connect Shanghai Pudong International Airport and the outskirts of central Pudong,Shanghai. It
covers a distance of 30.5 kilometres (19.0 mi) in 8 minutes.[1] The Shanghai system was labeled
a white elephant by rivals.[2]
Maglev trains move more smoothly and more quietly than wheeled mass transit systems. They are
relatively unaffected by weather. The power needed for levitation is typically not a large percentage
of its overall energy consumption;[3] most goes to overcome drag, as with other high-speed transport.
Maglev trains hold the speed record for trains.
Compared to conventional trains, differences in construction affect the economics of maglev trains,
making them much more efficient. For high-speed trains with wheels, wear and tear from friction
along with dynamic augment from wheels on rails accelerates equipment wear and prevents high
speeds.[4] Conversely, maglev systems have been much more expensive to construct, offsetting
lower maintenance costs.

Despite decades of research and development, only three commercial maglev transport systems are
in operation, while one more is under construction.[note 1] In April 2004, Shanghai's Transrapid system
began commercial operations. In March 2005, Japan began operation of its relatively low-speed
HSST "Linimo" line in time for the 2005 World Expo. In its first three months, the Linimo line carried
over 10 million passengers. South Korea became the world's fourth country to succeed in
commercializing maglev technology with theIncheon Airport Maglev beginning commercial operation
on February 3, 2016.[5]

Development[edit]
In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer Eric Laithwaite, a professor at Imperial College
London, developed the first full-size working model of the linear induction motor. He became
professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his
successful development of the linear motor.[6] Since linear motors do not require physical contact
between the vehicle and guideway, they became a common fixture on advanced transportation
systems in the 1960s and 70s. Laithwaite joined one such project, the tracked hovercraft, although
the project was cancelled in 1973.[7]
The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s,
Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets, the magnetic river, that allowed a single
linear motor to produce both lift and forward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built with a single
set of magnets. Working at the British Rail Research Division in Derby, along with teams at several
civil engineering firms, the "transverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.
The first commercial maglev people mover was simply called "MAGLEV" and officially opened in
1984 near Birmingham, England. It operated on an elevated 600-metre (2,000 ft) section of monorail
track between Birmingham Airport and Birmingham International railway station, running at speeds
up to 42 km/h (26 mph). The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.[8]

History[edit]
First maglev patent[edit]
High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world. [9] Early
United States patents for a linear motor propelled train were awarded to German inventor Alfred
Zehden. The inventor was awarded U.S. Patent 782,312 (14 February 1905) and U.S. Patent
RE12,700 (21 August 1907).[note 2] In 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was
developed by F. S. Smith.[10] A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by
linear motors were awarded to Hermann Kemper between 1937 and 1941.[note 3] An early maglev train

was described in U.S. Patent 3,158,765, "Magnetic system of transportation", by G. R. Polgreen (25
August 1959). The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitation
guidance system"[11] by Canadian Patents and Development Limited.

New York, United States, 1913[edit]

Emile Bachelet, of Mount Vernon, N. Y., demonstrated a prototype of a magnetic levitating railway
car.[12]

New York, United States, 1968[edit]

In 1968, while delayed in traffic on the Throgs Neck Bridge, James Powell, a researcher
at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation.
[13]

Powell and BNL colleague Gordon Danby worked out a MagLev concept using static magnets

mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially
shaped loops, such as figure of 8 coils on a guideway.[14][15]

Hamburg, Germany, 1979[edit]

Transrapid 05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger
transportation. In 1979, a 908 m track was opened in Hamburg for the first International
Transportation Exhibition (IVA 79). Interest was sufficient that operations were extended three
months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. It was
reassembled in Kassel in 1980.

Birmingham, United Kingdom, 198495[edit]

The Birmingham International Maglev shuttle

The world's first commercial maglev system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran between the
airport terminal of Birmingham International Airport and the nearby Birmingham International railway
station between 1984 and 1995.[16] Its track length was 600 metres (2,000 ft), and trains levitated at
an altitude of 15 millimetres (0.59 in), levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear induction
motors.[17] It operated for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems
made it progressively unreliable as years passed. One of the original cars is now on display
at Railworld in Peterborough, together with the RTV31 hover train vehicle. Another is on display at
the National Railway Museum in York.

Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:

The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8 tonne vehicle was
easy.

Electrical power was available.

The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.

Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved.

Land was owned by the railway or airport.

Local industries and councils were supportive.

Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per
organization was low.

After the system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant [18] until 2003, when a
replacement cable-hauled, the AirRail Link Cable Liner people mover was opened.[19][20]

Emsland, Germany, 19842012[edit]

Transrapid at the Emsland test facility

Main article: Emsland test facility

Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test track in Emsland with a total length of 31.5
kilometres (19.6 mi). The single-track line ran between Drpen and Lathen with turning loops at each
end. The trains regularly ran at up to 420 kilometres per hour (260 mph). Paying passengers were
carried as part of the testing process. The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished
in 1984. In 2006, the Lathen maglev train accident occurred killing 23 people, found to have been
caused by human error in implementing safety checks. From 2006 no passengers were carried. At
the end of 2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed, and in early 2012 demolition
permission was given for its facilities, including the track and factory.[21]

Japan, 1969present[edit]

See also: Ch Shinkansen

JNR ML500 at a test track inMiyazaki, Japan, on 21 December 1979 travelled at 517 km/h (321 mph),
authorized by Guinness World Records.

Japan operates two independently developed maglev trains. One is HSST (and its descendant,
the Linimo line) by Japan Airlines and the other, which is more well-known, is SCMaglev by
the Central Japan Railway Company.
The development of the latter started in 1969. Miyazaki test track regularly hit 517 km/h (321 mph)
by 1979. After an accident that destroyed the train, a new design was selected. In Okazaki, Japan
(1987), the SCMaglev took a test ride at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests through the 1980s continued
in Miyazaki before transferring to a far larger test track, 20 km (12 mi) long, in Yamanashi in 1997.
Development of HSST started in 1974, based on technologies introduced from Germany.
In Tsukuba, Japan (1985), the HSST-03 (Linimo) became popular in spite of its 30 km/h (19 mph) at
the Tsukuba World Exposition. In Saitama, Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the
Saitama exhibition performed in Kumagaya. Its fastest recorded speed was 300 km/h (190 mph).[22]

Vancouver, Canada and Hamburg, Germany, 198688[edit]

HSST-03 at Okazaki Minami Park

Main article: High Speed Surface Transport

In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by HSST Development Corporation (Japan
Airlines and Sumitomo Corporation) was exhibited atExpo 86[23] and ran on a 400-metre (0.25 mi)
test track[24] that provided guests with a ride in a single car along a short section of track at the

fairgrounds. It was removed after the fair and debut at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and now on static
display at Okazaki Minami Park.
In Hamburg, Germany, the TR-07 was exhibited at the international traffic exhibition (IVA88) in 1988.

Berlin, Germany, 198991[edit]

Main article: M-Bahn
In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in the late 1980s. It was a driverless maglev system with a
1.6 km (0.99 mi) track connecting three stations. Testing with passenger traffic started in August
1989, and regular operation started in July 1991. Although the line largely followed a new elevated
alignment, it terminated at Gleisdreieck U-Bahn station, where it took over an unused platform for a
line that formerly ran toEast Berlin. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, plans were set in motion to
reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line began only two months after
regular service began. It was called the Pundai project and was completed in February 1992.

South Korea, 1993present[edit]

Main article: Incheon Airport Maglev

Korea's Incheon Airport Maglev, the world's fourth commercially operating maglev.[5]

In 1993, Korea completed the development of its own maglev train, shown off at the Taejn Expo
'93, which was developed further into a full-fledged maglev capable of travelling up to 110 km/h in
2006. This final model was incorporated in the Incheon Airport Maglev which opened on February 3,
2016, making Korea the world's fourth country to operate its own self-developed maglev after the
United Kingdom's Birmingham International Airport,[25] Germany's Berlin M-Bahn,
[26]

and Japan's Linimo.[27] It links Incheon International Airport to the Yongyu Station and Leisure

Complex while crossing Yeongjong island.[28] It offers a transfer to the Seoul Metropolitan
Subway at AREX's Incheon International Airport Station and is offered free of charge to anyone to
ride, operating between 9am and 6pm every 15 minutes.[29] Operating hours are to be raised in the
future.
The maglev system was co-developed by the Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM)
and Hyundai Rotem.[30][31][32] It is 6.1 kilometres (3.8 mi) long, with six stations and a 110 km/h (68 mph)
operating speed.[33]
Two more stages are planned of 9.7 km and 37.4 km. Once completed it will become a circular line.

Hyundai Rotem is exporting its Maglev technology to Russia's Leningrad MagLev System, the first
overseas customer who will be getting the first urban commuter Maglev system in Europe. [34]

Technology[edit]
See also: SCMaglev Technology, Transrapid Technology, and Magnetic levitation
In the public imagination, "maglev" often evokes the concept of an elevated monorail track with
a linear motor. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail[35] and not all monorail trains are
maglevs. Some railway transport systems incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only
for propulsion, without levitating the vehicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs. [note
4]

Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be constructed at grade (i.e. not elevated). Conversely,

non-maglev tracks, monorail or not, can be elevated too. Some maglev trains do incorporate wheels
and function like linear motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but "take off" and levitate
at higher speeds.[note 5]

MLX01 Maglev trainSuperconducting magnet bogie

The two notable types of maglev technology are:

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train

attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.

Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) uses superconducting electromagnets or strong

permanent magnets that create a magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic
conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the train towards the
designed levitation position on the guide way.

Another technology, which was designed, proven mathematically, peer-reviewed, and patented, but
is, as of May 2015, unbuilt, ismagnetodynamic suspension (MDS). It uses the attractive magnetic
force of a permanent magnet array near a steel track to lift the train and hold it in place. Other
technologies such as repulsive permanent magnets and superconducting magnets have seen some
research.

Electromagnetic suspension[edit]

Main article: Electromagnetic suspension

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is used to levitate the Transrapid on the track, so that the train can be
faster than wheeled mass transit systems[36][37]

In electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates above a steel rail
while electromagnets, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is
typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the
vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between
the upper and lower edges.
Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the cube of distance, so minor changes in distance between
the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically
unstable a slight divergence from the optimum position tends to grow, requiring sophisticated
feedback systems to maintain a constant distance from the track, (approximately 15 millimetres
(0.59 in)).[38][39]
The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike
electrodynamic systems, which only work at a minimum speed of about 30 km/h (19 mph). This
eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify track layout. On
the downside, the dynamic instability demands fine track tolerances, which can offset this
advantage. Eric Laithwaite was concerned that to meet required tolerances, the gap between
magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably
large.[40] In practice, this problem was addressed through improved feedback systems, which support
the required tolerances.

Electrodynamic suspension (EDS)[edit]

Main article: Electrodynamic suspension

The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS suspension is powered by the magnetic fields induced either side of the
vehicle by the passage of the vehicle's superconducting magnets.

EDS Maglev propulsion via propulsion coils

In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guideway and the train exert a magnetic field, and the
train is levitated by the repulsive and attractive force between these magnetic fields. [41] In some
configurations, the train can be levitated only by repulsive force. In the early stages of maglev
development at the Miyazaki test track, a purely repulsive system was used instead of the later
repulsive and attractive EDS system.[42] The magnetic field is produced either by superconducting
magnets (as in JRMaglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in Inductrack). The repulsive
and attractive force in the track is created by an induced magnetic field in wires or other conducting
strips in the track. A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are dynamically stable
changes in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to return the system
to its original position.[40] In addition, the attractive force varies in the opposite manner, providing the
same adjustment effects. No active feedback control is needed.
However, at slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not
large enough to levitate the train. For this reason, the train must have wheels or some other form of
landing gear to support the train until it reaches take-off speed. Since a train may stop at any
location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both lowand high-speed operation.
Another downside is that the EDS system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear
of the lift magnets, which acts against the magnets and creates magnetic drag. This is generally only
a concern at low speeds (This is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purely repulsive system
and adopted the sidewall levitation system.)[42] At higher speeds other modes of drag dominate.[40]
The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a
varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need
for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such
"traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory.[40] Alternatively, propulsion coils on the
guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward.
The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an alternating
current through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along
the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train.

The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force
moving the train forward.

Tracks[edit]
The term "maglev" refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically
designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev
technology make minimal use of wheeled train technology and are not compatible with
conventional rail tracks. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, maglev systems must be
designed as standalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and
would permit maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate on the same tracks. MAN in
Germany also designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully
developed.[40]

Evaluation[edit]
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages
and disadvantages.

Technology

Pros

Con

EMS[43][44](Electromagnetic suspension)

Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less than EDS;

The

proven, commercially available technology; high speeds (500 km/h

con

(310 mph)); no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed.

elec
the

vibr

EDS[45][46]

Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable

Stro

(Electrodynamic suspension)

highest recorded speeds (603 km/h (375 mph)) and heavy load

pas

capacity; demonstrated successful operations using high-temperature as h

superconductors in its onboard magnets, cooled with inexpensive

shie

liquidnitrogen.

veh

Inductrack System[47][48](Permanent

Failsafe Suspensionno power required to activate magnets;

Req

Magnet Passive Suspension)

Magnetic field is localized below the car; can generate enough force at veh
low speeds (around 5 km/h (3.1 mph)) for levitation; given power
failure cars stop safely; Halbach arrays of permanent magnets may
prove more cost-effective than electromagnets.

vers

Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill,
although Inductrack provides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems.
EMS systems are wheel-free.
The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem EMS maglevs levitate at a
standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly
for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate
levitation down to 10 km/h (6.2 mph) speed,[citation needed] using the power from onboard batteries. This is
not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.
Propulsion[edit]
EMS systems such as HSST/Linimo can provide both levitation and propulsion using an onboard
linear motor. But EDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid levitate but do not
propel. Such systems need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils)
mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances coil costs could be prohibitive.
Stability[edit]
Earnshaw's theorem shows that no combination of static magnets can be in a stable equilibrium.
[49]

Therefore a dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required to achieve stabilization. EMS

systems rely on active electronic stabilization that constantly measures the bearing distance and
adjusts the electromagnet current accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields to
create currents, which can give passive stability.
Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll and yaw is required. In addition to
rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion) or heave (up and down
motions) can be problematic.
Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train
into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to
the Meissner effect and flux pinning.
Guidance system[edit]
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems). [41][50] These use a
coil that is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the
loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but any moves offline create flux that generates a field that naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.

Evacuated tubes[edit]
Main article: Vactrain
Some systems (notably the Swissmetro system) propose the use of vactrainsmaglev train
technology used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes air drag. This has the potential to

increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains is lost to
aerodynamic drag.[51]
One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be
exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can
repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident though since trains are likely to
operate at or near the Earth's surface, emergency restoration of ambient pressure should be
straightforward. The RAND Corporation has depicted a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross
the Atlantic or the USA in ~21 minutes.[52]

Energy use[edit]
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train. Energy may be regained when the train
slows down via regenerative braking. It also levitates and stabilises the train's movement. Most of
the energy is needed to overcome "air drag". Some energy is used for air conditioning, heating,
lighting and other miscellany.
At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant, consuming up to 15%
more power than a subway or light rail service.[53] For short distances the energy used for
acceleration might be considerable.
The power used to overcome air drag increases with the cube of the velocity and hence dominates
at high speed. The energy needed per unit distance increases by the square of the velocity and the
time decreases linearly. For example, 2.5 times more power is needed to travel at 400 km/h than
300 km/h.[54]

Comparison with conventional trains[edit]

Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It relies less or not at all on the wheels,
bearings and axles common to wheeled rail systems.[55]

Speed: Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional rail, but experimental wheelbased high-speed trains have demonstrated similar speeds.

Maintenance: Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for minimal
guideway maintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of operation,
rather than on speed or distance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear
that increases exponentially with speed, also increasing maintenance. [55]

Weather: Maglev trains are little affected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain or high winds.
However, they have not operated in the wide range of conditions that traditional friction-based
rail systems have operated. Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical

systems regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade because they are
non-contact systems.[55]

Track: Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require
custom infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains such as
the TGV are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing
expenditure where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final
approaches to city terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure.
John Harding, former chief maglev scientist at the Federal Railroad Administration, claimed that
separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of all-weather
operational availability and nominal maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in
an intense operational setting and does not consider the increased maglev construction costs.

Efficiency: Conventional rail is probably more efficient at lower speeds. But due to the lack
of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience norolling
resistance, leaving only air resistance and electromagnetic drag, potentially improving power
efficiency.[56] Some systems however such as the Central Japan Railway
Company SCMaglev use rubber tires at low speeds, reducing efficiency gains.

Weight: The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs require between 1 and 2
kilowatts per ton.[57] The use of superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets' energy
consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70
tons, which consumes 70-140 kW.[citation needed] Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and
overcoming air resistance at speeds over 100 mph.[citation needed]

Weight loading: High speed rail requires more support and construction for its concentrated
wheel loading. Maglev cars are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.[58]

Noise: Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air rather
than from wheels touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at
equivalent speeds. However, the psychoacoustic profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a
study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic, while conventional trains
experience a 510 dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level. [59][60]
[61]

Braking: Braking and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the Fastech 360 rail
Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.

Magnet reliability: At higher temperatures magnets may fail. New alloys and manufacturing
techniques have addressed this issue.

Control systems: No signalling systems are needed for high-speed rail, because such
systems are computer controlled. Human operators cannot react fast enough to manage highspeed trains. High speed systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two
maglev system microwave towers are in constant contact with trains. There is no need for train
whistles or horns, either.

Terrain: Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades, offering more routing flexibility and
reduced tunneling.[58]

Comparison with aircraft[edit]

Differences between airplane and maglev travel:

Efficiency: For maglev systems the lift-to-drag ratio can exceed that of aircraft (for
example Inductrack can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can
make maglev more efficient per kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag
is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jets take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to
significantly reduce air drag. Hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel
more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level. [citation needed]

Routing: While aircraft can theoretically take any route between points, commercial air
routes are rigidly defined. Maglevs offer competitive journey times over distances of 800
kilometres (500 miles) or less. Additionally, maglevs can easily serve intermediate destinations.

Availability: Maglevs are little affected by weather.[citation needed]

Safety: Maglevs offer a significant safety margin since maglevs do not crash into other
maglevs or leave their guideways.[62][63][64]

Travel time: Maglevs do not face the extended security protocols faced by air travelers nor
is time consumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and landing.[citation needed]

Economics[edit]
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build.[65] This total includes capital
costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ
pier construction at 25 metre intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several switches, two
stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and operational

training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since the Longyang Road station
is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai Train station
and Hongqiao Airport station, which may not happen because of economic reasons, ridership was
expected to cover operation and maintenance costs and generate significant net revenue. [according to whom?]
The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost approximately US$18 million per kilometre. In
2006 the German government invested $125 million in guideway cost reduction development that
produced an all-concrete modular design that is faster to build and is 30% less costly. Other new
construction techniques were also developed that put maglev at or below price parity with new highspeed rail construction.[66]
The United States Federal Railroad Administration, in a 2005 report to Congress, estimated cost per
mile of between $50m and $100m.[67] The Maryland Transit Administration(MTA) Environmental
Impact Statement estimated a pricetag at US$4.9 billion for construction, and $53 million a year for
operations of its project.[68]
The proposed Chuo Shinkansen maglev in Japan was estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion
to build, with a route requiring long tunnels. A Tokaido maglev route replacing the current
Shinkansen would cost 1/10 the cost, as no new tunnel would be needed, but noise pollution issues
made this infeasible.[citation needed][neutrality is disputed]
The only low-speed maglev (100 km/h or 62 mph) currently operational, the Japanese Linimo HSST,
cost approximately US$100 million/km to build.[69] Besides offering improved operation and
maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of
operational reliability and introduce little noise[verification needed]and generate zero air pollution
into dense urban settings.
As more maglev systems are deployed, experts expected construction costs to drop by employing
new construction methods and from economies of scale.[70]

Records[edit]
The highest recorded maglev speed is 603 km/h (375 mph), achieved in Japan by JR Central's L0
superconducting Maglev on 21 April 2015,[71] 28 km/h (17 mph) faster than the
conventional TGV wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences
between these two very different technologies is far greater. The TGV record was achieved
accelerating down a 72.4 km (45.0 mi) slight decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another
77.25 km (48.00 mi) for the TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of 149.65 km (92.99 mi) for the
test.[72] The MLX01 record, however, was achieved on the 18.4 km (11.4 mi) Yamanashi test track
1/8 the distance.[73] No maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted at
speeds over 500 km/h.

History of maglev speed records[edit]

Year

1971

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

Country

West
Germany

West
Germany

Japan

West
Germany

West
Germany

West
Germany

Train

Prinzipfahrzeug

TR-02 (TSST)

ML100

TR04

EET-01

Komet

1978

Japan

HSST-01

1978

Japan

HSST-02

1979-

Japan

ML-500R

12-12

Speed

Notes

90 km/h
(56 mph)

164 km/h
(102 mph)

60 km/h
(37 mph)

250 km/h
(160 mph)

230 km/h
(140 mph)

401 km/h
(249 mph)

Manned

Manned

Unmanned

by steam rocket propulsion, unmanned

308 km/h

by supporting rockets propulsion, made

(191 mph)

in Nissan, unmanned

110 km/h
(68 mph)

Manned

504 km/h

(unmanned) It succeeds in operation

(313 mph)

over 500 km/h for the first time in the

world.

197912-21

1987

1987

1988

1989

Japan

West
Germany

Japan

West
Germany

West
Germany

ML-500R

TR-06

MLU001

TR-06

TR-07

1993

Germany

TR-07

1994

Japan

MLU002N

1997

Japan

MLX01

1997

Japan

MLX01

517 km/h
(321 mph)

406 km/h
(252 mph)

401 km/h
(249 mph)

413 km/h
(257 mph)

436 km/h
(271 mph)

450 km/h
(280 mph)

431 km/h
(268 mph)

531 km/h
(330 mph)

550 km/h
(340 mph)

(unmanned)

(manned)

(manned)

(manned)

(manned)

(manned)

(unmanned)

(manned)

(unmanned)

1999

Japan

MLX01

2003

Japan

MLX01

2015

Japan

L0

2015

Japan

L0

Systems[edit]

552 km/h

(manned/five-car

(343 mph)

formation). Guinness authorization.

581 km/h

(manned/three formation). Guinness

(361 mph)

authorization.[74]

590 km/h
(370 mph)

603 km/h
(375 mph)

(manned/seven-car formation)[75]

(manned/seven-car formation)[71]