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FOREWORD
For many years it has been necessary for persons engaged in geotechnical
engineering projects to work in small diameter shafts and in test pits.
The first large diameter drilling machines for cast-in-situ piling were
imported into South Africa in 1948. The construction of these piles often
entailed work to be carried out below the surface for cleaning the base of
the hole or for inspecting the founding material. It was not long before
these deep auger holes were also used for exploratory purposes, as they
afforded an ideal opportunity for describing the soil profile in situ and
retrieving high quality samples. Test pits formed using an excavator
proved equally useful in shallower profiles. As so much of this type of
work has been undertaken in complete safety, it is clear that the risks
involved are manageable provided reasonable precautions are observed.
The first Code of Practice on safety in small diameter vertical shafts
was published in 1960 (Ref 6) and revised in 1980 (Ref 7). These codes drew
attention to the measures that were necessary when persons descend into
small diameter shafts. The purpose of the current code is to take account
of improved methods developed over the last thirty years, to include
provisions for test pits in addition to shafts and to highlight the changes
in practice required by recent legislation.
This code applies to geotechnical personnel who descend into small
diameter shafts (as drilled by an auger rig or similar) or into test pits
(excavated by hand or using a mechanical excavator) for the purpose
of describing and sampling the soil profile or performing in situ tests.
Although this code has been written primarily with site investigation by
geotechnical professionals in mind, many of the provisions of the code
are also applicable to contractors engaged in the construction of piles.
The code does not apply to construction activities involving work in
trenches which, as a result of their length, are inherently less stable than
test pits.
Additional or varied precautions may apply in mining areas.
iii
Client
Nico Maas
Piling contractor
Andy Schulze-Hubbe
SAIEG
Consultant
Rob Stocken
Piling contractor
Consultant
Gavin Wardle
Consultant
iv
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
1
SCOPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
RELEVANT LEGISLATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.1 Occupational Health and Safety Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2 Specific requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.3 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
PERSONNEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
RISK ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2 Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2.1 Geotechnical investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6.2.2 Piling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.3 Risk assessment process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3.2 Site investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6.3.3 Piling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.1 Preparatory work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8.2 Profiling of test pits and shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
8.2.2 Test pits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
8.2.3 Profiling shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
8.3 Cleaning shafts for piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.4 Attendance to persons working below surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8.5 Unattended holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
8.6 Other precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.1 Emergency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.2 First aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
9.3 Rescue methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
10 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
11 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
APPENDIX A: TYPICAL HAZARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
APPENDIX B: TYPICAL FLOW CHART FOR A RISK
ASSESSMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
APPENDIX C: SAFETY EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
APPENDIX D: EXAMPLE OF A SHORING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . 41
APPENDIX E: GASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
vi
Section 1
Section 2
SCOPE
This code is written primarily for geotechnical professionals engaged in
site investigation activities. Many of the provisions of the code are also
applicable to contractors engaged in the construction of piles. Additional
precautions are, however, likely to apply to piling sites.
This Code of Practice provides guidance on the safety precautions
and procedures required when:
Personnel descend into test pits or small diameter shafts for site
investigation purposes, or
Personnel are lowered into pile holes for the purposes of inspection or
cleaning the base of the holes
The provisions of this code may also be applied to inclined holes excavated
for raking piles (normally not exceeding 1:4) but, in this case, it is even
more important that adequate assessment of the danger of collapse be
made by a competent person.
This code does not apply to construction activities involving work in
trenches or adjacent to excavation faces.
The code is written to conform to the requirements of the Occupational
Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act 85 of 1993) and the Construction
Regulations. Varied or additional requirements may apply for mines,
mining areas and works defined in the Minerals Act, 1991 (Act 50 of 1991)
which fall under the jurisdiction of the Mine Health and Safety Act, 1996
(Act 29 of 1996).
This code lays down standards of acceptable practice. The provisions
of the code are not mandatory, except where they reflect legislated
requirements. The code must be read in conjunction with the relevant
legislation and does not seek to provide a complete list of all legislated
obligations.
Section 3
DEFINITIONS
For the purposes of this Code of Practice, the definitions given below apply.
Where possible, these definitions accord with those in the Occupational
Health and Safety Act (Ref 4) and the Construction Regulations that form
part of the Act.
Client means any person or organisation for whom investigation work or
construction work is performed.
Professional team means the person(s) or organisation engaged to
represent the client.
Consultant means any professional person or organisation engaged by
the client or professional team to undertake the site investigation or
the design of the piles. In the Construction Regulations, the consultant
engaged in site investigation activities may also assume the duties of
a contractor (Ref 2).
Contractor means any person or organisation who performs construction
work including the forming of excavations or construction of piles.
Employer means any person who employs or provides work for any
person and remunerates that person for the work undertaken.
Supervisor means the person designated in writing by the contractor
or consultant, who is resident on site and whose responsibility it is to
supervise construction and descent into the shaft or the profiling of
test holes. In the absence of such written designation, the most senior
person on the site shall assume the duties of the supervisor.
Competent person means a person having the knowledge, training,
experience and qualifications required for the performance of a
specific task or function.
Site means the place where the shaft and/or test pits are formed.
Site investigation means the process by which geological, geotechnical,
and other relevant information is acquired in the field and in many
cases includes the visual inspection (profiling) of test pits or small
diameter shafts.
Section 4
RELEVANT LEGISLATION
4.1 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY ACT
All excavation work is regarded as a construction activity and is
subject to the provisions of the Occupational Health and Safety Act,
1993 (Act 85 of 1993) and specifically the Construction Regulations.
The Act and the Regulations are administered by the Department of
Labour Inspection and Enforcement Department.
Section 8 of the Occupational Health and Safety Act covers
general duties of employers to their employees. The essence of the
act is reflected in Sub-section (1):
Every Employer shall provide and maintain, as far as is
reasonably practicable, a working environment that is safe and
without risk to the health of his employees.
As test holes or pile holes are not places where solid or particulate
material is being discharged, the requirements of this regulation
are not mandatory (and are not referenced in the Construction
Regulations R11). It should nevertheless be regarded as an indication
of acceptable practice where there is a danger of engulfment and
in the context of work in excavations, the requirements of this
regulation are conditional of the danger of being engulfed, that is, on
the stability of the sidewalls of the test hole. The need for the use of
a safety harness and attendance at surface is thus conditional on the
stability of the hole and must be determined by the risk assessment
(see Section 6) and confirmed by inspection on site.
4.3 DOCUMENTATION
The Construction Regulations require a number of documents to be
prepared which were not generally required in the past. The more
important of these are highlighted below. It should be noted that
where the requirements of the Mine Health and Safety Act (Act 29 of
1996) are applicable, the documentation required may also vary.
In terms of R4(1)(a), the client is required to prepare a health
and safety specification for the construction work and to issue this
specification to contractors at the time of tender. This specification
should contain all requirements pertaining to the construction work
that are necessary to ensure the health and safety of persons. The
10
11
Section 5
PERSONNEL
5.1 DUTIES OF EMPLOYERS TOWARDS PERSONNEL
Employers of personnel who descend into shafts or test holes must
be familiar with the relevant legislation mentioned in Section 4.
They should ensure the job description for such personnel reflects
the type of work they do and that the activities associated with this
work are covered by their goup life insurance scheme.
All injuries that arise out of and in the course of an employees
work are covered by the Occupational Injuries and Diseases Act,
1993 (Act 130 of 1993).
Employers must ensure that all personnel have the necessary
training and experience for any task they are requested to undertake.
They must also ensure that all necessary equipment, including
personal protective equipment, is provided and is maintained in
good working order. Employers must ensure that all the necessary
appointments required by the legislation are in place. Employers
should, from time to time, monitor compliance with safety legislation
and take steps against any breaches of safety procedures.
12
13
14
Section 6
RISK ASSESSMENT
6.1 GENERAL
There are risks associated with descending into excavations for
profiling or construction purposes and people have been killed
while engaged in such activities. To ensure the health and safety
of all personnel involved, it is therefore necessary to conduct a risk
assessment before descending into any excavation.
Regulation 7 of the Construction Regulations requires that a risk
assessment be carried out to identify, evaluate and analyse the risks
prior to commencement of any construction work. This requirement
includes producing a safety plan to mitigate, reduce or control the
identified risks, a monitoring plan and a review plan, all of which
form part of the risk assessment.
The risk assessment is to be kept on site and available for
inspection. All employees and sub-contractors are to be informed,
instructed and trained regarding any risks associated with the work.
No person may enter the site without undergoing health and safety
induction training. Every employee must be in possession of proof
of such induction training and is required to carry this proof on site
at all times.
6.2 PLANNING
Identifying hazards requires knowledge of the specific site, the
expected site conditions and the nature of the work to be undertaken.
The risk assessment can only be conducted once all the available
information relevant to the specific site has been accumulated and
the proposed site investigation activities have been planned.
15
6.2.2 Piling
A distinction should be made between the risk assessment
for a geotechnical investigation and the risk assessment for
the cleaning and inspection of piles as these activities are
conducted at different stages of a project and the identified
hazards may differ.
A similar process of gathering information is necessary
before conducting the risk assessment required for the
inspection or cleaning of pile holes. The construction of
piles, however, should only takes place after a geotechnical
investigation has been conducted and the detailed design
has been completed. Detailed site-specific information will
therefore be available and should be used in the preparation
of the risk assessment. This includes recording overbreak,
instability, or water seepage in shafts and test pits formed
during the investigation. It is also important to determine the
position of test holes or previous excavations as accurately as
possible as intersection of loose backfill in these holes will
have an impact on the stability of the pile holes.
16
17
Objects falling into the hole from the surface or the sides
of the hole
Unstable sides of the hole
Unforeseen behaviour of the person in the hole, e.g.
claustrophobia or losing consciousness due to a medical
condition
Unforeseen events such as a snake in the hole or a veld fire
occurring in the area
The presence of toxic or flammable materials and gases
Each or these hazards is discussed in more detail in
Appendix A and the actions that may be required to reduce
the risks to acceptable limits are highlighted. A typical flow
chart of the risk assessment process for a site investigation is
provided in Appendix B.
Once all the hazards have been identified, it is necessary
to determine the likelihood of the hazard occurring and
the potential impact. In the flow chart, a number of typical
questions are suggested to determine the likelihood of
occurrence of a specific hazard. For example, consider the
risk of collapse of the sides of a hole. A negative response to
all the following questions indicates that in general collapse
of the sides of the hole should not be a problem.
(a) Are there layers of loose sands on the site?
(b) Are there fissured or slickensided clays?
(c) Will the test hole be excavated to below the ground water
level, either perched or permanent?
(d) Will the personnel be required to spend significant time
in the hole?
(e) Will the test holes be excavated in a profile modified by
previous activities, for example, in uncompacted fill?
If it is established that certain risks associated with the site
investigation are unacceptable, the next step is to identify and
implement measures that will reduce these risks to acceptable
levels. For example, if the risk assessment shows that there is a
risk of the sides of a test hole collapsing and there is a high risk
that somebody may be injured or killed, measures should be
put in place to reduce the risk. Typical actions could include:
18
Not descending into the test hole, but profiling from the
spoils,
Shoring the sides of the test pit or casing the shaft if
descending down the hole is necessary, or
Sloping or benching the sidewalls of the test pit
If the risk assessment indicates that the risk cannot be
effectively mitigated, it may by necessary to change the
method of investigation by reverting to rotary core drilling
or in situ testing rather than the use of test holes.
6.3.3 Piling
Typical hazards that should be considered when doing a risk
assessment for cleaning or inspection of pile holes include
those listed in 6.3.2 plus:
Hoisting of spoil cleaned from the hole (spillage, dislodging
of material from sidewalls, snagging on bottom of casing,
etc)
Collapse of material from hanging of raking piles
Construction noise hindering communication with person
in hole
Exhaust gases from construction equipment
Break-through of concrete or water from adjacent holes
Intersection of loose backfill in old test holes
Each or these hazards is discussed in more detail in
Appendix A. The actions that may be required to reduce the
risks to acceptable limits are also discussed.
Once all the hazards have been identified, the process of
determining the likelihood and impact of the different hazards
and the mitigating measures that should be implemented, if
required, must again be followed.
19
Section 7
20
Application
Personal
protective
Personal protection
equipment (PPE)
Minimum
standard
Additional requirements
SANS approved
General Safety
Regulation 13A
Ladder
Safety harness
Safety rope
General Safety
Alternative to a safety
Regulation 13A
Boatswains chair chair if used together with
Construction
a safety harness
Regulation 16
Hand winch
Hoisting a person
Driven Machinery
Regulation 18
Crane
Hoisting a person in a
safety harness or safety
chair
Lighting
Illuminating augered
holes
Electrical
Machinery
Regulations 9
and 10
General Safety
Regulation 3
21
22
23
Section 8
PROCEDURES
8.1 PREPARATORY WORK
Before commencing with the fieldwork, the following preparatory
work should be undertaken:
All the permissions necessary for conducting the work should be
obtained from the owner of the land and the relevant authorities.
Construction Regulation R3 requires that the Provincial Director
in the Department of Labour be notified in writing in the case
of construction work involving excavations deeper than 1 m if
the duration of the work exceeds 30 days or will involve more
than 300 person days of construction work. An example of
such notification and the information to be supplied is given in
Annexure A of the Construction Regulations.
A safety specification should be obtained from the client. If no
such specification is provided, the minimum conditions given in
this code and the relevant legislation should apply.
A desk study should be carried out to assess the conditions likely
to be encountered on the site and the necessary risk assessments
prepared.
Details should be obtained of any services on the site and the
layout of services should be taken into account in positioning of
test holes.
A site safety file should be prepared in accordance with the
requirements of Section 4.3 of this code. The risk assessments
should be included in the site safety file.
All contractors and sub-contractors should be appointed in writing
and provided with copies of the site safety requirements.
All necessary appointments, including that of a construction
supervisor (if applicable) and a competent person excavations,
must be made in writing.
An on-site safety induction should be held for all personnel, a
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Section 9
EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS
9.1 EMERGENCY PLAN
An emergency plan should be prepared for each site investigation or
piling operation. The following steps will typically form part of the
preparation of an emergency plan:
(a) Prepare a brief description of the work to be carried out,
highlighting all the mitigating measures identified during the
risk assessment.
(b) Prepare a list of emergency numbers to be available on site, which
should include the Fire Department, Ambulance, Hospital, Doctor
and Safety Officer (where available). Also include the telephone
numbers of the Department of Labour and the Department of
Minerals and Energy, as applicable.
(c) Identify the rescue personnel (someone with a first aid certificate
should preferably be on site) and brief all personnel on the
emergency plan and each ones specific duties.
(d) Ensure that an adequately equipped (stocked) first aid kit is on
site.
(e) Describe a procedure to ensure that all the mitigating measures
identified during the risk assessment, as well as the standard
safety requirements, are implemented.
(f) Ensure that fire detection and extinguishing procedures are in
place and that trained personnel and suitable equipment are
available.
The emergency plan must be communicated to the personnel on site
as part of on-site induction.
31
32
Section 10
SUMMARY
Soil conditions across much of South Africa are favourable for the excavation
and profiling of test pits and small diameter shafts to gain first-hand
knowledge on the soil profile and material properties and also allow for the
taking of samples for laboratory testing. This practice requires personnel to
descend into test pits and shafts. There are several hazards associated with
this activity, the most obvious of which is collapse of the sidewalls of the test
hole or shaft. This has resulted in injuries and deaths in the past.
It is possible, however, to reduce the risks associated with this
practice to acceptable levels by adopting safe working procedures. The
procedures required to ensure the safety of personnel working in test
holes are discussed in detail in this Code of Practice and can briefly be
summarised as follows:
Proper planning of the investigation or pile construction is required
including a thorough risk assessment by a competent person. The risk
assessment will determine the methodology adopted for the work.
All personnel should be adequately trained and instructed in the tasks
they are required to undertake. Duties must be clearly defined and the
necessary appointments must be put in place.
Appropriate plant and equipment should be used and must be
provided by the employer. Legislation covers the requirements for
plant and equipment but, in some cases, decisions are required that
are not covered by legislation. These include the choice of appropriate
investigation methods.
The stability of all excavations must be assessed before descending into
the hole. This assessment relies heavily on the competency of the person
doing the assessment. It is therefore essential that personnel involved in
this practice have the necessary competence, training and experience.
Finally the execution of the work should be done in accordance with
the guidelines and recommendations in this Code of Practice and
must be in accordance with the relevant legislation.
33
The profiling of test holes and the cleaning or inspection of cast in situ
pile bases must comply with the Occupational Health and Safety Act,
1993 and Regulations. The Construction Regulations published in 2003
are a collection of regulations that apply specifically to the construction
activities including piling and any site investigations involving the
forming of an excavation. The Construction Regulations specify the legal
requirements to be met and define a framework for conducting the work.
The most important requirements applicable to site investigation and
piling activities include:
Notification of the appropriate authority of the work that is about to
be undertaken
Identification of the personnel responsible for the supervision of the
work, as well as their legal appointment
Carrying out of risk assessments
Specific requirements dealing with excavations, including:
inspection of the excavation by a duly appointed competent
person,
stabilisation of excavations,
avoidance of surcharges on sidewalls,
providing suitable means of access,
ascertaining the position of services,
inspection of excavations,
barricading of excavations, and
signage to warn that people are in an excavation
Requirements for working in confined space
Requirements for equipment such as the boatswains chair
In-situ profiling of test holes and work in small diameter shafts is of
considerable benefit to the geotechnical industry and can be undertaken
without undue risk. The Construction Regulations form a sound
framework for work of this nature. It is essential that geotechnical
employers put the necessary systems and procedures in place and that all
personnel comply with the requirements of this code.
34
References
1
Republic of South Africa 1993. Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993
(Act 85 of 1993) (including the Construction Regulations and General Safety
Regulations).
Republic of South Africa 1996. Mine Health and Safety Act, 1996 (Act 29 of
1996).
35
Appendix A
TYPICAL HAZARDS
INJURIES BY MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
Most test pits and shafts are excavated using mechanical equipment. This
poses the danger of injuries being caused by the equipment itself. It is
therefore necessary to ensure that all personnel are standing clear of the
equipment. Personnel should also ensure that the operator is aware of
their presence and position.
36
37
38
Actions:
1 Discuss operator
and equipment with
contractor
2 Ensure that personnel
in vicinity of equipment
are not in danger
Typical questions:
1 Is there a safe means of
accessing the hole?
2 Is there a safe means of
exiting the hole in case
of an emergency?
Typical questions:
1 Is it an experienced
operator/team
with competency
certification?
2 Will test holes be dug in
confined spaces?
3 Does the equipment
conform to the
applicable legislation?
4 Has all the equipment
been inspected
visually?
Actions:
1 Ensure that the method
of accessing and exiting
the hole is safe and
quick
Unsafe access
Injured by equipment
Actions:
1 Inspect area around
test hole and ensure
that there are no loose
objects
2 Ensure that no
equipment can fall into
hole from the surface
3 Remove loose material
on sides while
descending
4 Do not descend into
unsupported hole if
extensive collapse is
suspected
Typical questions:
1 Are there circumstances
that would prevent
removal of loose objects
around and in the hole?
Actions:
1 Change the method of
investigation if possible
2 Profile hole from spoils
3 Shore the sides of the
test pit
Typical questions:
1 Is the soil profile clayey
or sandy?
2 Where is the water
table?
3 Is there any time lapse
between excavation and
profiling?
4 Has the ground been
disturbed previously?
5 Will the side of the test
hole be subjected to an
external force?
Collapse of sides
of hole
RISK ASSESSMENT
SITE INVESTIGATION
Actions:
1 Ensure that someone is
in attendance the entire
time a person is down a
test hole
2 Prepare an emergency
plan
3 Ensure that it is possible
to communicate with
the person in the hole at
all times
Typical questions:
1 Are there sufficient
people to attend to the
person working in the
hole at all times?
2 Is there an emergency
plan in place?
3 Will communication
with the person in the
hole be difficult?
4 Are the holes near a
source of gases, for
example roads?
Unforeseen events
happening to a person
down the hole
Actions:
1 If in doubt check
2 Ensure that the
equipment to check for
gases is available
3 Do not enter a gas
filled hole without the
necessary precaution
or until gas has been
removed and it has been
established that no
more gas is entering the
hole
Typical questions:
1 Is there any reason to
believe that there may
be toxic or flammable
gases in the hole?
Gases in hole
Appendix B
39
Appendix C
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
40
Appendix D
41
Appendix E
GASES
OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
The classic symptoms of oxygen deficiency are deep and rapid breathing,
headache, buzzing in the ears and rapid heart action. However, in many
cases these symptoms do not occur and the effects vary widely with each
individual. Often the tendency is to feel extremely confident and well up
to the moment of sudden and complete collapse.
Death due to oxygen deficiency is very rapid. The normal percentage
of oxygen in the atmosphere is 21 per cent by volume. Humans can
still survive if this quantity drops as low as 13 per cent, but marked
physiological effects usually begin to manifest themselves if the
percentage drops below 14 per cent. Lowering a lighted mining safety
lamp into the hole can thus make a simple test for oxygen deficiency,
because open flames are extinguished when the percentage of oxygen
drops below 17 per cent.
A mining safety lamp should be used and no other device with a
naked flame as only a mining safety lamp will avoid the explosion that
may occur if flammable gases are present. When the lamp is lowered into
the hole, it should be held close to the side of the hole and reflection from
the face of the shaft should be observed to check whether the lamp is
alight at all times.
CARBON DIOXIDE
The normal percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0,03 per cent
and humans can survive when it is slightly greater than 6 per cent. The
effects of such high concentrations are excessive panting and laboured
breathing. Concentrations of the order of 10 per cent or more produce a
narcotic effect and death may result in a short time.
Since carbon dioxide concentration is usually accompanied by a
decrease in oxygen content, the flame test with a suitable safety lamp is
also a satisfactory test in this case. If the flame was not extinguished in
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the test, but the symptoms occur as described above, then the persons
should leave the hole and not re-enter until ventilation has been
provided.
METHANE
Methane is not normally dangerous to humans. Its danger lies in its
explosive character when it is mixed with air. For this reason, all smoking
or naked flames must be forbidden in holes.
No naked flame should ever be thrown into a shaft. Under suspect
conditions such as in coal areas, marshy ground, city streets with gas
mains or near fuel tanks, proper ventilation must be provided and modern
gas detecting measures should be employed.
CARBON MONOXIDE
This is not a common gas in natural soils, but it could find its way into
holes from the exhausts of machines situated near the top of the hole.
Plant with internal combustion engines should be kept away from such
holes and where this is not possible, as in the case of the drilling machine
itself, the exhaust pipe should be so arranged that there is no possibility of
gas entering the hole. Even very weak concentrations of carbon monoxide
(0,005 per cent) may be harmful.
If pneumatic tools such as mechanical tools or spades are being used
down holes, their operation will normally introduce clean air. The intake
to the compressor however must be sufficiently far from the exhaust of
any internal combustion engine that contamination of the air is avoided.
Further, particular care should be exercised to ensure that exhaust gases
do not inadvertently leak into the compressor system through some
malfunction and finds its way into the hole through the airline.
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EMERGENCY VENTILATION
On all construction sites where persons are required to work in holes,
adequate ventilation equipment should be provided and respirable air
should be supplied to the base of the shaft if necessary.
A suitable instrument is a hand forge blower with a 75 mm diameter,
spirally reinforced, canvas hose of sufficient length to reach to the bottom
of the hole. The blower should always be available on site, if required by
the risk assessment, and both blower and hose should be kept in good
repair by regular maintenance. On construction work where compressors
are available, air hoses may be used to provide compressed air for
ventilating the holes. Oxygen cylinders and hoses may also be used for
emergency ventilation.
Alternatively, self-rescue equipment as used in the mining industry
may be taken down the hole.
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