Motors and Generators

1.1 Discuss the effect on the magnitude of the force on a current-carrying

conductor of variations in: the strength of the magnetic field in which it is
located, the magnitude of the current in the conductor, the length of the
conductor in the external magnetic field and the angle between the
direction of the external magnetic field and the direction of the length of
the conductor

As magnetic field strength (B) increases, force (F) increases

As current (I) increases, F increases
As the length of the conductor (l) increases, F increases
As the angle between the current-carrying conductor and the magnetic field () increases, F
increases, and is at a maximum when =90
The relationship between these variables is given by;
=
is the angle between the CCC and the B field lines

1.2 Describe qualitatively and quantitatively the force between long

parallel current-carrying conductors

The intensity of a magnetic field is proportional to current and inversely proportional to the
distance between the two parallel CCCs (d), expressed by the equation:
=

Force per unit length of wire is given by the equation:

=

Equation derived from

and

If the current in parallel wires is flowing in the same direction, they will attract, and if the
current is flowing in opposite directions they will repel

1.3 Define torque as the turning moment of a force

Torque is the turning effect of a force

Note that net force is not equal to net torque as direct force is different to rotational force
Torque is given by the equation:
=
Fp is force applied perpendicular to an objects centre of mass or a fulcrum
d is perpendicular distance from the point of application to the fulcrum or centre of mass

1.4 Identify that the motor effect is due to the force acting on a currentcarrying conductor in a magnetic field

The motor effect is a phenomenon in which a CCC experiences a force when present in a
magnetic field

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1.5 Describe the forces experienced by a current-carrying loop in a

magnetic field and describe the net result of the forces

Electric motor: device that convers electrical energy into mechanical energy (kinetic energy),
usually in the form of rotation.
When current flows through a coil in a magnetic field, torque is applied to the sides
perpendicular to the magnetic field, creating a force couple
The torque being applied to the coil of a motor is given by the equation:
=
is the angle between the plane of the coil and the magnetic field
DC motors use the motor effect on two sides of a current carrying coil in an external magnetic
field to create a net rotational movement

1.6 Describe the main features of a DC electric motor and the role of each
feature

The main components of a DC motor are: external magnetic field (permanent magnets or
electromagnet), coil armature, split-ring commutator, carbon brushes and power source.

Component
External magnetic field
Coil armature
Split-ring commutator
Carbon brushes
Power source

Description
Provides a magnetic field which allows current carrying conductors
to experience a force.
An axle with a coil through which current passes, producing a force.
Changes the direction of current in the coil every half-cycle,
allowing for continuous rotation in a particular direction.
Provides contact between the power source and the segments of
the commutator.
Provides a source of current which flows through the rotor.

1.7 Identify that the required magnetic fields in DC motors can be

produced either by current-carrying coils or permanent magnets

The magnetic field of a DC motor can be produced by permanent magnets or current

carrying coils (solenoid or electromagnet)

1.9 Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the motor effect

A current balance is used to demonstrate the motor effect, and the relationship between
current and the size of the force produced by the motor effect.

1.12 identify data sources, gather and process information to qualitatively

describe the application of the motor effect in: the galvanometer and the
loudspeaker

Galvanometer: a device that is very sensitive to small amounts of current.

Galvanometers function using the motor effect as they consist of a coil wrapped around a
soft iron core within a radial magnetic field produced by permanent magnets

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A torsional spring applies a restoring force to the coil, allowing measurements to be made
As current increases, the force from the motor effect increases, consequently increasing the
torque applied by the spring and providing a measurement when the opposing torques are
equal
Since the strength of the field and the size and area of the coil are constant, and a radial
magnetic field is used, then =
becomes
i.e. =
Loudspeaker: a device which uses the motor effect to convert electrical energy to sound
energy.
A coil mounted to the diaphragm of a speaker experiences a force when current passes
through it in the presence of the speakers permanent magnetic field, producing vibrations
AC signals are used to constantly change the direction of current in the coil, causing it to
vibrate, with frequency and amplitude affecting the pitch and loudness of the sound
respectively

2.1 Outline Michael Faradays discovery of the generation of an electric

current by a moving magnet

Michael Faraday successfully demonstrated the generation of electricity using a changing

magnetic field, proposing the theory of electromagnetic induction.
A wooden black had two coils (primary and secondary) wrapped around it, connected to a
DC power source and a galvanometer respectively, and when the power supply was
switched on, a small, momentary reading could be observed on the galvanometer
To reinforce this concept, an induction ring with a primary and secondary coil was used,
providing much greater readings, and identifying the phenomenon of mutual induction
whereby the current from one circuit will induce a current in another nearby circuit.

2.2 Define magnetic field strength B as magnetic flux density

Magnetic field strength can be defined as the magnetic flux per unit area, or magnetic flux
density
The equation for magnetic field strength is:
=

is magnetic flux
A is the area through which the field lines are passing

2.3 Describe the concept of magnetic flux in terms of magnetic flux

density and surface area

Magnetic flux is the number of magnetic field lines passing through a theoretical area
Magnetic flux is given by the equation:
=
A is the area through which the field lines are passing
is the angle between the field lines and the normal to the area

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2.4 Describe generated potential difference as the rate of change of

magnetic flux through a circuit

Faradays law: the size of an induced electromotive force (EMF) is directly proportional to
the rate of change in magnetic flux.
EMF is given by the equation:

is electromotive force (voltage)

n is the number of turns in a coil
The size of induced EMF is affected by the speed of the conductor, the area of the conductor,
the number of turns in the conductor, and the angle between the loop and the field lines

2.5 Account for Lenzs Law in terms of conservation of energy and relate
it to the production of back emf in motors

Lenzs law: When an EMF is induced in a conductor as a result of a changing magnetic flux,
the direction of the induced EMD will cause the current to produce a magnetic field that
opposes the cause of induction.
In order for induced current to obey the law of conservation of energy, it must flow such that
it opposes the cause of induction.
If EMF is induced without an external circuit, there will only be a momentary flow of current

2.6 Explain that, in electric motors, back emf opposes the supply emf

In electric motors, EMF is induced in the coil of the motor during rotation, creating a back
EMF that opposes supply EMF, reducing the rotational force of the supply EMF
During the initial acceleration of the motor, there is very little change in magnetic flux and
very little back EMD, exposing the coil to a very large amount of current that may cause
damage, but can be prevented using a starting resistance.
Once equilibrium between supply EMD and back EMF has been achieved, the motor has
reached its working speed, maintaining a constant velocity as the net torque will be large
enough to balance the friction and load of the motor.

2.7 Explain the production of eddy currents in terms of Lenzs Law

Eddy currents are circular currents caused by induction that flow in solid conductors
Eddy currents follow Lenzs law and circulate such that they oppose the cause of induction

Induction cooktops use electromagnetic induction to produce heat

A horizontal solenoid is located beneath the cooktop, producing an changing magnetic field
that is aimed vertically when AC electricity passes through the coil.

2.10 Gather, analyse and present information to explain how induction

is used in cooktops in electric ranges

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Saucepans and pots placed on the cooktop will therefore experience a changing magnetic
flux, inducing circular eddy currents in the pan which produce heat due to the electrical
resistance of the pan.
Induction cooktops are significantly more efficient than other cooktops as they are heated
directly, in comparison to a gas stove where more heat can be lost to the environment as
the flame reaches the saucepan.

2.11 Gather secondary information to identify how eddy currents have

been utilised in electromagnetic braking

Electromagnetic braking is primarily used in trains, slowing them down without the noise,
and wear and tear associated with conventional friction braking
Electromagnetic braking works by installing an electromagnet beneath a train, and when
turned on, the electromagnet induces eddy currents in the rails below due to a changing
magnetic field (according to Faradays law)
Following Lenzs law, these eddy currents will produce a magnetic field that opposes the
change that produced them, therefore exerting a force opposite to the motion of the train
and slowing it down
A benefit of electromagnetic braking is that at high speeds the efficiency of the braking is
improved as the strength of the EMF produced is proportional to the rate of change in
magnetic flux, making them more effective at high velocities when they are needed the most
By comparison, frictional brakes produce the most heat and noise at high speeds, resulting
in wear and tear, and increasing the maintenance cost of brake systems

3.1 Describe the main components of a generator

An electric generator converts mechanical energy (kinetic energy) to electrical energy using
electromagnetic induction
The main components of a generator are the magnetic field, coil armature, commutator and
carbon brushes

Component
External magnetic field
Coil armature
Commutator
Carbon brushes

Description
Permanent magnets are used to achieve a changing magnetic flux.
A coil of wire is wrapped around a soft iron core which moves
relative to the magnetic field.
Split ring commutator is used in DC generators and slip ring
commutators are used in AC generators, dictating the shape of the
wave when electricity is generated.
Provides contact between the commutator and an external circuit.

3.2 Compare the structure and function of a generator to an electric

motor

Generators have a very similar design to electric motors, but reverse the energy
transformation process so that mechanical energy is used as input to output electrical energy

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3.3 Describe the differences between AC and DC generators

DC generators use a split ring commutator to ensure that each brush on the generator
maintains the same polarity, maintaining the direction of output current (produces rectified
AC i.e. DC electricity)
AC generators use a slip ring commutator so that the polarity of each brush will change
every half-cycle, producing AC electricity
For AC generators, period is inversely proportional to rotational speed, and frequency and
amplitude are directly proportional to rotational speed.

3.4 Discuss the energy losses that occur as energy is fed through
transmission lines from the generator to the consumer

Factors affecting the resistance of wires include:

o Wire length (longer wires have more resistance
o Cross-sectional area (thinner wires have more resistance)
o Wire temperature (higher temperatures produce more resistance due to greater number
of collisions)
o Wire material (insulators have very high resistances)
The main form of energy lost during electricity transmission is heat
Heat losses are given by the equation:
=
P is heat losses in Joules

3.5 Assess the effects of the development of AC generators on society and

the environment

Effects on society:
o Transformers can be used to change voltage and minimise losses from transmission
o Generators no longer has to take place in urban areas due to efficient transmission,
reducing pollution in cities and the cost of electricity
o AC electricity can be generated on a large scale and easily distributed to a population,
making AC more economically viable due to the efficiency of distribution
Effects on the environment:
o Urban pollution is reduced by situating generators away from cities
o Fuels no longer had to be burnt in the domestic environment, reducing pollution
o However, large scale AC generation is a significant contributor to global warming
Overall AC generators have been beneficial to society as they have made everyday tasks
more efficient, and have made electricity available to the majority of the population.
However, although the urban environment is cleaner, AC electricity production remains a
large source of pollution, contributing greatly to global warming.

3.7 Gather secondary information to discuss advantages/disadvantages

of AC and DC generators and relate these to their use

Advantages of DC generators:
o Some devices require DC and DC generators are more effective and cost efficient

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DC is more power than AC at a given voltage (AC uses RMS values with a higher
maximum voltage)
Disadvantages of DC generators:
o Requires split-ring commutator which increases cost and effort for maintenance
o Sparks are produced by the commutator, resulting in a loss of energy
o Greater losses during long distance electrical transmission
Advantages of AC generators:
o Uses slip rings which are easier to maintain
o Can produce three-phase electricity
o Voltage can be easily manipulated using transformers, improving transmission
efficiency
o

3.8 Analyse secondary information on the competition between

Westinghouse and Edison to supply electricity to cities

Edison proposed DC power systems and transmission, developing DC motors and

appliances (1878)
Westinghouse purchased the patent for AC power systems from Nikola Tesla, and
developed an electricity distribution system based on AC generators
Westinghouse was the overall winner with AC power systems as they avoid the issues
associated with split-ring commutators at high rotational speed, and are significantly more
efficient at transmitting electricity over long distances.

3.9 Gather and analyse information to identify how transmission lines

are: insulated from supporting structures and protected from lightning
strikes

Wires are insulated from supporting structures by suspending them using insulating ceramic
or porcelain disks, as such materials are strong and retain insulation properties under high
voltages
The rippled disk shape of insulators also prevents sparks from jumping across the insulating
gap, maximising the surface area that must be covered by rain in order to cause a short
circuit
Transmission wires are protected from lightning by running an additional wire above and
parallel to the transmission wires that is connected to earth, allowing lightning to discharge
before damage can occur.

4.1 Describe the purpose of transformers in electrical circuits

Transformers: devices that step-up or step-down AC voltage passing through them.

Transformers consist of a primary coil (where AC voltage is applied) and a secondary coil
(where an induced current is produced with a different voltage and current, assuming the
number of turns between the coils is different)
Both coils are wound around a soft iron core

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A changing magnetic flux is produced by the primary coil, which is linked to the secondary
coil by a soft iron core, inducing an EMF that is dependent upon the number of turns in each
coil.
The soft iron core has the role of a support structure, a medium through which magnetic flux
can flow, and a core which amplifies magnetic flux to increase the efficiency of mutual
induction.

4.2 Compare step-up and step-down transformers

Step-up transformers increase voltage and reduce current.

Step-down transformers decrease voltage and increase current.

The ratio of voltages in the primary and secondary coil is equal to the ratio of turns in each
coil.
The equation for the ratio of voltages and turns is:

4.3 Identify the relationship between the ratio of the number of turns in
the primary and secondary coils and the ratio of primary to secondary
voltage

The power of a transformer is calculated using the equation:

=
Therefore, it follows that:
=
and
=

4.4 Explain why voltage transformations are related to conservation of

energy

The above equations assume that the transformer is 100% efficient, following the law of
conservation of energy, though energy is often lost through heat and sound.

4.5 Explain the role of transformers in electricity sub-station

Electricity generated in an electrical sub-station passes through a step-up transformer to

increase efficiency during long distance transmission, before reaching a step-down
transformer for distribution at 240V AC.

4.6 Discuss why some electrical appliances in the home that are
connected to the mains domestic power supply use a transformer

Household appliances require transformers as they do not operate at 240V AC.

Step-up transformers are used in cathode-ray-tube televisions which require thousands of
volts to operate.

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Step-down transformers are used in toys, computers, and certain cooktops which require
lower voltage and higher current electricity

4.7 Discuss the impact of the development of transformers on society

Shift from DC to AC voltage for more efficient transmission

Reductions in power losses from transmission, decreasing the cost of electricity and
consequently reducing societys consumption of fossil fuels.
Allows power stations to be located remotely, reducing pollution in urban areas and
minimising the dangers associated with generating electricity.
Allows for the development of appliances and electronic devices which operate at different
voltages.

4.10 Gather, analyse and use available evidence to discuss how difficulties
of heating caused by eddy currents in transformers may be overcome

The majority of the energy lost during mutual induction is due to the induction of eddy
currents in the soft iron core, producing heat
Lamination, which involves coating thin layers of iron in the core with an insulating material,
increasing the total resistance of the core, restriction the circulation of large eddy currents,
reducing heat losses and increasing the efficiency of the transformer
Ferrites can also be used instead of iron in the core as they are good at transmitting flux but
are poor at conducting electricity.

5.1 Describe the main features of an AC electric motor

Component
External Magnetic Field
(Stator)
Coil Armature (Rotor)
Ferromagnetic Core
Slip-ring Commutator
Carbon Brushes
AC Mains Power Source
Component
External Magnetic Field
(Stator)
Coil Armature (Rotor)
Ferromagnetic Core
Split-ring Commutator

Physics Notes

Features of an AC Motor
Description
Permanent magnets provide a magnetic field which allows current
carrying conductors to experience a force.
An axle with a coil through which current passes, producing a force.
Increases the strength of the magnetic field produced by the rotor.
Provides constant contact with a source of electricity as the motor
rotates.
Provides contact between the power source and slip-ring
commutator.
Provides a source of alternating current which flows through the
rotor, causing the magnetic flux in the rotor to change directions
fifty times per second, limiting the speed of the motor.
Features of a Universal Motor
Description
An electromagnet in parallel with the commutator is used to provide
the magnetic field of a universal motor, allowing either AC or DC
electricity to be used.
An axle with a coil through which current passes, producing a force.
Increases the strength of the magnetic field produced by the rotor.
Provides contact with an AC (electromagnet ensures that the
direction of torque is always unidirectional regardless of
oscillations) or DC (electromagnet provides a constant magnetic
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field) power source, allowing for continuous rotation in a given

direction.
Carbon Brushes
Provides contact between the power source and slip-ring
commutator.
AC Mains Power Source Provides a source of alternating current which flows through the
rotor, causing the magnetic flux in the rotor to change directions
fifty times per second, limiting the speed of the motor.
Features of an AC Induction Motor
Component
Description
External Magnetic Field
Three pairs of field coils (six coils total) are fixed in the motor and
(Stator)
are fed one phase of three-phase AC electricity, producing a
rotation magnetic field within the motor.
Squirrel Cage (Rotor)
Two end rings made of copper or aluminium are joined by parallel
bars, forming a cylindrical shape that is encased in a laminated iron
armature that intensifies the magnetic field passing through the
rotor cage.
Three-phase AC Power
Provides a source of alternating current which flows through the
Source
rotor, causing the magnetic flux in the rotor to change directions
fifty times per second, limiting the speed of the motor.
AC induction (brushless) motors have very little friction as the rotor is not connected to a
power source, thus reducing wear and tear from usage
AC induction motors function using Lenzs law, whereby the rotating magnetic field
produced by the stator induces eddy currents in the rotor cage, causing it to rotate in the
same direction as the rotating magnetic field.

5.3 Gather, process and analyse information to identify some of the

energy transfers and transformations involving the conversion of
electrical energy into more useful forms in the home and industry

Electricity is a form of energy that is easily transmitted and converted into other forms
Electrical energy conversions in the home:
o Light bulbs convert electrical energy into light energy
o Heaters convert electrical energy into heat energy
o Speakers convert electrical energy into sound energy
Electrical energy conversions in industry:
o Electrical energy is converted into kinetic energy that drives machinery used in the
production of goods

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