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Lawrence D. Meinert
Department of Geology
Washington State University
ABSTRACT
Most large skarn deposits are zoned in both space and time relative to
associated intrusions, and this zonation can be used to guide exploration.
Zonation occurs on scales from km to m to m, and reflects infiltrative fluid flow,
wallrock reaction, temperature variations, and fluid mixing. In most skarn
systems, there is a general zonation pattern of proximal garnet, distal
pyroxene, and vesuvianite (or a pyroxenoid such as wollastonite, bustamite, or
rhodonite) at the marble front. In addition, individual skarn minerals may
display systematic color or compositional variations within the larger zonation
pattern. Such patterns are reviewed for several well-studied examples of Cu,
W, Au, and Zn-Pb-Ag skarns. In addition, many deposits have endoskarn or
other alteration of the associated intrusion and recrystallization or other subtle
changes in the surrounding wallrocks.
Cu skarns, such as Mines Gasp in Quebec and Big Gossan in Irian Jaya,
have high garnet:pyroxene ratios, and are zoned from intrusion to garnet to
pyroxene to massive-sulfide replacement and vein deposits. Garnets in Cu
skarn are iron-rich and change from dark red-brown near the intrusive contact
to paler brown, green or yellow in distal locations. Pyroxenes in Cu skarns are
pale and diopsidic near the intrusion, and become darker and more iron- and
manganese-rich away from the intrusion. W skarns, such as Salau and
Costabonne in France and Pine Creek and Garnet Dike in California, have
intermediate garnet:pyroxene ratios, are more extensive vertically and along
strike than perpendicular to the intrusive contact, and have zonation patterns
commonly complicated by overprinting of metamorphic lithologies. In W skarns,
INTRODUCTION
Most large skarn deposits are associated with relatively shallow magmatic
systems emplaced within or near carbonate rocks (see reviews by Einaudi et
al.,
1981;
Meinert,
1992;
or
the
skarn
Internet
site
at:
use
variations
of
oxidation
state
or
some
other
DEPOSIT-SCALE ZONATION
Copper Skarns
Mines Gasp Cu-Mo
Perhaps the simplest deposit scale zonation patterns are associated with Cu
skarns, particularly those associated with shallow-level porphyritic intrusions
(Einaudi, 1982). A typical example is Mines Gasp in Quebec, that has
mineralization in porphyry, skarn, and distal mantos (Figure 1). At Mines
Gasp, the Devonian host rocks have been intruded by the quartz monzonite
Copper Mountain stock, that has a K-Ar date of 358 18 Ma (Allcock, 1982;
Gower and Walker, 1993). The dominant alteration within the Copper Mountain
stock is secondary K-feldspar and biotite with relatively minor late quartzsericite-pyrite. The margins of the Copper Mountain stock are irregular, with
numerous small dikes and sills intruded along bedding planes. A crackle
Skarn occurs at depth in the more calcareous beds and extends asymmetrically
almost 2 km updip from the intrusive contact (Figure 1). Skarn mineralization is
mined underground and is higher grade than the disseminated porphyry ore,
with production/reserves of 62 million tons averaging 1.35% copper and 0.03%
molybdenum, with minor lead, zinc, silver, and gold (Williams-Jones, 1986).
Like most copper skarns (e.g. Atkinson and Einaudi, 1978), Mines Gasp is
zoned within favorable carbonate units from high garnet:pyroxene ratios near
the stock to lower garnet:pyroxene ratios towards the marble front (Figure 1).
The overall garnet:pyroxene ratio is estimated at 2:1. Contours of
garnet:pyroxene ratio define paleo fluid flow channels along more permeable
structures and stratigraphic horizons, and point directly to outlying massivesulfide zones. In addition to the zonation of garnet:pyroxene ratios, there also
is a progressive iron enrichment in pyroxene with distance from the Copper
Mountain stock (Figure 2).
At the contact of skarn and marble, there are local zones of massive-sulfide
including pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and galena. These
massive-sulfide zones are high-grade (the E zone contains 8.9 million tons
averaging 3.16% copper and 14.2 g/t silver); relatively flat-lying; and occur both
at the skarn contact and as isolated mantos in marble (Wares and Bernard,
1993). A marble line marks the relatively sharp transition from recrystallized
white marble to fine-grained, dark gray limestone about 10-200 meters beyond
the limit of skarn (Figure 1). Beyond the marble line, the thermal aureole of the
Copper Mountain stock is evidenced in the Devonian sedimentary rocks as a
and
Eocene
Faumai
formations
(figures
3-4).
Most
fractures, gray-green with epidote and diopsidic pyroxene. Near contacts with
massive mineralized skarn in the overlying Waripi Formation, the Ekmai biotite
hornfels is cut by veins of red-brown garnet with envelopes of pyroxenefeldspar hydrothermal anhydrite. This dark red-brown color of garnet is
restricted to proximal skarn zones near the Ekmai-Waripi contact.
The calcic magnesian skarn assemblage in the Waripi Formation that hosts
the bulk of the Big Gossan orebody is characterized by relatively coarsegrained prograde garnet and pyroxene, with an average ratio of about 1:2.
Individual
garnet
and
pyroxene
crystals
typically
are
0.1-1
cm
in
for the western, middle, and eastern thirds of the skarn system are
Di67Hd30Jo3.5, Di81Hd17Jo2, and Di71Hd26 Jo3.
Chalcopyrite is the dominant ore mineral with bornite comprising less than 1
volume % of total Cu sulfides. Other metallic minerals include electrum
(Au>Ag), pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and pyrrhotite. Pyrite is the most abundant
of these minerals, locally reaching 20 volume percent. Sphalerite, galena, and
pyrrhotite combined are <1 volume percent, except at the margins of the skarn
where pyrrhotite forms a subeconomic "cap" on the chalcopyrite mineralization.
This sulfide zone is analogous to massive-sulfide bodies in other skarns, as
previously discussed for Mines Gasp and the mantos and chimneys of
some zinc skarns (e.g., Megaw et al., 1988). At Big Gossan, this "cap" occurs
at high elevations (Figure 4) for almost the entire length of the deposit.
Beyond skarn, but within the marble aureole surrounding the Big Gossan
deposit, there are numerous planar to wavy veinlets, usually less than 1 mm
thick, that appear to represent fluid conduits. In places these look like stylolites
except their orientation is systematic (usually perpendicular) relative to the
skarn front. The dark centerline of these veins is marked by a concentration of
carbon, sulfides (pyrite, sphalerite, and galena), chlorite, serpentine, and/or
clay. Marble occurs for 10s to 100s of meters beyond the Big Gossan skarn in
the Waripi Formation hanging wall. This marbleization decreases in grain size
with distance from the skarn and/or intrusive breccia.
Mineralization is zoned within the Big Gossan system (Table 2). Copper, Au,
Ag, Pb, Zn, As, Mo, and Co assay data from 192 drill holes totaling 13,215
assay intervals were composited every 3 m down the hole, and categorized by
rock type, elevation and mine location along strike. Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, As, and
Co grades in skarn all increase towards the top of the system whereas Mo
grades increase with depth. Similarly, Cu, Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, As, and Co grades
increase (for a given elevation) towards the western and, in most cases,
towards the eastern margin of the system. Only Mo is inverse to this trend,
defining a central core zone that is interpreted to represent the main locus of
fluid flow overlying the source pluton. Pb and Zn show the strongest enrichment
towards the distal margins of the system, and even higher concentrations of
these elements (up to several percent) occur as veins and disseminations in
marble beyond the limit of skarn. However, nowhere do Pb and Zn reach
economic proportions within the Big Gossan system.
Tungsten Skarns
French Pyrenees W-Mo
Salau and Costabonne are the two largest of many W-Mo-bearing skarns in the
French Pyrenees. Salau has production/reserves of 1.2 million tons averaging
1.6% WO3 and Costabonne is smaller with average grades of 0.3-0.4% WO3
(Fonteilles et al., 1989). These skarns are associated with 270-290 Ma
granodioritic stocks and batholiths that have intruded Paleozoic carbonate and
clastic sedimentary rocks (Figure 5). The igneous rocks have minor
plagioclase-amphibole endoskarn on a scale of meters near some contacts with
mineralized skarn, but otherwise are relatively unaltered (Soler, 1977;
Raimbault and Kaelin, 1987). Particularly lacking are the mineralized stockwork
quartz veinlets with K-feldspar and biotite envelopes, that occur in intrusions
associated with many Cu skarns. This is consistent with the estimated pressure
of 2 kb, corresponding to a depth of at least 8 km, depending on the range of
lithostatic to hydrostatic load (Van Marcke de Lummen, 1983).
At Salau, the host rocks consist of Silurian black carbonaceous shales overlain
by Devonian platform carbonates of the Salau Formation (Derr and Krylatov,
1976). These strata have been folded during the Hercynian orogeny and are
now subparallel to the generally steep intrusive contact (Figure 6). Skarn forms
a relatively thin band (10-50 m) at the intrusive contact and its mineralogy
depends on the composition of the protolith (Fonteilles et al., 1989). In marble,
skarn is surrounded by a narrow bleached zone that is marked by an increase
in grain size, destruction of graphite, and the formation of wollastonite along
the skarn-marble contact (Figure 7). The most distal skarn is pyroxenedominant and the pyroxene is almost pure hedenbergite (Figure 8). Proximal
skarn is garnet-dominant and the garnet is low in ferric iron (Figure 8). The
abundance of pyroxene relative to garnet (Fonteilles et al., 1989, estimate an
overall garnet:pyroxene ratio of 1:10 to 1:20) and the low Fe+3/Fe+2 ratios of
both garnet and pyroxene are indicative of relatively reduced conditions,
consistent with the presence of graphite in the protolith. At Salau, as with most
10
W skarns, there is a late subcalcic garnet that is not associated with scheelite
mineralization and which cuts the earlier garnet and pyroxene skarn (Figure 8).
Thus, there is both a spatial and temporal zonation to the skarn system. In
some locations, skarn is in direct contact with granodiorite and, in other
locations, there is a zone of endoskarn developed in the granodiorite.
Endoskarn is characterized by epidote-amphibole-titanite apatite.
Less calcareous rocks at Salau are converted to biotite hornfels within 900 m of
the La Fourque stock and to calc-silicate hornfels within 50-100 m of the
intrusive contact (Fonteilles et al., 1989). The garnet and pyroxene in such
hornfels are distinctly less iron-rich than skarn formed from marble and, in
many cases, approximate the composition of the protolith (Zahm, 1987b). In
areas of intense hydrothermal alteration, this early calc-silicate hornfels is
overprinted by garnet and pyroxene (with scheelite) that are closer in
composition to skarn formed directly from marble (Fonteilles et al., 1989).
Compositions of all analyzed garnet and pyroxene at Salau form a continuum
between hornfels and pure marble end-members (Figure 8). Thus, the
composition of the minerals in a particular skarn sample directly reflects the
composition of the host rock and the intensity of alteration, with skarn formed
from marble being the end-member composition produced by this particular
metasomatic system.
Low grade scheelite mineralization occurs with the early garnet-pyroxene skarn
with typical grades of 0.1-0.5% WO3 (Fonteilles et al., 1989). Higher grades are
associated with retrograde alteration of garnet-pyroxene to epidote-amphibolequartzcalcite. The highest grades (up to 40% WO3) are coincident with both
retrograde alteration and precipitation of sulfide minerals including abundant
pyrrhotite and minor chalcopyrite, sphalerite, arsenopyrite, and molybdenite. In
general, the highest grades are associated with skarn formed from marble
rather than from clastic/argillaceous rocks and, in most cases, tungsten grades
increase towards the marble contact.
11
Costabonne is a very similar skarn system to Salau except that most of the
carbonate host rock is dolomitic rather than calcic limestone (Van Marcke de
Lummen and Verkaeren, 1986; Guy, 1988). The skarn zonation pattern is
similar to that at Salau except that there is a border zone with magnesian skarn
minerals (mostly forsterite, talc, serpentine, and brucite) instead of wollastonite
at the marble front (Guy et al., 1988). In addition, the outer pyroxene skarn is
zoned with more diopsidic pyroxene towards the marble front (Figure 9). This is
another example of wallrock compositional control. At Salau, the graphitic
carbonate rocks caused very iron-rich pyroxene to form in the most distal skarn
zone whereas at Costabonne, the dolomitic carbonate rocks stabilized
diopsidic pyroxene instead.
Skarns at Salau and Costabonne are estimated to form at temperatures of 470560C, based upon mineral equilibria, and 455-570C, based upon pressurecorrected fluid inclusion measurements (Fonteilles et al., 1989). Salinities in
skarn silicates range from 23-30 wt. % NaCl eq. with halite daughter minerals
present in many inclusions. Stable isotopes indicate a dominantly magmatic
fluid during initial skarn formation and a mixture of magmatic and other,
possibly meteoric, fluids during retrograde alteration (Guy et al., 1988; Van
Marcke de Lummen, 1988).
12
The
host
rocks
at
Pine
Creek
include
30-60
of
fine-grained
The garnet and pyroxene in these different zones are visually and
compositionally distinct (Figure 12). Main/outer zone pyroxene is more iron-rich
(up to Hd80) and less manganese-rich than inner zone pyroxene. Similarly,
inner zone garnet is iron-rich and manganese-poor relative to main zone
garnet. Importantly, the inner zone garnets are subcalcic; the iron is ferrous
13
and is mostly present as almandine component, whereas, the iron in main zone
garnets is ferric and is mostly present as andradite component (Newberry,
1983). A more detailed study of garnet and pyroxene zonation by Newberry
(1991) suggests a compositional plateau for the main skarn zone. Profiles from
the intrusive contact to marble do not suggest a statistically significant
compositional gradient for either garnet or pyroxene within the main skarn
zone, even though the relatively thin inner and outer skarn zones are quite
distinct. Furthermore, the subcalcic garnets in the inner skarn zone apparently
show a systematic decrease in subcalcic (almandine + spessartine) component
towards the marble front.
A similar mineralogy and zonation pattern exists at the Garnet Dike mine in the
western Sierra Nevada (Newberry, 1980). The main difference between Pine
Creek and Garnet Dike skarns is that the latter is estimated to have formed at a
pressure of 3-4 kb, and thus is a substantially deeper exposure. This is
reflected in a larger subcalcic garnet zone, more almandine-rich garnets, and
more hedenbergitic pyroxene. Thus, for most known W-Mo skarns, there is a
similar
zonation
pattern
of
proximal/late
subcalcic
garnet-quartz,
an
intermediate (and large) zone of garnet-pyroxene skarn, and a thin skarn front
of vesuvianite and/or wollastonite surrounded by <1 m of bleached marble. In
all the W-Mo skarns, the thickness of skarn perpendicular to the intrusive
contact is small (10s of meters) relative to the vertical and lateral dimensions
that are measured in 100s to 1000s of meters. Most of the associated plutons
are equigranular, lack stockwork veining/mineralization, and formed at depths
corresponding to pressures of >2 kb (200 MPa).
Gold Skarns
The highest grade (5-15 g/t Au) gold skarn deposits (e.g., Hedley district,
British Columbia, Ray and Dawson, 1994; Fortitude, Nevada, Myers and
Meinert, 1991; Myers, 1994) are relatively reduced, are mined solely for their
gold content, and lack economic concentrations of other metals. Other gold
14
skarns (e.g. McCoy, Nevada, Brooks et al., 1991; Brooks, 1994) are more
oxidized, have lower gold grades (1-5 g/t Au), and contain subeconomic
amounts of other metals such as Cu, Pb, and Zn. Several other skarn types,
particularly Cu skarns, contain enough gold (0.01 to >1 g/t Au) to be produced
as a byproduct of base metal mining (Meinert, 1989). Most high-grade gold
skarns are associated with reduced (ilmenite-bearing, Fe2O3/( Fe2O3+FeO)
<0.75) diorite-granodiorite plutons and dike/sill complexes. Such skarns are
dominated by iron-rich pyroxene (typically >Hd50), but proximal zones can
contain abundant intermediate grandite garnet. Other common minerals include
K-feldspar, scapolite, vesuvianite, apatite, and amphibole. Distal/early zones
contain biotite+K-feldspar hornfels, that can extend for 100s of meters beyond
massive skarn. Due to the clastic-rich, carbonaceous nature of the sedimentary
rocks in these deposits, most skarn is relatively fine-grained.
Hedley District Au
The Nickel Plate mine in the Hedley district, British Columbia, is the largest and
highest grade gold skarn in Canada. Discontinuous production from 1904 until
the mine closed in 1995 was 13.4 million tons averaging 5.3 g/t Au, 1.3 g/t Ag,
and 0.02% Cu (Ray et al., 1996). Of this, more than 3 million tons of ore was
mined underground at an even higher grade, averaging 14 g/t Au. Skarn
formed in dominantly clastic rocks of the upper Triassic Nicola Group, that is
part of the allochthonous Quesnel Terrane of the Intermontane Belt. Skarn is
spatially and genetically associated with the dioritic Hedley intrusions, that
comprise the Toronto Stock and a series of dikes and sills. Attempts to date,
these intrusions have been inconclusive with a suggested age range of 194219 Ma (Ray and Dawson, 1994). The Toronto Stock is a very reduced
ilmenite-bearing intrusion with an average Fe2O3/( Fe2O3+FeO) value of 0.15,
the lowest of any gold skarn (Ray et al., 1995) and the lowest of any major
skarn class (Meinert, 1995).
15
16
Like much of Nevada, detailed geologic relations in the Battle Mountain District
are complicated by numerous thrust faults (De Witt, Golconda, and Roberts
Mountain) that have juxtaposed a wide variety of rock types, all of which have
been affected by hydrothermal alteration (Blake et al., 1984). Host rocks range
from lower Cambrian through Permian, and consist of sandstone, arkose,
shale, chert, argillite, greenstone, limestone, and quartzite (Blake et al., 1984).
Most skarn occurs in the basal mid-Pennsylvanian Battle Formation, the
Pennsylvanian to Permian Antler Peak Limestone, and the Permian Edna
Mountain Formation. The main mineralized unit is the Antler Peak Limestone,
that consists of well bedded dark gray limestone and minor chert nodules
(Theodore and Blake, 1978).
17
Skarn mineralogy has been investigated for most of the deposits in the Battle
Mountain district. For example, the West Ore Body occurs mostly in the Antler
Peak Limestone and is a typical copper skarn with a prograde skarn
assemblage of grandite garnet (Ad39-99) + diopsidic pyroxene (Hd20-50) and
a retrograde assemblage of actinolite + epidote + K-feldspar (Theodore and
Blake, 1978). Pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and marcasite are the main
sulfide minerals.
The Fortitude deposit also occurs in the Antler Peak Sequence, primarily in the
Antler Peak Limestone and the Battle Formation. The stratigraphic continuity
between the West and Fortitude skarns is illustrated in the cross section of
Figure 17. The Fortitude ore body contains a prograde skarn assemblage of
andraditic garnet + hedenbergitic pyroxene (Hd20-95, Jo<10 ), with only minor
retrograde alteration to epidote + actinolite + chlorite (Myers, 1994). As
illustrated in Figures 16 and 17, pyroxene shows a general increase in iron
content moving toward the marble front (Hd30 proximal to the Copper Canyon
stock and Hd>90 at the distal skarn fringe). This trend is mimicked by a Mn
enrichment moving towards the marble front, with the pyroxene nearest the
intrusion rarely exceeding 3% Jo (except for crosscutting veinlets and crystal
rims), whereas the pyroxene near the marble front is generally between 2-8%
Jo (Myers, 1994).
As illustrated in Figure 17, the distribution of most metals parallels the skarn
zonation in the Antler Peak Limestone. Copper is highest in garnet-rich skarn
near the intrusive contact, whereas gold is concentrated in pyroxene-dominant
skarn, particularly where the pyroxene is iron-rich (>Hd50). Silver has elevated
concentrations proximal to the stock and at the distal skarn front, beyond the
main Fortitude gold zone. The skarn system contains several sulfide species
including chalcopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, marcasite, sphalerite,
and galena, that occur roughly in the order listed from intrusion to marble.
Arsenopyrite is locally massive and native Bi is commonly visible in hand
18
specimens. Native gold occurs at grain boundaries between skarn and sulfide
minerals indicating a possible reaction relationship (Wotruba et al., 1988). In
general, gold is associated with native bismuth, hedleyite, pearcite, and
stannite. Trace elements are also zoned within the system with anomalous Co,
Mo, Cr, and Ni in proximal zones and anomalous As, Bi, Cd, Mn, Pb, Zn, Sb,
and Hg in distal zones (Figure 17).
Fluid inclusion work shows that the skarn formed at relatively high
temperatures (300->550C) that parallel fluid inclusion homogenization
temperatures measured in the adjacent Virgin dike apophysis of the Copper
Canyon granodiorite (Myers, 1994). The distribution of measured fluid inclusion
temperatures parallels the skarn zonation of Figure 17. Garnet closest to the
main stock (drill hole #500) ranges from 360-590C. More distal garnet and
pyroxene (drill holes 2723 and 1997) range from 380-440C and 320-430C,
respectively and the most distal (and iron-rich) pyroxene (drill hole 1994)
ranges from 350-400C (Myers, 1994). In addition, high salinity conditions have
been documented, with multiple daughter minerals in fluid inclusions identified
by SEM and STEM analysis. Limited fluid inclusion measurements indicate
pyroxene skarn had salinities of 25-44 wt. percent NaCl equivalent. Based
upon limited evidence for boiling, Myers (1994) estimated a formation pressure
of 0.4 kb for the Fortitude system, in close agreement with the stratigraphic
estimate of 1.5 km and a pressure of 375 bars by Theodore and Blake (1975).
Similar zonation occurs in 18O and 13C values that indicate progressive
reaction of a magmatic fluid with isotopically heavy carbonate wallrocks as
summarized by Zimmerman et al. (1992) and Myers (1994). Skarn garnets are
progressively enriched in 18O outward from the Copper Canyon stock with
garnet 18O values of 6.9 per mil in the proximal skarn and values as high as
8.2 per mil in distal skarn. Pyroxene (18O 8.6 to 10.3 per mil), amphibole
(18O 8.6 to 9.2 per mil), and quartz (18O 11.4 to 13.2 per mil) are less
systematic, but in each case the highest 18O values are most distal to the
19
Zinc-Lead Skarns
Most zinc skarns occur in continental settings associated with either subduction
or rifting. They are mined for ores of zinc, lead, silver, and sometimes copper,
although zinc is usually dominant. They are also high-grade (10-20% Zn+ Pb,
30-300 g/t Ag) and sulfide-rich. Many are transitional to massive-sulfide veins,
mantos, and chimneys, that lack significant calc-silicate alteration (e.g., Megaw
et al., 1988). Besides their Zn-Pb-Ag metal content, zinc skarns can be
distinguished from other skarn types by their distinctive manganese- and ironrich mineralogy, by their occurrence along structural and lithologic contacts,
and by the absence of significant metamorphic aureoles centered on the skarn.
Almost all skarn minerals in these deposits can be enriched in manganese
including garnet, pyroxene, olivine, ilvaite, pyroxenoid, amphibole, chlorite, and
serpentine. In some deposits, the pyroxene:garnet ratio and the manganese
content of pyroxene increase systematically along the fluid flow path.
Yeonhwa-Ulchin District Zn-Pb-Ag
Numerous Zn-Pb-Ag skarns occur in the Kyongsang tectonic belt of eastern
Korea (Yun, 1979). The three largest of these occur in the Yeonhwa-Ulchin
district and provide an interesting contrast in terms of metal ratios, skarn
20
The Yeonhwa I mine is the largest producer of zinc and lead in Korea with 7.6
million tons averaging 6% Zn and 2% Pb (Yun and Einaudi, 1982). Ore bodies
occur as tabular lenses along the contact of the Pungchon Limestone and
Myobong Slate as well as vertical pipes at intersections of north-northeast and
north-northwest faults that cut both the lower limestone and upper dolomitic
limestone facies of the Pungchon Limestone (Figure 18a). Some pipes also
penetrate the overlying Hwajeol calcareous shales and form anastomosing,
sulfide-rich veins close to the surface. The only igneous rocks in the mine area
are minor quartz porphyry dikes. Although these are thought to connect at
depth to the mineralizing source, the skarn and mineralization are not zoned
relative to dike contacts. Instead, skarn is zoned relative to stratigraphic
contacts and fractures.
At the deepest mine levels, skarn occurs as a tabular body zoned relative to
the Pungchon/Myobong contact (Figure 18a). This skarn displays a deep,
central (proximal to the fluid conduit) garnet>>bustamite zone with pyrrhotite,
sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite and a shallow, distal pyroxene-sulfide zone
with pyrite, sphalerite, galena, and rhodocrosite (Yun, 1979). Overall, pyroxene
is much more abundant than garnet and ranges up to 23 mole % johannsenite.
21
The Yeonhwa II mine is the second largest producer of zinc and lead in Korea
with 4.5 million tons averaging 4.1% Zn, 0.2% Pb, and 0.1% Cu (Yun and
Einaudi, 1982). Although no large stocks are present at Yeonhwa II, there are
several sizable sills (up to 300 m thick) and, unlike Yeonhwa I, skarn is present
along igneous contacts. Tabular contact and fracture-controlled skarns have a
central garnet>>rhodonite-quartz zone with envelopes of 80-90% pyroxene
skarn. The garnet:pyroxene ratio decreases upward in the mine although,
unlike Yeonhwa I, garnet-free zones are rare (Yun, 1979). Overall, pyroxene is
estimated to be slightly more abundant than garnet and the maximum iron and
manganese content is Hd74 and Jo21, respectively. Garnet is both iron and
manganese rich (up to Sp24) and generally is later than pyroxene, a feature that
Yun and Einaudi (1982) interpreted to represent contemporaneous zonal
growth with garnet overprinting pyroxene as the system expanded. Like
Yeonhwa I, skarn contains zones of massive-sulfide (sphalerite>pyrrhotitegalena-chalcopyrite), but there does not appear to be a systematic vertical
increase in sulfide content or metal ratio. This may be related to the proximity
of skarn to igneous contacts and the lack of vertically oriented pipes as at
Yeonhwa I.
Compared to Yeonhwa I and II, Ulchin is smaller (1.4 million tons), has slightly
higher grades of zinc (5.9%), lead (2.3%), and copper (0.3%) (Yun and
Einaudi, 1982). Ulchin skarn occurs in roof pendants surrounded by Ulchin
granite and appears to be related to a series of rhyodacite dikes (Figure 18b).
The large granite body appears to be much older than the rhyodacite dikes and
skarn but has had an important influence in metamorphosing the sedimentary
22
roof pendants. Thus, there are barren metamorphic calc-silicate rocks that are
similar to those previously described for W skarns; such features are absent at
most Zn skarns and specifically absent at Yeonhwa I and II.
iron-rich,
up
to
Ad96
and
Hd91,
respectively.
Ore
Groundhog Zn-Pb-Ag
The Groundhog mine, New Mexico, is the largest Zn skarn in the United States,
with total production of approximately 3 million tons and average skarn grades
of 13.5 % Zn, 2.8% Pb, 0.6% Cu, and 46 g/t Ag (Meinert, 1987). The deposit is
systematically zoned relative to a nearly vertical dike swarm of Tertiary
granodiorite porphyry dikes that range in thickness from 1-50 meters, extend
for more than 3 km in a northeast-southwest direction, and intrude almost
horizontal strata of Mississippian Lake Valley Limestone. Based upon metal
ratios, skarn mineralogy, and fluid inclusion temperatures, the hot, proximal
part of the system lies to the northeast, and the cooler, distal part of the
system, to the southwest. Zinc and lead grades both increase and copper
decreases towards the distal southwest part of the system (Table 3). Silver
23
does not vary as dramatically and has a maxima in the central part of the
system. Similarly, metal ratios change systematically with high Zn/Pb, Cu/Zn,
and Cu/Pb in the proximal part of the system (Table 3).
Skarn has formed at the contact of the granodiorite porphyry dikes and
receptive carbonate units. At all skarn contacts, the granodiorite porphyry dikes
are converted to epidote endoskarn, with pistachio green epidote close to the
sedimentary contact and pink, manganese-rich epidote further from the contact.
Exoskarn also is zoned relative to the dike/limestone contact, both along strike
and
perpendicular
to
the
contact.
Proximal
(northeast)
zones
have
Towards the distal end of the system, garnet-chalcopyrite is absent at the dike
contact and zones of pyroxenoid and massive-sulfide near the marble front are
much larger (Figure 19). Although garnet-chalcopyrite is not present in distal
parts of the system and the copper grade is lower than in proximal locations,
copper is still present due to chalcopyrite inclusions in sphalerite. Although
sphalerite is still the dominant sulfide in this part of the skarn system, galena is
much more abundant and iron oxide, if present, is hematite rather than
magnetite. The massive-sulfide replacement bodies in carbonate rock beyond
skarn can be very high grade and form a significant part of the ore reserves in
24
distal parts of the mine. They also account for the higher overall grades in
distal (21.3%) versus proximal (14.8%) parts of the system (Table 3).
One cause of the described variations in skarn mineralogy and metal content of
the Groundhog system is the temperature and composition of the hydrothermal
fluids (Meinert, 1987). Fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures in the
proximal part of the system and close to the dike contact exceed 400C. In the
central part of the skarn system, they are less than 350C, and in the distal
southwest part of the system, they are less than 325C. In addition, for a given
25
dike
contact
towards
marble.
Thus,
the
highest
fluid
inclusion
DISCUSSION
As has been appreciated from the earliest studies (e.g., Trnebohm, 1875;
Goldschmidt, 1911), most skarns are zoned. This paper has summarized
examples of skarn deposits from four major classes (Cu, W, Au, and Zn) that
illustrate some of the variations in mineralogy, metal content, geochemistry,
and geologic setting that are possible. Even though each skarn type is
somewhat different and, in some sense, each individual deposit is unique,
there are some common themes that warrant further discussion. Since the
definition of skarn is based upon mineralogy and because mineralogy is the
basis for mapping, identifying, and studying skarns in the field, it is appropriate
to focus on zonation of skarn mineralogy. In terms of calc-silicate mineralogy,
all of the skarn deposits discussed in this paper contain garnet and pyroxene.
Furthermore, all of the deposits show at least some zonation in the distribution
of these two minerals, their relative abundance, their appearance, and in many
cases, their compositions. Thus, one could ask, Is there a general pattern that
applies to all skarns?
26
27
Newberry, 1982, 1983, 1991, for W skarns, and Brooks, 1994; Ray and
Webster, 1997, for Au skarns). Additionally, it has been suggested that the
major- and trace-element composition of a particular mineral phase, such as
pyroxene, can be used to classify skarn deposits (e.g., Nakano et al., 1994).
If many skarns are zoned from proximal garnet to distal pyroxene, then the
overall garnet:pyroxene ratio should serve as a crude indicator of the general
oxidation state of a system, including the effects of pluton, wallrocks, and depth
of formation (Figure 21). Figure 22 shows the effect of oxidation state of
plutons and wallrocks on a variety of skarn parameters. For the different skarn
types discussed in this paper, oxidation state can be manifested in different
ways. For example, the inner zone of a typical W skarn would contain
subcalcic garnet, whereas it would contain andraditic garnet in a copper skarn.
The outer zone of a typical high grade Au skarn would contain very iron-rich
pyroxene, whereas in a copper skarn it would be more diopsidic. Each skarn
type can be thought of as having a typical range of mineralogical
characteristics and that range can shift based upon external factors such as
the composition and oxidation state of the wall rocks (Figure 21). Thus, in
evaluating a specific skarn deposit, it is necessary to interpret the mapped
mineralogy in terms of the larger geologic context.
Skarn deposits can be thought of as variations upon a theme and the central
theme is that most skarns are zoned. This zonation occurs on scales from m
to km. For exploration purposes, zonation on a deposit scale is the most useful.
Zonation models exist for many different skarn types and although every ore
deposit in a sense is unique, the common threads among different skarns of a
given type provide powerful predictive tools for both exploration and
understanding. Figure 23 illustrates a possible exploration application of the
concept of mineralogical zonation within a skarn deposit. This cross section is
generalized, but perhaps corresponds most closely to a copper skarn. The
deep drill holes have penetrated skarn, but not the causative pluton. Using the
28
zonation
patterns
for
typical
Cu
skarns,
it
can
be
predicted
that
garnet:pyroxene ratios will increase towards the pluton, that the appearance
(color and texture) of garnet and pyroxene will change, and that distal pyroxene
zones will be more hedenbergitic and johannsenitic than proximal zones. These
predictable patterns can be used to target future exploration with considerable
confidence. Furthermore, for skarn models that attempt to quantify spatial
changes in mineralogy, composition, and geochemistry, such as that presented
for the Groundhog system, it may be possible to provide semi-quantitative
estimates of distances between different skarn zones.
Regional Variations
Since most skarns result from the interaction of magmatic systems and crustal
rocks, it is not surprising that there should be regional variations that reflect
underlying tectonic and petrogenetic processes. Early attempts at quantifying
such regional zonations focused on the economic metals in skarns, either
geographically (Shimazaki, 1975) or by skarn type (Zharikov, 1970; Smirnov,
1976). More recently, Nakano et al . (1990) showed that Sr isotopes are
relatively constant (<0.001
87
87
29
discussed in this paper, the reader is referred to the more detailed studies cited
within.
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36
Middle
East
Average/
Total
37,0%
58,7%
4,3%
13
37,7%
58,5%
3,8%
40
28,7%
68,0%
3,3%
14
19,7%
77,8%
2,5%
45
10,2%
88,6%
1,2%
4
29,8%
66,7%
3,5%
31
<19100E
26,4%
70,6%
3,0%
33
19100-19400E
>19400E
13,0%
85,5%
1,5%
11
24,3%
72,8%
2,8%
96
37
Cu (%)
Au (ppm)
Ag (ppm)
Pb (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
As (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Co (ppm)
kilotons
2,95%
1,26
25,0
1.025
1.567
252
7,1
114
7.602
Cu (%)
Au (ppm)
Ag (ppm)
Pb (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
As (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Co (ppm)
kilotons
3,01%
1,18
21,6
242
1.028
81
10,2
134
14.447
Cu (%)
Au (ppm)
Ag (ppm)
Pb (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
As (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Co (ppm)
kilotons
1,71%
0,59
9,3
26
83
119
19,5
43
4.414
Cu (%)
Au (ppm)
Ag (ppm)
Pb (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
As (ppm)
Mo (ppm)
Co (ppm)
kilotons
2,78%
1,11
20,5
431
1.025
136
10,9
113
26.463
Middle
19100-19400E
East
>19400E
1,93%
0,64
11,1
61
386
44
4,8
52
16.501
Average/
Total
2,52%
0,95
16,8
333
837
119
5,1
78
25.689
2,35%
0,75
13,2
122
520
59
9,4
71
36.441
1,34%
0,42
7,4
30
89
86
17,1
31
8.849
2,28%
0,78
13,8
61
196
26
2,7
23
70.979
Summary of Big Gossan (Ertsberg district, Irian Jaya) Cu,Au, Ag, Pb, Zn, As, Mo, and
Co grades classified by elevation and mine location (from Meinert et al., 1997).
38
Zone
Location
Proximal Intermediate
Distal
Northeast
Central
Southwest
Total/
Average
Tons
486.403
1.867.106
84.408
2.437.917
Grade
Zn %
Pb %
Cu %
Ag g/t
12,60
1,60
0,64
31
13,66
2,94
0,61
51
14,17
6,69
0,47
28
13,5
2,8
0,61
46
Zn+Pb+Cu
14,8%
17,2%
21,3%
16,9%
7,9
19,7
2,5
4018
510
204
4,6
22,4
4,8
2668
574
119
2,1
30,1
14,2
4975
2349
165
4,8
22,0
4,6
0,29
0,06
76
Ratios
Zn/Pb
Zn/Cu
Pb/Cu
Zn/Ag
Pb/Ag
Cu/Ag
Metal grades and ratios from the Groundhog Zn skarn (after Meinert, 1987).
39
Schematic geologic map and cross section through the Mines Gasp Copper
Mountain skarn system, Quebec, Canada (modified from Allcock, 1982). Unpublished
Mines Gasp mapping, and garnet:pyroxene observations by L. Meinert (1992)).
40
41
Plan view of Big Gossan 2930 m elevation geology and underground drill stations,
Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Vertical projection of skarn zones is approximate due to
steep dip of units. More accurate skarn geometry is illustrated in two cross sections
(Figure 4) indicated by dark lines on plan map (modified from Meinert et al., 1997).
42
Cross section through Big Gossan drill stations BGU 26 and BGU 14 illustrating
typical geology and distal skarn geometry (Modified from Meinert et al., 1997).
Lines of section are shown on Figure 3.
43
Geologic map of the Salau area (France) showing skarn deposits on the contact of
the L Fourque stock (modified from Fonteilles et al., 1989). Location of Figure 6 cross
section is shown on the southern margin of the stock.
44
45
Zonation of skarn formed from marble in the Salau (France) W skarn (modified
from Soler, 1977).
46
Composition of garnet and pyroxene from the Salau (France) W skarn (data from
Soler, 1977; Zahm, 1987a).
47
48
Generalized cross section through the upper north end of the Pine Creek
mine, California, showing the distribution of skarn relative to intrusive contacts
(modified from Newberry, 1982).
49
50
Composition of garnet and pyroxene from the Pine Creek and Garnet Dike
skarns (modified from data in Newberry, 1980). M = metamorphic occurrences.
All other symbols are metasomatic occurrences. Inner, main, and outer skarn
zones are shown in Figure 11 and Newberry (1980).
51
Plan view of skarn zonation relative to the Toronto Stock in the Hedley district, British
Columbia, Canada (after Ray et al., 1996; Ettlinger, 1992).
52
Composition of garnet and pyroxene from the Nickel Plate mine, British Columbia
(modified from Ettlinger et al., 1992).
53
Cross section from the Toronto Stock through distal skarn zones of the Nickel Plate
mine, British Columbia, showing change in garnet-pyroxene abundance and
compositional variations in pyroxene (modified from Ettlinger et al., 1992).
54
Plan view of skarn in the West and Fortitude deposits, Nevada, illustrating
mineralogical zonation and inferred direction of fluid flow (after Myers, 1994).
North-South cross section through West and Fortitude deposits is shown in
Figure 17.
55
North-South cross section through Copper Canyon stock and West and
Fortitude deposits, Nevada, illustrating mineralogical and metal zonation (after
Myers and Meinert, 1991).
56
Cross sections through A) the Yeonhwa I skarn system, Korea, showing the
distribution of ores as both tabular bodies along bedding and near-vertical pipes
across bedding, and B) the Ulchin skarn system showing the distribution of
skarn at igneous contacts (after Yun and Einaudi, 1982).
57
Idealized zonation pattern for the Groundhog skarn system, New Mexico,
illustrating variations in mineralogy and composition, fluid inclusion
characteristics, and metal ratios (after Meinert, 1987). Cp = chalcopyrite, gar =
garnet, gl = galena, hm = hematite, jo = johansennite, mt = magnetite, and pyx =
58
59
60
Oxidation state of skarn deposits in terms of plutonic and host rock characteristics
(modified from Newberry, 1991). The oxidation state of plutonic rocks is measured
by whole rock oxide Fe2O3/( Fe2O3+FeO). Alternative indicators of plutonic oxidation
state include oxide mineralogy (e.g., ilmenite, magnetite, hematite) and iron content
of mafic minerals such as pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. The oxidation state of
host rocks is measured by the abundance of carbon (e.g., graphite, carbon,
hydrocarbon), sulfides (pyrrhotite, pyrite), and oxides (ilmenite, magnetite, hematite).
61
62