Articles

Solar pond: an exercise in development of

indigenous technology at Kutch, India
V.V.N. Kishore and Amit Kumar
Tata Energy Research Institute, Darbari Seth Block, Habitat Place, Lodhi Road, New Delhi-110 003

With the current emphasis on commercialisation of renewable energy utilization, development of

indigenous technologies at the local and regional levels is being neglected. The salinity gradient
solar pond is one such technology which seems to be both relevant and promising for India. This
paper summarizes the efforts on solar pond development in India, with special reference to the
experience gained on the 6000 m2 solar pond at Kutch Dairy, Bhuj, which is the first pond built
to cater for an industrial process heat requirement in India. The paper outlines the various technical
problems encountered and solved during the construction and operation of the Bhuj pond over a
period of 9 years and offers suggestions for the future course of development.
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been a rapid increase in efforts
to promote renewable energy in developing countries. The
emphasis in India is primarily on the development of markets for renewable energy devices, chiefly in the areas of
wind energy, photovoltaics, bagasse cogeneration,
biomethanation of industrial and urban wastes and small
hydro power. There are two aspects that distinguish the
current efforts from those in the past. Firstly, the emphasis
is more on commercialization, which is aimed at discontinuing the practice of providing direct cash subsidies.
Secondly, there is a substantial intervention by foreign
donor agencies and financial institutions to promote selected technologies through market mechanisms. As a result, indigenous efforts to promote science and technology
advancement in the vital area of renewable energy have
taken a back seat. This is highly undesirable, since such
efforts have national relevance and the cost of developing
technology is usually much lower compared to that in advanced countries. The salinity gradient solar pond is one
such technology which is both appropriate and relevant
in the Indian context. In this paper, an attempt is made
to trace the course of technology advancement in solar
ponds in India, with special reference to the experience
gained in the execution of a large solar pond project at
Kutch Dairy, Bhuj.
2. The niche for solar ponds
Salinity gradient solar pords are essentially low-cost solar
collectors with integrated storage, and hence are potential,
cheaper alternatives to flat-plate collector systems in suitable locations. A solar pond is a large reservoir of saline
water, with the difference that a specific salinity (or density) profile is artificially created and maintained in the
pond. Typically, a solar pond consists of three zones: an
upper convective zone (UCZ) with a uniform, low density; a non-convective zone (NCZ) with a gradually increasing density; and a lower convective zone (LCZ), also
called the storage zone, with a uniform high density, as
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shown in Figure 1. The pond is also made as transparent

as possible by periodically treating it for algae and dust
control. The solar radiation penetrating the pond is absorbed in the different layers and causes the temperature
to rise. In a normal reservoir, the differential heating
would set up convection currents by which the heated
water would float up to the surface and lose heat to the
surroundings by evaporation, convection and radiation. In
a solar pond, however, thermal convection is suppressed
because of the unfavourable density gradient, and hence
the hot layers remain hot. The only way in which heat
loss occurs is by conduction, and water being a bad conductor of heat, loss from the lower zone to the upper zone
is low and the large mass of saline water in the lower
zone thus gets transformed into a large thermal storage,
from which heat can be extracted for useful purposes.
Heat extraction can be achieved either by submerged heat
exchangers or by heat exchangers placed outside the pond,
in which case hot brine from the pond is circulated
through the external heat exchanger and pumped back to
the storage zone. Once the pond is heated up (which takes
2-3 months after establishing the salinity gradient), the
temperature change in the storage zone is controlled by:
(1) the solar radiation flux reaching the zone, (2) the conductive heat loss to the earth and through the non-convective zone, and (3) the amount of heat extracted for
useful purposes. The daily variations in the storage zone
temperatures are 1-2C and the yearly variations are of
the order of 10- 20C. Solar ponds have a low capital
cost owing to the fact that they are based on low-cost
materials like clay, plastic and salt. However, solar ponds
receive lesser amounts of solar radiation (in comparison
to flat-plate collectors) as they cannot be tilted, which
means that the operating efficiency of solar ponds is lower
in comparison to that of conventional flat-plate collectors.
The advantage of low initial cost, however, offsets the
disadvantages of lower efficiency. This means that it is
cheaper to produce hot water (or hot air) in the temperature range of 60-80C in comparison to conventional flat!

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Figure 1. Schematic of a solar pond

plate collectors. However, flat-plate collectors have the

advantages of modular availability, ease of installation and
lower maintenance problems, except perhaps those related
to scale formation (because of hard water) in India. On
the other hand, solar ponds cannot be installed on
rooftops, require larger areas for the same heat delivery
rates, require salt and water, and require trained persons
for operation and maintenance. Manpower requirements
are, however, not proportional to the size of the pond, and
decrease rapidly on a unit area basis as the area increases.
This suggests that there is probably a critical size below
which it is infeasible to operate the pond sustainably. The
requirements of land, salt and water (not necessarily potable) suggest that solar ponds are better constructed on
wastelands or desert lands close to salt works, and in the
Indian context several such sites can be identified in the
western, southern and eastern coastal regions.
Some of the end-uses that can be coupled gainfully to
solar ponds are: hot water production, drying, desalination
of sea water or brackish water, air-conditioning and refrigeration for operations like milk chilling and cold storages, productivity improvements in the salt industry,
bromine recovery from sea-bitterns, preheating of bitterns
used for production of magnesium chloride and power
generation.
3. History of solar pond research in India
Solar pond research in India was initiated at the Central
Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute (CSMCRI),
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Bhavnagar, in 1971 shortly after the completion of the

initial phase of work in Israel. A 1210 m2 bittern-based
solar pond was constructed and operated, but work on this
pond was not well documented, except for a short report
[Jain, 1973]. Solar pond work at Bhavnagar was resumed
in 1980 with the construction of a 1600 m2 pond, the
operational details of which have since been reported [Mehta et al., 1983]. A 100 m2 pond at the Field Research
Unit of TERI, Pondicherry, and a 240 m2 pond at the
Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore, were constructed and operated successfully around the same time
[Srinivasan, 1993].
These three ponds helped in demonstrating solar pond
technology successfully in India. They were not connected
to any end-use. In 1983, a proposal for a National Solar
Pond Programme was submitted to the Department (now
Ministry) of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES)
by Gujarat Energy Development Agency (GEDA), with a
keen initiative taken by the late Dr. K.S. Rao. In 1985, a
feasibility study for installing a 5000 m2 solar pond for
supplying process heat to a dairy under the Gujarat Dairy
Development Corporation Limited (GDDC) was conducted and in 1987, DNES sanctioned a project to construct the solar pond at Kutch Dairy, Bhuj, in Gujarat
state. The proposed area was subsequently revised to 6000
m2, and the solar pond project at Bhuj was jointly executed by GEDA, GDDC and Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI). Around the same time, a project of similar
scale was sanctioned to the Electricity Department of the
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Figure 2. Temperature history of the Bhuj solar pond (Phase I)

Pondicherry government, primarily for power generation.

As an off-shoot of the IISc pond work, two more ponds
were conrtructed at Masur and Hubli in Karnataka state
for supplying hot water for bathing purposes. A small solar pond has recently been constructed at Ranchi and another project has been sanctioned to Anna University,
Madras, to set up a small pond for studies.
The Bhuj solar pond, after initial problems of civil construction, was established successfully by the end of 1990.
Due to delays in procurement of a suitable heat exchanger,
heat extraction could not start in time and the temperature
rise of the LCZ could not be controlled during the summer
of 1991. The LCZ achieved an unprecedented temperature
of 99C in May 1991 before the pond developed a leak.
The temperature history of the LCZ is shown in Figure
2. It took two years to analyze the problem, decide on an
alternative lining scheme, get the necessary administrative
approvals and to reestablish the pond. Supply of hot water
to the dairy commenced in September 1993 and continued
till February 1995.
The monthly heat extraction data are given in Figure
3. The pond was dysfunctional due to lack of funds for
maintenance from mid-1995 to early 1996. However, the
pond was restarted in March 1996 and has been operational since July 1996. A view of the solar pond is shown
in Figure 4. A 500 m2 test pond established under the
Pondicherry Experimental Solar Pond Power Project
(PESPPP) developed leaks within a few months after the
Energy for Sustainable Development

initial temperature build-up. It is currently under investigation.

Both the Masur and Hubli solar ponds developed leaks
in the early stages of operation and had to be abandoned.
A business meeting held in June 1994 in Bhuj elicited
considerable interest from industrial customers for specific end-uses such as desalination, supply of process heat
for bromine recovery from brine, increased salt production and absorption chilling. It was also apparent that solar pond technology had not yet been demonstrated for
applications other than hot water production and that the
problem of lining had not yet been solved definitively.
4. An analysis of problems encountered and solved
The basic technical problems encountered in establishing
and operating solar ponds can be classified as follows.
1. Problems of containment of brine
2. Salt dissolution and gradient establishment
3. Management of clarity, salinity gradient and wind-induced disturbances
4. Heat extraction
5. Problems of operation and maintenance.
All these are discussed below in the context of the Indian
solar pond experience.
4.1. Problems of containment of brine
For reliable operation of solar ponds, it is a primary requirement that the lining scheme is relatively impermeable to hot brine. Many civil engineers believe that this
!

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Figure 3. Heat extraction data of the Bhuj solar pond (September 1993-September1994). The line on top indicates the temperature of hot water.

can be done by adopting methods used for sea-water reservoirs. Many others are convinced, by physical appearance alone, of the suitability of one of the several kinds
of polyethylene membrane available under different brand
names in local and international markets. One has, however, to reckon with the high temperatures attained in the
LCZ of the pond, which cause minor cracks in any concrete structure and failures in polyethylene. The tear resistance or tensile strength of any polymer is dependent
on the thickness, nature and extent of additives, exposure
to ultraviolet light and temperature. Data on oven life can
be obtained from oven aging tests and it has been well
established [Gachter and Muller, 1987] that the oven life
decreases rapidly with temperature. When the time of usage exceeds the useful life of the material, any small disturbance such as settlement of embankments can cause
ruptures. The presence of any patch of recycled plastic
worsens the situation. The failure of the Masur pond had
been attributed to the presence of such recycled material,
but the chances of failure would have been high even otherwise because of the low oven life of low density polyethylene (LDPE). The survival of the IISc pond for several
years can probably be attributed to the absence of structural disturbances. The Bhavnagar pond used a combination of clay and high density polyethylene (HDPE) and
leaks had not been reported, but it should be noted that
this pond has so far not achieved high temperatures. It
should also be mentioned that oven aging information is
not easy to obtain.
Most solar ponds outside Israel have used high-cost,
special membranes like XR-5 [Reid et al., 1986], Hypalon
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and polypropylene [Folchitto, 1990]. Israeli ponds used a

lining tecbnique developed by Prof. Zaslavsky, which relied on a combination of alternate layers of plastic material and low-permeability soil to reduce the seepage
greatly. However, literature on Israeli solar ponds is rather
scarce and probably proprietary.
At the time of starting the Bhuj solar pond, import of
special liners was ruled out as it would make the solar
pond technology economically unviable. Based on information available with leading solar pond scientists and on
experiments conducted on test rigs [Raman and Kishore,
1990], a lining scheme consisting of two layers of 250
micron LDPE film sandwiched between three clay layers
was employed for the pond. A mixture of china clay
(kaolinite) and sieved local soil prepared at optimum
moisture content (OMC) was laid manually and compacted. Clay was initially pulverized and mixed with local
soil to improve workability and to achieve uniformity. Use
of pure clay, though desirable from the permeability point
of view, caused huge shrinkage cracks which do not rejoin
after adding water even after many days. Addition of
sieved local soil minimized the formation of shrinkage
cracks, but also increased the permeability coefficient. A
balance was struck between these two factors by experimenting with different proportions of clay and soil. Good
quality bentonite clay, available locally, was also tried but
was found to be more prone to form cracks. Use of such
a lining scheme also ensured that the polymer film was
buried, shielding it from exposure both to high temperatures and to UV radiation. When clay has to be used on
side walls, their slope becomes a crucial factor. Slopes
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that are too steep make it impossible to lay clay layers

and those that are too gentle result in high costs and necessitate higher depths for the same collection areas. A
slope of 1:2 was ultimately selected, though a more desirable slope would be about 1:3.5 from the standpoints
of ease of compaction with rollers, transport of material
to and from the pond, and structural stability of the slopes.
The other big advantage of sandwiching clay between
plastic membranes is that it makes the lining scheme quite
insensitive to blow holes and minor defects in the film.
Two of the peculiar problems faced during lining were:
(1) the presence of fine clay particles in the surroundings,
which made heat-sealing impossible, and (2) the presence
of dogs which would sometimes tear the film during the
night hours. The first problem was solved, in consultation
with the suppliers of the LDPE film, by wiping the film
in situ with a dilute acid before heat-sealing, while the
second problem could not be solved effectively.
The failure of the lining scheme in 1991 was due to
the formation of air pockets below the composite lining.
PVC vent pipes were installed at the bottom of the pond
before lining in order to provide a release mechanism for
any accumulated gases, which were found at one of the
earlier ponds in Israel. These pipes seem to have choked
at different places due to accumulation of water, trapping
huge pockets of air, which expanded at high temperatures
and ruptured the liner. When the pond was examined
closely after emptying the brine, three large holes above
one section of vent pipes were found. There was also occasional release of air bubbles just a few days prior to
the actual manifestation of leakage. It is now clear that
provision of vent pipes is not warranted unless the soil
samples show the presence of organic matter.
The lining scheme employed for the second time had
the following features.
1. No vent pipes were provided below the liner.
2. No additives were used in the film. This was recommended to reduce the number of oxidation sites in the
film.
3. The polymer consisted of 50% LDPE and 50% LLDPE
(linear low density polyethylene)
4. The membranes were not heat-sealed but just overlapped, as is the case with the Israeli technique of lining.
5. The thickness of clay layers was increased to about 30
cm for each layer.
6. The side walls were not disturbed, as it would have
meant removal and re-laying of the brick lining, which
would be both costly and labour-intensive.
The above lining scheme was not perfect as it allows a
discontinuity in the lining and hence may not provide the
desired impermeability. However, it was adopted due to
lack of time and funds to test newer schemes and also
because it provided an opportunity to try out the non-continuous lining method of the Israeli ponds. The fact that
the pond could be re-established and could supply process
heat to the dairy for nearly one and half years was proof
enough that the lining scheme is adequate. However, it
would be unwise to conclude that this is the best choice
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Figure 4. A panoramic view of the Bhuj solar pond

particularly because LDPE is inherently not the best material for high temperatures. Hence it would be highly
desirable to try out a few promising lining schemes, such
as polypropylene and clay, in different geo-climatic conditions, for enough confidence to be generated in solar
pond lining.
A few comments are in order regarding solar pond lining in relation to impermeability levels, use of plastics
and use of clays. The impermeability of a liner can be
quantified by the permeability coefficient k, obtained from
the equation
q = kA(h/d)
... (1)
where q is the rate of seepage throngh the layer, A is the
area, h is the hydraulic head and d is the thickness of the
liner. When q is expressed as volumetric flow rate, k has
units of velocity, and can be obtained by means of permeability meters. The seepage rate is also often expressed
in units of mm/day, which is equal to (q/A). The seepage
rate and permeability coefficient are related, but are not
the same. An impermeable membrane refers to k values
less than 10-9 cm/sec. CH type clays (inorganic clays of
high plasticity) like bentonite or kaolinite, when compacted at the optimum moisture content, can result in k
values of about 10-8 cm/sec. Field permeabilities of this
order are seldom obtained by clays alone due to imperfections in compaction and uniformity, etc. According to
unpublished literature on the lining method developed in
Israel the sandwiching technique can reduce the permeability of the soil by 30 times, aIthough no experimental
figures were given. In experiments conducted at the site
of the Bhuj pond with a large, variable-head, variabletemperature permeability meter, k values of about 2.5
10-7 cm/sec were obtained for clay-soil mixtures (25%
clay, 75% soil). This implies, for a hydraulic head of 4m
and a lining thickness of 1m, a level drop of 0.9 mm/day,
which can be reduced to 0.03 mm/day by sandwiching.
Thus, even if one can achieve a permeability coefficient
of the order of 10-7 cm/sec for solar pond liners at the
field level, it should be considered adequate. The actual
seepage rates for the Israeli solar pond have not been reported, but Prof. Zaslavsky gave a figure of 0.1 mm/day
in private correspondence.
The method by which bentonite was used in the IISc
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Figure 5. Schematic of the diffuser

pond, also adopted in both the Masur and Hubli ponds

and in the Pondicherry test pond, does not seem to be
proper; bentonite powder was simply spread at the bottom
of the pond before laying the LDPE liner. As it was not
compacted at OMC, it is doubtful if it provided adequate
protection against seepage. Also, there was no clay laying
on the side walls, and the LDPE film was the only protection against seepage, making it susceptible to damage.
There is also a misconception that any plastic liner used
in solar ponds has to be black in colour. The highest
amount of useful heat that can be delivered continuously
by a solar pond is roughly equal to the radiation available
at the LCZ-NCZ interface after attenuation in the pond
and is about 30% of that available just below the surface
for a clean pond. The radiation reaching the bottom after
absorption in the LCZ is still less and most of it is specularly reflected, only to be reabsorbed in the LCZ. Thus
the amount lost through reflection is insignificant. In any
case, debris settling at the bottom of the pond covers the
liner surface in due course of time and hence the colour
becomes immaterial. The black colour provides some protection against ultraviolet radiation, but if the liner is buried it should not matter. As mentioned earlier, the pigment
molecules impregnated into the polymer act as oxidation
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Energy for Sustainable Development

sites and accelerate thermal degradation and hence are

best avoided. From the foregoing analysis it appears that
the best lining strategy would be to use membrane liners
of adequate oven life buried or sandwiched suitably. One
polymer that has not been explored widely for solar pond
lining is polypropylene. Only the Agip Petroli pond in
Italy seems to have used it successfully and it is worth
exploring this material for lining future ponds in India.
4.2. Salt dissolution and gradient establishment
The first step in establishing the salinity gradient is to
prepare an adequate quantity of high-density brine in the
pond. This is done by dissolving sodium chloride (common salt) crystals in water till the required specific gravity
of about 1.2 is achieved. In several ponds, the salt was
simply dumped and water added to it, sometimes by directing water jets at salt heaps, and allowing salt to dissolve naturally. It takes a surprisingly long time for the
salt crystals (a few mm thick) to dissolve in water at ambient temperatures.
For example, it took about six months to dissolve salt
for the El Paso solar pond. Further, about 1% dirt is present in commercial-grade salt and this is sufficient to render the pond quite turbid. The Bhuj solar pond was
equipped with a mixing tank provided with a mechanical
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Figure 6. Path of the diffuser during gradient establishment

stirrer in the centre. The stirrer was driven by a 15-hp

motor. Concentrated brine obtained by mechanical agitation was fed to a settling pond followed by a sandbed
filtration tank. The main solar pond was filled with water
and the top layer was used for dissolving salt. Concentrated brine, after filtration and addition of hydrochloric
acid and copper sulphate for algae control, was fed to the
bottom of the main pond. The process was continued till
all the salt was dissolved. In this way, about 3200 tonnes
of salt was dissolved in less than a month. In the process,
an extremely clear solution with resistance to growth of
algae was obtained. An elaborate method of removing impurities was adopted for the Agip Petroli pond in Italy
which used sea bittern, but does not seem to have been
used so far for sodium chloride ponds.
In most ponds built so far the initial salinity gradient
established was linear, using the well-known method of
Zangrando [Zangrando, 1980]. In this method, all the salt
which would ultimately be present in the pond (the sum
of salt mass in the LCZ, NCZ and UCZ) is dissolved in
water so as to make a solution of density equal to that of
the LCZ. A diffuser (shown in Figure 5) is then placed
at a level marking the start of the NCZ and fresh water
(or sea water) is pumped through the diffuser for a pre-calculated period. At the end of the pumping period, the
diffuser is raised to the next higher position and water is
pumped again for a second period. This procedure is repeated till the pond is completely filled. Figure 6 sketches
the path of the diffuser during the gradient establishment.
In the original method of Zangrando, the rate of upward
movement of the diffuser is twice the rate at which the
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pond surface is rising, and the profile established finally

is linear in shape, i.e., the salt concentration varies linearly with height in the NCZ. However, the equilibrium
salinity profile in the pond is nonlinear and in due course
the initial linear profile established slowly becomes nonlinear. In the process, instabilities develop, especially near
the bottom end of the non-convective zone, sometimes
leading to gradient breakdown. Hence it is highly desirable to establish a salinity profile as close to the equilibrium profile as possible. The latter can be obtained by
solving one-dimensional steady state mass and heat transport equations simultaneously by a trial-and-error method.
The movement of the diffuser is no longer linear and has
to be decided from time to time depending on the remaining portion of the profile to be established. For establishing a nonlinear profile in the Bhuj solar pond, an
algorithm was developed to calculate the movement of
the diffuser taking as inputs: (1) the equilibrium salinity
values; (2) the geometry of the pond; (3) the dimensions
of the diffuser; and (4) the Froude number to be maintained during pumping of water as a jet through the diffuser. The Froude number is defined as
U
Fr =
... (2)
[g.d.(s - i)/i]1/2
where
U = inlet velocity of fluid, m/s
g = acceleration due to gravity
d = diffuser slit width, m
s = density of surrounding fluid, kg/m3
i = density of injected fluid, kg/m3
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Figure 7. Evolution of density profiles during salinity gradient establishment (Phase I)

The Froude number is essentially a measure of the ratio

of the kinetic energy and potential energy of a buoyant
jet. The two-dimensional jet of water emanating from the
diffuser will mix with the surrounding saline water. Depending on the velocity of the jet, the slit width of the
diffuser and the density difference between the two fluids,
mixing will occur either above the diffuser level, at the
diffuser level or below the diffuser level. Based on hydrodynamic calculations and laboratory experiments, Zangrando [Zangrando, 1987] recommended that, for the
mixing to occur at and above the diffuser level, the Froude
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Energy for Sustainable Development

number has to be maintained at 18 during gradient establishment. The movement of the diffuser as a series of vertical steps at different times was obtained from the
algorithm. The diffuser moves along a guide-rail, driven
by an electrically operated winch. A suitable gear arrangement ensures slow and precise movements of the diffuser.
Towards the end of gradient establishment, the slit width
of the diffuser had to be adjusted to maintain the required
Froude number. A pumping loop was installed both for
calibration of the diffuser and for controlling the amount
of water to be pumped. The progress of the gradient es!

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tablishment and the final gradient obtained are shown in

Figure 7 along with the desired equilibrium profile.
During gradient establishment it was observed that the
final profile obtained was not exactly same as the desired
profile. The profiles crossed each other towards the lower
end presumably due to mixing below the diffuser level.
The same phenomenon was observed while establishing
the gradient in the 225 m2 test pond at Bhuj and later
during gradient building for the second time after relining
the pond. A similar phenomenon was also observed in the
El Paso pond. It thus appears that the fixing of the Froude
number at 18 throughout the gradient establishment process is probably not correct. This will have to be investigated further.
Most large-scale ponds use a central diffuser placed at
the middle of the pond or a battery of diffusers simultaneously to ensure lateral uniformity of the salinity gradient. There is no indication of the maximum horizontal
distance that can be covered by a single diffuser, although
Zangrando gives a value of 700m [Zangrando, l987].
In the Bhuj pond measuring 100m 60m, the diffuser
was installed at the middle of one of the 60m sides. Measurements on the other side during the course of gradient
establishment showed that there was no difference in the
profiles. This shows that the positioning of the diffuser
relative to the geometry of the pond is not very important
as long as the correct range of Froude numbers is used.
There is also some confusion regarding the material to
be used for fabrication of the diffuser. For the Bhuj pond
mild steel was used extensively because of cost considerations, availability and ease of fabrication, and was
found to be quite suitable. Gradient establishment takes
only about a week, and hence corrosion problems are not
serious. The diffuser employed for gradient corrections is
of different dimensions and can be removed from the
pond when not in use.
4.3. Management of clarity, salinity gradient and windinduced disturbances
For good thermal performance of a solar pond, it is very
important to maintain its clarity. The useful heat delivered
from a solar pond can be obtained from the equation
[Kishore and Joshi, 1984]:
Qu = Ac[()eG - UL(Tb - Ts)]
... (3)
where G is the global radiation incident on the surface,
Ac is the collection area of the pond, e is the effective
transmissivity-absorptivity product, UL is the overall heat
loss coefficient, Tb is the LCZ temperature, and Ts is the
surface temperature. The () product, which is related
to the transmission function for radiation in the pond, is
defined as
... (4)
()e = g(x)dx/dx
where g(x) is the fraction of radiation remaining at any
depth x.
For extremely clear ponds, the () product is about
0.45 and for very dirty ponds, it can be as low as 0.2.
Debris collected on the surface of the pond does not always sink to the bottom, but sometimes lies suspended at
an appropriate level in the pond. Algae and dust control
Energy for Sustainable Development

in the Bhuj pond were achieved by injection of copper

sulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid through diffusers at
regular intervals. However, if the clarity of the pond was
taken care of during the initial filling of brine, subsequent
control seemed to be easier.
It is generally difficult to measure attenuation of solar
radiation inside solar ponds, as high temperature underwater pyranometers are not easily available. For the Bhuj
pond, a sealed silicon cell sensor borrowed from CSMCRl
was used to measure the approximate transmission function of solar radiation. A () value of 0.434 was obtained
during the summer heating time of 1991, indicating very
good clarity.
It is important to ensure that there are no dynamic instabilities in the gradient zone as they would lead to gradient breakdown, which is known to occur. The criteria
for dynamic stability can be expressed as [Hull et al.,
1989]
dS/dT > (Pr+1)(Pr+Sc)
... (5)
or [(dS/dT)]/[(Pr+1)(Pr+Sc)] > 1
... (6)
where dS/dT is the ratio of salinity gradient to temperature
gradient at any given point, and are the expansion
coefficients due to temperature and salinity respectively,
Pr is the Prandtl number and Sc is the Schmidt number.
The RHS of equation (5) is termed the stability coefficient. The LHS of equation (6), known as the margin of
stability M, is normally employed to quantify the dynamic
stability criterion. An accepted convention is that as long
as the margin of stability is greater than 2 the pond is
considered stable. The margin of stability is lowest at the
LCZ-NCZ interface where both the salinity and temperature values are high. A plot of the lowest margin of stability at different times is shown in Figure 8. It can be
seen that the margin of stability did not go below 2 near
the bottom of a 1.5m gradient zone. It is generally believed that sodium chloride ponds are not stable for a gradient zone thickness beyond 1.0m, but the experience with
the Bhuj solar pond shows that if a near-equilibrium profile is established in the beginning, gradient stability can
be ensured without much of a problem. Instabilities
caused due to side-wall heating had been reported for the
IISc pond. However, such instabilities were not observed
in the Bhuj pond. Solar pond literature mentions [Hull et
al., 1989] occurrence of such wall-induced instabilities for
small ponds but not for large ponds.
Control of wind-induced disturbances is very important
for solar pond operation, as it would otherwise result in
growth of the UCZ thickness, causing a reduction of efficiency. Bhuj, with an annual wind speed of 13.3 kmph,
can be considered a windy area. In fact, large waves did
develop in the pond during salt dissolution. Wave-suppressing nets were used in Israel successfully and the
same technique was applied in the El Paso pond. However, the cost quoted by the suppliers was too high to be
accommodated within the sanctioned budget of the project
and hence it was imperative that a local solution had to
be found. An Indian firm was making plastic fencing material under the trade-name of Netlon and this material,

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Figure 8. History of lowest margin of stability near the NCZ-LCZ interface of the solar pond (Phase 1)

which was available at a fraction of the cost of imported

material, was procured and proved to be extremely effective. These wave-suppressing nets have been in use for
nearly six years without any degradation. However, disturbances did develop in the UCZ in the form of changes
in the salinity profile at the UCZ-NCZ interface and had
to be corrected by brine injections. The history of zone
boundaries both for the first phase and second phase is
shown in Figures 9 and 10.
Wave-suppressing devices were used earlier in the
Bhavnagar pond in the form of tubular PVC grids. However, the thickness of the UCZ for this pond remained
unusually large throughout the operation and it is difficult
to assess if the wave suppression efforts were successful.
4.4. Heat extraction
A simple method of using copper pipe structures as heat
exchangers immersed in the LCZ was perfected on the
IISc pond. This method is ideal for small solar ponds, but
would be impractical for larger ponds. The pipe structures
seem to withstand corrosion as long as they are completely immersed in the LCZ. A Z-shaped steel pipe structure was installed in the Bhavnagar pond, but it does not
seem to have been used for heat extraction. For large
ponds the most common method of heat extraction is to
pass hot brine from the LCZ through an external heat exchanger. A suction and return diffuser are used for taking
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Energy for Sustainable Development

the hot brine out from the pond and for returning the
cooler brine to the pond. The important matters to be decided in heat extraction are: (1) the materials of construction for diffusers, pipes, pumps and heat exchanger; (2)
the relative location of the diffusers; and (3) the heat extraction rates.
The heat exchanger for the Bhuj solar pond was designed with the help of Tata Chemicals Ltd. It was a shell
and tube type, with hot brine flowing on the tube side
and water on the shell side. The material for the tube side
was cupronickel, whereas the material for the shell side
was carbon steel. The heat transfer area was 36.1 m2 for
a heat duty of 396.5 kWth (341,000 kcal/hr). The heat
exchanger has posed no problems so far. A 22.5 kW (30
hp) stainless steel (SS 316) pump was used in the brine
circulation loop. Semicircular mild steel diffusers with a
diameter of 1.5m and slit width of 10 cm were used. The
suction diffuser is placed 0.8m above the bottom of the
pond and the return diffuser is kept at a vertical distance
of 0.2m below the suction diffuser. Both the diffusers are
on the same side of the pond, but are separated by a horizontal distance of 3.0m. No foot valves are used and priming is done with the help of a vacuum pump. Ordinary
steel pipes were used for the piping connecting the diffusers to the heat exchanger. These pipes did corrode severely in about one year and have been replaced by
!

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Figure 9. History of zone boundaries for the Bhuj solar pond (Phase 1)

polypropylene pipes recently.

For ensuring dynamic stability during heat extraction,
the flow rates of brine as well as the design and relative
position of the diffusers are important. Based on the empirical equations given by Zangrando [1987] and on trial
runs conducted on the Bhuj pond itself, a brine flow rate
of 70 m3/hr and water flow rate of 8 m3/hr were selected
for heat exchanger operation. Heat extraction was carried
out for about 7 to 10 hrs a day from September 2, 1993
till the stopping of operations in early 1995, without major problems.
4.5. Problems of operation and maintenance
Solar ponds have not been installed, operated and maintained on commercial lines so far, in the sense that there
is no firm or company involved in such operations. The
250,000 m2 solar pond at Beth ha Arava was operated
more or less on commercial lines, but budgetary support
was probably available throughout its operation. The El
Paso pond was also connected to an end-use, supplying
hot water to a food processing factory, but the technical
support of the University of Texas at El Paso (UTEP) was
continuously made available through government grants.
Such support systems are to be expected for a technology
which is yet to be commercialized.
The operation and maintenance of solar ponds is too
complicated at present to be left to the user. For the Bhuj
solar pond, almost all the operation and maintenance work
was carried out by TERI with financial support from
MNES. However, for long-term sustainability of the project, it has been decided to train a few staff members of
GDDC in regular operation, maintenance and troubleEnergy for Sustainable Development

shooting.
5. Economic considerations
The total cost of construction of the Bhuj solar pond was
Rs. 3.2 million (US$ 90,000). This works out to a unit
cost of Rs. 530 per m2 ($15 per m2). In comparison, the
unit cost of the Beth ha Arava solar pond was $30 per
m2 in 1984. The lower capital costs for India are presumably due to lower material and manpower costs. The Bhuj
pond can be considered the prototype pond of this size
and the costs of subsequent ponds will be progressively
lower. An amount of nearly $20 million was spent in Israel on solar pond research between 1975 and 1985. In
comparison, the R&D spending on solar ponds in India
would be about $700,000. These figures suggest that there
is a strong case for accelerating solar pond research in
India.
6. Conclusions
The review of solar pond research and development efforts carried out in India in the past decade shows that
significant contributions have been made to development
of the technology in general. Specifically, the stage of
laboratory demonstration and testing has now been completed and efforts have been initiated to use solar pond
technology for practical applications. While some have
succeeded partially, others have reported failures, which
is only to be expected for a developing technology. The
most significant failure has been in the search for suitable
lining methods for containing hot brine. Further efforts
would have to be mounted to develop reliable lining meth!

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Figure 10. History of zone boundaries for the Bhuj solar pond (Phase 2)

ods. It has also been shown that, in comparison to the

achievements recorded and the promise and relevance of
the technology in India, the money spent towards technology maturation has so far been quite little. At the present juncture, solar pond technology has to be given
specific end-use orientations, and financial support in the
form of application research and demonstration projects
will be crucial in deciding the future course of technology
development.

meaningful and successful collaboration between a user, a research institute, state nodal
agency and a central ministry. Though there were ups and downs in the complex relations
amongst the collaborators, which is only to be expected, the overall interaction was quite
positive and constructive.
References
Folchitto S., 1990. Margherita Di Savoja solar pond, 2nd International Conference on
Progress in Solar Ponds, Rome, p. 25.
Gchter, R., and Mller H., (Eds.), 1987. Plastics Additives Handbook, Munich, Hanser
Publishers.
Hull, J.R., Nielsen, C.E., and Golding, P., 1989. Dynamical processes and external influences, Salinity Gradient Solar Ponds, Florida, CRC Press, Inc., Chapter 4.
Jain, G.C., 1973. Heating of solar ponds, International Congress: Sun in the service of
mankind, UNESCO, Paris.

Acknowledgements
This paper is based largely on the experience gained by the authors while working on the
Bhuj solar pond. Several people contributed to the knowledge generated on this pond either
directly or indirectly and it is not possible to name all of them individually in a short space.
However, the support and contribution of some individuals and institutions merits special
mention. The late Dr. K.S. Rao, former Director of GEDA, was the chief architect of the
National Solar Pond Programme submitted to the government, and the establishment of the
Bhuj solar pond was an outcome of it. The project was funded by the Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources (MNES), and several officials of MNES provided enthusiastic support. Dr. R.K. Pachauri, Director, Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), was a source of
constant encouragement and support through the thick and thin of the activity. The contribution of Mr. M.D. Motiani, who was on the project staff for a long time, is sincerely acknowledged. Several other researchers of TERI made specific and timely contributions. The
project was ably administered by GEDA and the support provided by its Director and staff
is gratefully acknowledged. The administrative and infrastructural support provided by GDDC
deserves to be specifically acknowledged. In fact, this project is an example of a very

Kishore, V.V.N., and Joshi V., 1984. A practical collector efficiency equation for nonconvecting solar ponds, Solar Energy, Vol. 33, pp. 391-395.
Mehta, A.S., and Gomkale, S.D., 1983. Solar pond at Central Salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India, International Solar Pond Letters, Vol. 1, p. 21.
Raman, P., and Kishore, V.V.N, 1990. An alternative lining scheme for solar ponds results
of a liner test rig, Solar Energy, Vol. 45, No. 4, pp. 139-199.
Reid, R.L., Swift, A.H.P., Boegli, W.J., Castaneda, B.A., and Kane, V.P., 1986. Design,
construction and initial operation of a 3355 m2 solar pond in El Paso, ASME Solar Energy
Conference, California, p. 306.
Srinivasan, J., 1993. Solar pond technology, Sadhana, Vol. 18, pp. 39-55.
Zangrando, F., 1980. A simple method to establish salt gradient solar ponds, Solar Energy,
Vol. 25, pp. 467-70.
Zangrando, F., 1987. Hydrodynamics and thermodynamics of solar ponds, Lecture delivered at 1st International Conference on Solar Ponds, Cuernavaca.

The low wattage storage water heater shown on the back cover of the last issue (Vol. II No. 6) of ESD
was designed by A.R. Shivakumar, Programme Executive, IEI. This was a voluntary service rendered
by him for a project assigned by the UNDP-GEF Hilly Hydro Project to TIDE Technocrats Ltd., an
organisation based in Bangalore.
Editorial team
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May 1996