Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
1 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
Home
Contents
Quick navigation
1. Objectives and Applications
>
1.1 Defining a Problem >
1.1.1 Deciding what to
calculate
1.1.2 Defining geometry
1.1.3 Defining loading
1.1.4 Choosing physics
1.1.5 Defining material
behavior
1.1.6 A representative problem
1.1.7 Choosing a method of
analysis
2. Governing Equations >
2.1 Deformation
measures >
2.1.1 Displacement and Velocity
2.1.2 Deformation gradient
2.1.3 Deformation gradient from
two deformations
2.1.4 Jacobian of deformation
gradient
2.1.5 Lagrange strain
2.1.6 Eulerian strain
2.1.7 Infinitesimal Strain
2.1.8 Engineering Shear Strain
2.1.9 Volumetric and Deviatoric
strain
2.1.10 Infinitesimal rotation
2.1.11 Principal strains
2.1.12 Cauchy-Green deformation
tensors
2.1.13 Rotation tensor, Stretch
tensors
2.1.14 Principal stretches
2.1.15 Generalized strain measures
2.1.16 Velocity gradient
2.1.17 Stretch rate and spin
2.1.18 Infinitesimal strain/rotation
rate
2.1.19 Other deformation rates
2.1.20 Strain equations of
compatibility
2.2 Internal forces >
2.2.1 Surface traction/body force
2.2.2 Internal tractions
2.2.3 Cauchy stress
2.2.4 Kirchhoff, Nominal, Material
stress
2.2.5 Stress for infinitesimal
motions
2.2.6 Principal stresses
2.2.7 Hydrostatic, Deviatoric, Von
Mises stress
2.2.8 Stresses at a boundary
2014-04-01 18:00
2 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
2014-04-01 18:00
3 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
approximations
3.6.4 Prony series
3.6.5 Calibrating constitutive
laws
3.6.6 Calibrating material
models
3.6.7 Representative properties
3.7 Rate independent
plasticity >
3.7.1 Plastic metal behavior
3.7.2 Elastic/plastic strain
decomposition
3.7.3 Yield criteria
3.7.4 Graphical yield surfaces
3.7.5 Hardening laws
3.7.6 Plastic flow law
3.7.7 Unloading condition
3.7.8 Summary of stress-strain
relations
3.7.9 Representative properties
3.7.10 Principle of max. plastic
resistance
3.7.11 Drucker's postulate
3.7.12 Microscopic perspectives
3.8 Viscoplasticity >
3.8.1 Creep behavior
3.8.2 High strain rate behavior
3.8.3 Constitutive equations
3.8.4 Representative creep
properties
3.8.5 Representative high rate
properties
3.9 Large strain plasticity >
3.9.1 Deformation measures
3.9.2 Stress measures
3.9.3 Elastic stress-strain
relations
3.5.4 Plastic stress-strain
relations
3.10 Large strain
viscoelasticity >
3.10.1 Deformation measures
3.10.2 Stress measures
3.10.3 Stress-strain energy
relations
3.10.4 Strain relaxation
3.10.5 Representative
properties
3.11 Critical state soils >
3.11.1 Soil behavior
3.11.2 Constitutive laws
(Cam-clay)
3.11.3 Response to 2D loading
3.11.4 Representative
properties
3.12 Crystal plasticity >
3.12.1 Basic crystallography
3.12.2 Features of crystal
plasticity
3.12.3 Deformation measures
3.12.4 Stress measures
3.12.5 Elastic stress-strain
relations
3.12.6 Plastic stress-strain
2014-04-01 18:00
4 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
relations
3.12.7 Representative
properties
3.13 Surfaces and interfaces
>
3.13.1 Cohesive interface models
3.13.2 Contact and friction
4. Solutions to simple problems
>
4.1 Axial/Spherical linear
elasticity >
4.1.1 Elastic governing equations
4.1.2 Spherically symmetric
equations
4.1.3 General spherical solution
4.1.4 Pressurized sphere
4.1.5 Gravitating sphere
4.1.6 Heated spherical shell
4.1.7 Axially symmetric
equations
4.1.8 General axisymmetric
solution
4.1.9 Pressurized cylinder
4.1.10 Spinning circular disk
4.1.11 Interference fit
4.2 Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity >
4.2.1 Plastic governing equations
4.2.2 Spherically symmetric
equations
4.2.3 Pressurized sphere
4.2.4 Cyclically pressurized
sphere
4.2.5 Axisymmetric equations
4.2.6 Pressurized cylinder
4.3 Spherical hyperelasticity >
4.3.1 Governing equations
4.3.2 Spherically symmetric
equations
4.3.3 Pressurized sphere
4.4 1D elastodynamics >
4.4.1 Surface subjected to
pressure
4.4.2 Surface under tangential
loading
4.4.3 1-D bar
4.4.4 Plane waves
4.4.5 Wave speeds in isotropic
solid
4.4.6 Reflection at a surface
4.4.7 Reflection at an interface
4.4.8 Plate impact experiment
5. Solutions for elastic solids >
5.1 General Principles >
5.1.1 Governing equations
5.1.2 Navier equation
5.1.3 Superposition &
linearity
5.1.4 Uniqueness &
existence
5.1.5 Saint-Venants
principle
5.2 2D Airy function solutions
>
2014-04-01 18:00
5 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
2014-04-01 18:00
6 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
2014-04-01 18:00
7 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
theorem
6.2.5 Examples of bounding
theorems
6.2.6 Lower bound shakedown
theorem
6.2.7 Examples of lower bound
shakedown theorem
6.2.8 Upper bound shakedown
theorem
6.2.9 Examples of upper bound
shakedown theorem
7. Introduction to FEA >
7.1 Guide to FEA >
7.1.1 FE mesh
7.1.2 Nodes and elements
7.1.3 Special elements
7.1.4 Material behavior
7.1.5 Boundary conditions
7.1.6 Constraints
7.1.7 Contacting surface/interfaces
7.1.8 Initial conditions/external
fields
7.1.9 Soln procedures / time
increments
7.1.10 Output
7.1.11 Units in FEA calculations
7.1.12 Using dimensional analysis
7.1.13 Scaling governing equations
7.1.14 Remarks on dimensional
analysis
7.2 Simple FEA
program >
7.2.1 FE mesh and connectivity
7.2.2 Global displacement vector
7.2.3 Interpolation functions
7.2.4 Element strains & energy
density
7.2.5 Element stiffness matrix
7.2.6 Global stiffness matrix
7.2.7 Boundary loading
7.2.8 Global force vector
7.2.9 Minimizing potential energy
7.2.10 Eliminating prescribed
displacements
7.2.11 Solution
7.2.12 Post processing
7.2.13 Example code
8. Theory & Implementation of
FEA >
8.1 Static linear elasticity
>
8.1.1 Review of virtual work
8.1.2 Weak form of governing
equns
8.1.3 Interpolating displacements
8.1.4 Finite element equations
8.1.5 Simple 1D implementation
8.1.6 Summary of 1D procedure
8.1.7 Example 1D code
8.1.8 Extension to 2D/3D
8.1.9 2D interpolation functions
8.1.10 3D interpolation functions
8.1.11 Volume integrals
8.1.12 2D/3D integration
2014-04-01 18:00
8 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
schemes
8.1.13 Summary of element
matrices
8.1.14 Sample 2D/3D code
8.2 Dynamic elasticity >
8.2.1 Governing equations
8.2.2 Weak form of governing eqns
8.2.3 Finite element equations
8.2.4 Newmark time integration
8.2.5 Simple 1D implementation
8.2.6 Example 1D code
8.2.7 Lumped mass matrices
8.2.8 Example 2D/3D code
8.2.9 Modal time integration
8.2.10 Natural frequencies/mode
shapes
8.2.11 Example 1D modal dynamic
code
8.2.12 Example 2D/3D modal
dynamic code
8.3 Hypoelasticity >
8.3.1 Governing equations
8.3.2 Weak form of governing eqns
8.3.3 Finite element equations
8.3.4 Newton-Raphson iteration
8.3.5 Tangent moduli for
hypoelastic solid
8.3.6 Summary of Newton-Raphson
method
8.3.7 Convergence problems
8.3.8 Variations on NewtonRaphson
8.3.9 Example code
8.4 Hyperelasticity >
8.4.1 Governing equations
8.4.2 Weak form of governing
eqns
8.4.3 Finite element equations
8.4.4 Newton-Raphson
iteration
8.4.5 Neo-Hookean tangent
moduli
8.4.6 Evaluating boundary
integrals
8.4.7 Convergence problems
8.4.8 Example code
8.5 Viscoplasticity >
8.5.1 Governing equations
8.5.2 Weak form of governing
eqns
8.5.3 Finite element equations
8.5.4 Integrating the stress-strain
law
8.5.5 Material tangent
8.5.6 Newton-Raphson solution
8.5.7 Example code
8.6 Advanced elements >
8.6.1 Shear locking/incompatible
modes
8.6.2 Volumetric locking/Reduced
integration
8.6.3 Incompressible
materials/Hybrid elements
9. Modeling Material Failure >
2014-04-01 18:00
9 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
2014-04-01 18:00
10 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
general >
10.2.1 Characterizing the
x-section
10.2.2 Coordinate systems
10.2.3 Kinematic relations
10.2.4 Displacement, velocity
and acceleration
10.2.5 Deformation gradient
10.2.6 Strain measures
10.2.7 Kinematics of bent rods
10.2.8 Internal forces and
moments
10.2.9 Equations of motion
10.2.10 Constitutive equations
10.2.11 Strain energy density
10.3 String / beam theory >
10.3.1 Stretched string
10.3.2 Straight beam (small
deflections)
10.3.3 Axially loaded beam
10.4 Solutions for rods >
10.4.1 Vibration of a straight beam
10.4.2 Buckling under gravitational
loading
10.4.3 Post buckled shape of a rod
10.4.4 Rod bent into a helix
10.4.5 Helical spring
10.5 Shells - general >
10.5.1 Coordinate systems
10.5.2 Using non-orthogonal
bases
10.5.3 Deformation measures
10.5.4 Displacement and
velocity
10.5.5 Deformation gradient
10.5.6 Other strain measures
10.5.7 Internal forces and
moments
10.5.8 Equations of motion
10.5.9 Constitutive relations
10.5.10 Strain energy
10.6 Plates and membranes >
10.6.1 Flat plates (small strain)
10.6.2 Flat plates with in-plane
loading
10.6.3 Plates with large
displacements
10.6.4 Membranes
10.6.5 Membranes in polar
coordinates
10.7 Solutions for shells >
10.7.1 Circular plate bent by
pressure
10.7.2 Vibrating circular membrane
10.7.3 Natural frequency of
rectangular plate
10.7.4 Thin film on a substrate
(Stoney eqs)
10.7.5 Buckling of heated plate
10.7.6 Cylindrical shell under axial
load
10.7.7 Twisted open walled
cylinder
10.7.8 Gravity loaded spherical
2014-04-01 18:00
11 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
shell
A: Vectors & Matrices
B: Intro to tensors
C: Index Notation
D: Using polar coordinates
E: Misc derivations
Problems
1. Objectives and Applications
>
1.1 Defining a Problem
2. Governing Equations >
2.1 Deformation
measures
2.2 Internal forces
2.3 Equations of motion
2.4 Work and Virtual
Work
3. Constitutive Equations >
3.1 General requirements
3.2 Linear elasticity
3.3 Hypoelasticity
3.4 Elasticity w/ large
rotations
3.5 Hyperelasticity
3.6 Viscoelasticity
3.7 Rate independent
plasticity
3.8 Viscoplasticity
3.9 Large strain plasticity
3.10 Large strain
viscoelasticity
3.11 Critical state soils
3.12 Crystal plasticity
3.13 Surfaces and interfaces
4. Solutions to simple problems
>
4.1 Axial/Spherical linear
elasticity
4.2 Axial/Spherical
elastoplasticity
4.3 Spherical hyperelasticity
4.4 1D elastodynamics
5. Solutions for elastic solids >
5.1 General Principles
5.2 2D Airy function solutions
5.3 2D Complex variable
solutions
5.4 3D static problems
5.5 2D Anisotropic elasticity
5.6 Dynamic problems
5.7 Energy methods
5.8 Reciprocal theorem
5.9 Energetics of dislocations
5.10 Rayleigh Ritz method
6. Solutions for plastic solids >
6.1 Slip-line fields
6.2 Bounding theorems
7. Introduction to FEA >
7.1 Guide to FEA
7.2 Simple FEA
program
8. Theory & Implementation of
FEA >
2014-04-01 18:00
12 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
Chapter 9
Modeling Material Failure
9.4 Energy methods in fracture mechanics
Energy methods provide additional insight into fracture, and also provide a foundation for a range of analytical
and numerical methods in fracture mechanics. In this section, we outline some of the most important results.
9.4.1 Definition of crack tip energy release rate for cracks in linear elastic solids
The crack tip energy release rate quantifies the rate of change of the potential energy of
a cracked elastic solid as the crack grows.
To make this precise, consider an ideally elastic solid, subjected to some loading
(applied tractions, displacements, or body forces). Suppose the solid contains a crack
(the figure shows a circular crack with radius a as a representative example). Define
the potential energy of the solid in the usual way (Sect 5.6.1) as
Suppose the crack increases in size, so that the crack advances a distance
with loading kept fixed, where
s measures position around the crack front. The principle of minimum potential energy (sect 5.6.2) shows that
, since the displacement field associated with
is a kinematically admissible field for the
solid with a longer crack. The energy release rate
around the crack front is defined so that
2014-04-01 18:00
13 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
For the special case of a 2D slit crack with length a, the energy release rate is
where
9.4.3 Relation between energy release rate and stress intensity factor
The energy release rate G is closely related to the stress intensity factors defined in Sect 9.3. Specifically, for an
isotropic, linear elastic solid with Youngs modulus and Poissons ratio the energy release rate is related to
stress intensity factors by
and
2.
(equal and opposite tractions must act on the lower crack face).
As the crack is allowed to open, the upper crack face displaces by
3.
(the work done by tractions acting on the upper crack face per unit length is
crack faces).
4. Evaluating the integrals gives
2014-04-01 18:00
14 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
The same result can be obtained by applying crack tip energy flux integrals, to be discussed below.
As the crack grows, the compliance of the specimen always increases, so C is a function of crack length. The
energy release rate is related to compliance C by
This formula applies to any structure or component, not just to compact tension specimens. The formula is
useful for two reasons:
(i) It can be used to measure energy release rate in an experiment. All you need to do is to measure the
crack length as it grows, and at the same time measure the compliance of your specimen.
(ii) It can be used to calculate stress intensity factors, as outlined in the next section.
Derivation: This result can be derived by calculating the change in energy of the system as the crack grows.
Note that
1.
solid is elastic and so behaves like a linear spring this is just the formula for the energy in a spring.
Now, suppose that the crack extends by a distance
. During crack growth, the load increases to
and displaces to
. In addition, the strain energy changes to
, while the compliance
increases to
.
3. The energy released during crack advance is equal to the decrease in potential energy of the system, so that
2.
4.
Note that
5.
Substituting these results into the expression in step (3) and simplifying shows that
Derivation This result is derived by first calculating the compliance of the solid;
then using the formula to deduce the energy release rate, and finally using the
relationship between stress intensity factor and energy release rate. To proceed,
1. Note that the deflection d of the loaded point can be calculated by visualizing
the specimen as two cantilever beams, length a, width B and height h, clamped
on their right hand end and subjected to a load P at their left hand ends. From
elementary beam theory, the deflection is
2014-04-01 18:00
15 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
2.
3.
4.
By symmetry, the crack must be loaded in pure mode I. We can therefore deduce the stress intensity factor
using the relation
Define the rate of change of mechanical energy density at an arbitrary point in the solid as
, and
let
Denote the total energy within V as
Define the work flux vector as
The energy flux across S can be calculated in terms of these quantities as follows:
The right hand side of this expression denotes the energy flux across the surface; the left hand side is the rate of
change of the total energy within V. The two are equal by energy conservation, as shown below.
Derivation:
Begin by showing that the energy flux vector and the rate of change of mechanical energy density are
1.
related by
To see this, note that
where we have used the linear and angular momentum balance equations
2.
Now, integrate both sides of this equation over the volume V and apply the divergence theorem to see that
3.
2014-04-01 18:00
16 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
Here, the first term on the right represents the rate of change due to the time derivative of within V, while
the second term represents the flux of energy crossing S as the surface moves with velocity .
4. Combining (2) and (3) shows that
The term on the right hand side clearly represents the total rate of change of mechanical energy in V.
Consequently, the term on the left hand side must represent the mechanical energy flux across . This is the
result we need.
Energy flux to a crack tip. We can use the energy flux integral to obtain an
expression for the energy flux to a crack tip. Suppose the crack tip runs with steady
speed v in the direction. Let denote a cylindrical surface enclosing the crack
tip, which moves with the crack tip. The energy flux through follows as
where
is the net work done on the solid per unit volume by stresses, and
energy flux to the crack tip follows by taking the limit as
Contour integral formula for energy release rate. To obtain an expression for the energy release rate, assume
that the crack tip fields remain self-similar (i.e. an observer traveling with the crack tip sees a fixed state of
strain and stress). In addition, assume that the crack front is straight, and has length L in direction perpendicular
to the plane of the figure. Under these conditions
, and
. Consequently
where C is a contour enclosing the crack tip. (Equivalent results can be derived for general 3D cracks, but these
details are omitted here).
This result is valid for any material response (including plastic materials), and applies to both static and dynamic
conditions.
The expression for energy flux through a surface surrounding the crack tip reduces to
2014-04-01 18:00
17 of 17
http://solidmechanics.org/text/Chapter9_4/Chapter9_4.htm
Now, evaluate the integral around the closed contour shown on the right. Note
that the integrand vanishes on
and
so that
showing that the integral is equal for any two contours that start and end on the two crack faces.
4.
follows as
Symmetry conditions show that the crack must be loaded in pure mode I, so the stress intensity factor can also
be computed.
2014-04-01 18:00