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1. Centrifugal Pumps
Pumps belong to what is often called turbomachinery, where turbo is a Latin word meaning spin or
whirl. Turbomachinery comprises pumps (also reciprocating ones which do not spin or whirl),
compressors and turbines for both liquids and gases. Other machinery may be included, like
torque converters which is a kind of hydraulic clutch used in automatic transmissions.
Centrifugal pumps are by far the most common type of pumps both in the process industry and
elsewhere, and they come in a large variety of sizes and design. For most liquids and applications
a centrifugal pump is the default choice, i.e. the one that is automatically checked first. However,
for many metering applications positive displacement pumps would be the first choice. Poe and
Bonall (1999) give a selection guide for low-flow pumps,where they define low-flow as less than
0.5 m3/min.
Notation: Since pumps and compressors act on the total mass according to the laws of mechanics
and fluid mechanics, mass (kg) or mass flow (kg/s) is the natural choice, not kmoles as for, say,
separation calculations. The letter used in most mechanical engineering literature for power is P,
but that is used also for pressure here, and confusion might result in some cases. The letter W is
used for work, but we want to distinguish clearly between work and work per time (power).
Avoiding too difficult typing is also a factor in the choice. So power is given the letter P here, which
is different enough from P. Volume flow is traditionally called Q, confusion with heat or heat flow is
not likely.
1.1. Impellers
Impellers are sketched in Fig 8.1. Note that the blades are usually curved backwards, as shown
here. Sometimes the fluid leaving the impeller flows into an open volute on its way out of the pump,
in other cases there are fixed diffusor blades to guide the fluid.

Figure 1.1 Centrifugal pump impellers with and without fixed diffusor.

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Figure 1.2 Close-up image of rotor with detail of inlet. (Courtesy GE Oil and Gas)
The two main pump groups are positive displacement pumps (fortrengningspumper) and dynamic
pumps. The first kind displaces a volume of liquid through mechanical movement of some pump
part (typical example: a piston moving). The second kind imparts momentum to the fluid, usually by
means of a rotating impeller (lpehjul) with blades or vanes (skovler). These two main groups are
also used for compressor classification.
Following White (1994) the pumps are further divided as follows:
Positive displacement pumps

Reciprocating
o Piston or plunger
o Diaphragm
Rotary
o Single rotor
- sliding vane

flexible tube or lining

screw

peristaltic

Multiple rotors
- gear
-

lobe

screw

circumferential piston

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Dynamic pumps

Rotary
o Centrifugal (=radial flow)
o Axial flow
o Mixed axial and radial flow
Special
o Jet pump or ejector
o Electromagnetic pumps
o Fluid actuated: Gas lift, hydraulic ram
1.2. Design Equations
The incoming liquid flows to the center of the impeller and gets an increasing velocity and hence
kinetic energy as it passes the impeller. The pressure stays largely constant through the impeller.
After leaving, the fluid velocity falls to normal pipe flow value, and the kinetic energy is converted to
displacement energy (PV work), so the pressure goes up as we want. However, if we take an
energy balance across the pump, the fluid velocity is basically the same in and out in the piping,
and we do not have to include kinetic energy differences. The only terms we need to include are
those shown in Fig 8.2. General equations are derived from the Bernoulli relation for flow with an
incompressible fluid.

1 2
P
u + g * h + + h f + hw = constant
2

(1.1)

Figure 1.3. Energy balance for a pump.

As an equation , we get the following simple expression:
P = H tot,2 - H tot,1

= Q( H2 H1)

(1.2)

Q is the mass flow rate, H is the specific enthalpy, Power is in the units associated with the
enthalpy. The equation would obviously be the same for a compressor as the velocities there too
are about the same in and out.
Usually we know the flow in (amount, composition, T, P). We have specified a pressure out, since
that is our desired quantity, and we want to find the power and the outlet T. Thus, we have one
equation and want to determine both P and T2. So we need more information. This is where pumps
and compressors part way.

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For pumps we can usually assume the liquid is incompressible, and therefore the temperature
does not change much across the pump. The internal energy does not depend much on P when T
is constant, so we get, using total values:
P = U2 + P2V2 U1 P1V1 = VP = QP

(1.3)

With V = Q in m /s (remember, it is always flow rates) and P in kPa the power is given in kW.
The power in eqs (1.2) and (1.3) are for frictionless pumps. So we have to introduce the efficiency,
which is always defined as (ideal power/real power) for pumps. The real power then becomes
Preal = -1 Q P

(1.4)

To use eq (1.4) we need to know the efficiency, which we will find in a diagram supplied by the
manufacturer. (See later)
The power needed by a pump can also be found from looking at the potential energy of the fluid
after the pump, if we consider that the pump is used to lift the liquid. We disregard friction and
pump efficiency. We can then set, where h is the elevation change
P = mgh = Qgh

(1.5)

This height is called head (lftehyde), and plays a key role in pump and compressor literature.
The principle is illustrated in Fig. 1.2:

Figure 1.4. Head produced by a pump

The pressure in the liquid behind the pump caused by this head is given by
P = hg = hg

(1.6)

As seen, we can always express a pressure as a corresponding pressure head and vice versa.
Either way, the engineer needs to be careful with units. With h in m, g in m/s2 and density in kg/m3
the pressure unit becomes N/m2 [=] Pa, i.e. a large number. The AES standard for representing
these equations is more pedantic and enforces the concept of unit conversion.
P = hg/gc = hg/gc

(1.7)

Where gc is implemented to remind the engineer that there exists an implicit unit conversion

In SI units

gc= 1 N s2/(m kg)

While in the AES standard

gc= 32.174 lbf s2/(ft lbm)

For one-dimensional flow in a pipe we can calculate the interchange between pressure and
velocity using the Bernoulli equation (1.1). We now need something similar for the impeller. Since

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we have to describe flow across the rotating impeller, we need to use terms from mechanics that
are appropriate for rotation.

1.3. Rotational flow

If a force F acts on a freely rotating arm with radius r it gives rise to torque and rotation. The torque
(dreiemoment) is given by

d
(mu t )
dt

= Fr =r

(1.8)

where we have used Newtons second law that force is the derivative w.r.t. time of the momentum
(impuls), and ut is the tangential velocity.

Force

Radius

Figure 1.5 Rotor cross section illustrating momentum balance terms (Courtesy GE Oil and
Gas)

Figure 1.6 Force giving rotation

If we have constant angular velocity , as we do here, then ut is constant, and the time derivative
is of the mass, giving us the mass flow rate:
= r ut (Q

(1.9)

However, ut is the tangential velocity of the fluid, not of the impeller. The next task is therefore to
determine the velocities of the fluid. The velocity diagram in Fig. 1.6 shows how the actual velocity
u is made up from the vector combination of the vane velocity uv and the impeller tangential

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velocity uti . If we use index 2 for the outer edge of the impeller, the diagram shows the velocity for
the fluid leaving the impeller.

Figure 1.7. Velocity diagram at the impeller rim

From the diagram we get the fluid tangential velocity utf from the triangles
uft = uti uv cos = r uv cos

(1.10)

since the tangential velocity of the impeller is r. Likewise, the radial velocity ur of the fluid as it
leaves is
ur = uv sin
The flow rate Q of the fluid is the outer area times the radial flow. If we call the outer impeller width
( flow thickness) for b we get
Q = 2r b ur = 2r b uv sin

(1.11)

The power of the impeller is by definition torque * angular velocity. However, the power used on
the liquid is equal to the difference between torque * angular velocity leaving minus torque times
angular velocity entering. This is analogous to a difference in kinetic energy out minus kinetic
energy in. Thus, the theoretical pump power is , from eq, (1.9)
P = Q (ro utf ri utfi)

(1.12)

To find an expression for the head, we get from eq. (1.4)

h = ( ro utfo ri utfi)/ g

(1.13)

Eqs (1.13) and (1.14) are named the Euler turbomachinery equations.
Usually, the velocity of the fluid entering the impeller is much lower than for the fluid leaving it, and
it is a very good approximation to neglect the term for the entering fluid in eq. (1.12) and also then
of course in eq. (1.11) for the power.
Thus, combining eqs. (1.12) and (1.13) and also neglecting the inlet term we get for the head
h =

ro ( ro - uv cos )

(1.14)

Solving for uv from eq. (1.14) then gives

h=

r22 2
Q

g
2bg tg

(1.15)

If we want to introduce n, the number of revolutions per second ( not the usual rpm = rev. per
minute), we have

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= 2r2 n/r2 = 2 n

(1.16)

giving
h=

2 D2n2
g

Qn
g b tg

(1.17)

where D is the impeller diameter. Since from eq. (1.4) P = Qgh, we also get an expression for P
from eqs. (1.15) and 1.11).
Eq. (1.16) tells us that the head h does not depend on the density of the liquid. One consequence
of this is that if a centrifugal pump is started with air in the pipes and the pump, the head of air will
be the same as for the liquid, but the corresponding pressure will be so small that the pump will not
suck liquid. Thus, the pump must be filled with liquid before starting, it must be primed. There
exists so-called self-priming centrifugal pumps, where some liquid is stored in the pump and used
for the priming.
1.4. Affinity relations
The second term in eq. (1.17) is smaller than the first, and to derive the similarity relations it is
common to neglect that term, equivalent to setting = 90 o.
For geometrically similar pumps we have that b is proportional to D. If we assume correctly that the
impeller is filled with liquid, the flow rate Q will be proportional to the liquid in the impeller which is
proportional then to D3 times the rotational speed or to n. The power is proportional to density,
flow rate and head. We then get from eq. (1.17) that

(1.18)
These relations can be used over small ranges to predict changes in pump behavior, say from an
increase in revolutions or a decrease in D.
1.5. Efficiency
The power given above is again the power without friction or losses. The flow losses come from
these sources

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Impeller recirculation of liquid

Friction losses from the liquid flow
Shock losses from a mismatch between the blade angles and the inlet flow direction

The first loss is most pronounced at low flow rates, the second rises monotonically with the flow
rate, and the third is most important at high flow rates. The resulting overall efficiency will thus be
low at low flow rates and at high flow rates, and have a highest value in between somewhere. In
general, large pumps have higher efficiencies than small pumps.
In addition there are mechanical losses in the pump itself from friction in the bearings etc.
Finally, the efficiency of the electric motor must be taken into account separately in deciding how
large a motor is needed, as this efficiency is not given by the pump manufacturers.
1.6. Principle
The equations above for head and power without taking losses into account will give connections
between the variables that are not correct over the full range.
One example is the effect of the blade angle . According to eq (1.17), the head should increase
with Q for >90 o, since tg <0 then. For =90 o head is independent of Q since the second term in
(1,.17) becomes 0, and for <90 o the head should fall with increasing Q. For real pumps, this last
phenomenon occurs at low flow rates, but then the head falls with increasing Q for all values of .
A head curve that first rises and then falls may give unstable operations, and are most often
avoided, and thus the blades are most often curved backwards (<90o). From eq. (1.17) the head
should vary linearly with Q. For real pumps the pump characteristic (h vs Q) is below the straight
line.
To determine the real head and power, tests are run for each pump, usually with water. The result
is then given as diagrams by the manufacturers. In principle, the curves for head, power and
efficiency are as shown in the figure below:

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Figure 1.8.

09.11.2011

Performance curves for a centrifugal esp (electrical submersible pump).

(Courtesy GE Oil and Gas)

The units on the axes must of course be different for power, head and efficiency. The diagram is
given for a fixed rotational speed.
The curve for the efficiency follows the pattern described above. Ideally, the pump should be
operated at the point of maximum efficiency, called Best Efficiency Point (BEP). In a process with
varying conditions this may not be even theoretically possible, but certainly the pump should be in
the vicinity of BEP most of the time, or a different pump should be chosen. Using manufacturers
guidelines should ensure a proper match between pump and operating requirements, at least if the
latter are properly determined in advance.
1.7. Pump selection diagrams
For each pump model the manufacturer usually will deliver a range of impellers (3-5 typically) with
different diameters. For each pump then, a combination of biggest and smallest impeller sizes with
suitable operating range will give an area in the h-Q diagram as shown below

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Figure 1.9. Recommended range for a particular pump.

The manufacturers will produce many different sized (different casing etc) pumps within each
series. To simplify the selection, the range of all the relevant pumps are shown as areas of the kind
given in Fig 1.7, but in one diagram. Note that the maximum efficiency is typically at the knee in
the curves and falls as the operating point deviates from that value.
1.8. Stage Count
The number of individual stages can be adjusted to yield additional head. It may not always be
possible to meet our requirements with one single-stage pump. For larger flow rates, we can
operate pumps in parallel. For higher head, we can in principle operate pumps in series. However,
there are many standard multistage pumps, i.e. more than one impeller on the same shaft, giving
higher head with one pump. This also true for compressors, but there are some physical limitations
which affect compressors.

Figure 1.10 Multistage rotors mounted on drive shaft.

The image in Fig 1.11 describes this variation for an ESP application. (Courtesy GE Oil and Gas)

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Figure 1.11 Multistage performance curve for an ESP pump (Courtesy GE Oil and Gas)
1.9. Performance diagrams
For each pump designation ( one particular choice in the selection diagram ) the manufacturer will
further provide a detailed performance diagram, like the one shown. Curves for equal efficiences
are also shown. The lower diagram gives the power needed for each impeller, flow and efficiency
combination from the upper diagram. Sometimes power will be given by iso-power lines in the
upper diagram instead.

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Figure 1.12 Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve

1.10.

Pump speed

You will note that the pump selection diagram gives the same types of pumps for two different, but
fixed, rotational speeds, while the detailed performance diagram is for just one particular constant
speed. The reason for this is that most pumps are driven by asynchronous three-phase electric
motors, which will have a more or less constant speed depending on their number of poles.
Very large pumps may be driven by steam or gas turbines or by variable speed electric motors. If
high speed is needed it is of course possible to employ a gear.
1.1 Effect of viscosity
The pump diagrams so far are based on low-viscosity liquids, and come from tests with water.
However, increasing the viscosity will decrease the perfomance of a centrifugal pump.

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Figure 1.13 Centrifugal Pump Performance with comparison between process fluid and seawater.
For viscosity ratios above about 300 a positive displacement pump will normally be chosen
instead. The manufacturers will provide more detailed guidance on how to adjust for viscosity.
If we go back to eqs. (1.16) for the head h and (1.18) for the similarity relations, and neglect the
influence of the angle ( equal to setting = 90o), we can write the following proportionalities
keeping the correct units (dimensions)
gh n2 D2

( gh) 3 / 4 n 3 / 2 D 3 / 2

and

Q n D3

n Q1 / 2 n 3 / 2 D 3 / 2

Thus, the following expression is dimensionless

Ns =

n Q1 / 2
(gh) 3 / 4

(1.19)

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and Ns is called the specific speed.

If we plot the pump characteristic (h vs. Q) as one curve in a h-Q diagram, and plot the
downstream pressure drop (expressed as pressure head or just head), we get two curves looking
in principle like those in figure 1.11 below: Which is well understood by both subsea engineers and
turbo-machinery staff. The system curve represents the energy lost due to flow and elevation
changes. The intersection between the two curves is the operating point

Figure 1.16 Pump characteristic curve and system curve.

If we increase the pressure drop, say by closing a valve a bit, Q decreases and h increases as the
system curve shifts upwards.

Figure 1.17 Change in operating point with change in arrival pressure.

The practical consequences are: Not only must we choose a pump that delivers the pressure and
flow rate we need, but we must also check in advance that the system curve (the downstream

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pressure drop) is such that the pump operates where we would like it to operate, and let that
influence our choice of pump.
The pressure in the liquid goes down a bit at the entrance to the impeller, and rises some towards
the rim. Under certain conditions, vapor may form at the lowest pressure, and the vapor bubbles
will collapse again after a short passage. This collapse is very abrupt, and with many bubbles we
get various operating problems, which in increasing order of seriousness are
noise
loss of efficiency
vibration
small bits of the metal is torn away (pitting).
The bubble formation and collapse is called cavitation, and it is clearly something we want to
avoid.
To avoid cavitation pump manufacturers will specify a minimum pressure at the pump inlet. The
specification is given as head, and has been given a strange name which may confuse: Net
positive suction head, NPSH (netto positiv sugehyde).
It is then up to the user of the pump to make sure the actual pressure is at least as great as the
required NPSH. The available pressure as head is then sometimes called available NPSH
(NPSHa) and the requirement is called required NPSH (NPSHr) To check the available NPSH one
has to make an ordinary pressure drop calculation along the suction line, and then subtract the
vapor pressure at the temperature of the inlet conditions. Some sources recommend an addition to
the required NPSH to have a safety margin, and it may be smart to check with the manufacturer
about this too before ordering.
The middle diagram in the pump performance page is NPSH for that particular pump, given only
for the largest and the smallest impeller.
Some pumps made for delivering very high pressure (head) may have such high requirement for
NPSH that a so-called booster pump is needed, to increase the pressure in the feed to the second
pump.
Like other equipment that is used in large numbers, such as tubular heat exchangers, centrifugal
pumps are generally manufactured according to some standard. Using a standard means that
many details of the pump and not least how it is connected to flanges are the same no matter who
the manufacturer is. There is no point in going into details here, it is enough for now to realize that
the standards exist and should be used.

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2. Dry-gas Compressors
There are two main types of dynamic compressors which are used in the subsea industry (with a
third hybrid). These are illustrated below along with the hybrid helicoaxial device.

Figure 2.1 Illustration of centrifugal and axial compressors alongside the helicoaxial hybrid.
Compressor performance is treated similarly to that for pumps, but there is one major exception
coming from the fact that the fluids are compressible. That being that the adiabatic Bernoullis
equation becomes
P

o
1 2
dP
(u o u i2 ) + g (hi ho ) +
+ h f + hw = 0
2

Pi

(2.1)

Which is more difficult to handle because of the fact that the integral path is neither isothermal nor
simple.

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The methodology can be exemplified using ideal gas behaviour. From introductory
thermodynamics, we should remember that we have a relationship which can be used to find the
temperature as we compress the gas:

T
P
C *p ln 2 = R ln 2
T1
P1

P C *p
T2 = T1 2
P1

(2.2)

This and the definition for enthalpy allow us to avoid the volume integral and use the first law
instead:

W = H

T2

*
p

(2.3)

dT

T1
R

C *p

P
*
*
2
W = C p (T2 T1 ) = C p T1 1
P1

(2.4)

Which allows for another simplification given that

=
or

C *p
C

*
v

(2.5)

and C *p = Cv* + R while PV = RT

P2

W=
P1V1 1
1
P1

(2.6)

Which gives a convenient form but is not always relevant because we need a more complicated
relationship to describe the PVT behaviour of the fluid. The equations most commonly used are
cubic-equations-of-state with relationships like

SRK

P=

RT
a

v b v ( v + b)

b = 0.08664 RT c
Pc

PR

P=

RT
a
v-b
v(v + b) + b(v - b)

b = 0.0778 RT c
Pc

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a = 0.42748

09.11.2011

R Tc

Pc

= [1 + m(1 - Tr ) ]2
m = 0.48508 + 1.55171 0.15613 2

a = 0.45724

R Tc
a
Pc

= [1 + m(1 - Tr ) ]2
m = 0.3746 + 1.54226 - 0.26952 2

(2.6)
It is possible to expand these equations for use with compressor sizing and this was indeed the
state of the art for many years until it became quite clear that a combined approach gave a method
that was consistent and also (for the most part) described a system where the efficiency did not
change with in the compressor (the efficiency was roughly independent of stage number). The
method looks very much like the ideal gas law, but considers a weaker constraint on the PV
product.
If the relationship

PV n = constant

(2.7)

Then a relationship like that for the ideal gas law is defined
n 1

P2 n
1 n Z 1 RT1
W = (H 2 H 1 ) =

1
p n 1 mw P1

(2.8)

Where n is derived iteratively by fitting the volumetric behaviour over each stage

2.1 Affinity Terms

These are identical to those for a centrifugal pump
2.2 Efficiency
The major causes for efficiency losses with in a centrifugal compressor are similar to those in a
centrifugal pump

Heat losses

Frictional losses due to high velocity flow in the diffusers

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Leakages

Mechanical losses

PVT model inaccuracies

09.11.2011

GE reports that the diffuser frictional losses become significant when the compression ratio is
large or the number of stages is high. This because the velocities in the final stages become
quite high. (The effect is that the polytropic efficiency is not constant). The figure below
describes why the equation-of-state model is important. In essence, the discrepancy between
the behaviour of the various models results in a difference in polytropic efficiencies. The figure
also illustrates why it is important to consider the use of stage-wise integration. The value for n
may be constant for individual stages, but in this example, not over the whole pressure range.

Figure 2.2 Comparison of Z-factors

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3. Multiphase Pumping
Multiphase boosting poses other design challenges. For liquid-liquid systems, the liquid
boosting model is somewhat correct, but the fact that viscosity effects the pump performance
means that the effect viscosity of emulsion forming systems needs to be considered. This is
very important for systems which are already viscous. The result is that there exists multiple
separate solution sets for liquid rich systems.

Figure 3.1 Illustration of multiphase boosting technologies.

Low Viscosity Liquid

High Viscosity Liquid

Low GVF (<5%)

Centrifugal/Helicoaxial

Centrifugal/TwinScrew

Moderate GVF (5-50%)

Helicoaxial

Helicoaxial

High GVF (50-95%)

Helicoaxial/Twinscrew

TwinScrew

Head requirement also comes into play and currently the twinscrew and centrifugal pumps
have the lead on pressure generation capability. The issue which helicoaxial pumps have with
high viscosity mixtures is that like axial compressors, they generate swirl downstream which
inturn leads to choke-flow in the discharge.
Because of the presence of all three phases, the design models are more complex and revert
to classic second-law analysis. The system cannot be treated with a polytropic efficiency as
the heat capacity of the liquid is high enough to result in nearly isothermal flow which yields an
ill-conditioned equation set. The analysis is instead based on the classic Entropy-Enthalpy
analysis illustrated below for pure steam.

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Figure 3.2 Classical method for calculating duty and discharge conditions
The issue here is that it is now related to the PVT behaviour of a more complex fluid which has
a more complex characterization. The fluids at the inlet of the pump are similar to those in a
reservoir with a gas cap. In this case, they co-exist at the intersection of the two curves but
with the pump path taking the two fluids upwards (and probably to the right for increasing
temperatures). The question is whether the fluids will convert to single phase within the pump
(as with nitrogen-lubrication oil experiments) or whether it will remain two-phase for some
distance downstream of the contact point (as is a concern in gas-injection projects)

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Figure 3.3 Associated Phase PT envelopes

At any rate, the calculation methodology becomes similar to that for a turbo-expander and is
available in most process simulators.
3.1 Efficiency
The major causes for efficiency losses with in a multiphase boosters compressor are similar
to those in a centrifugal pump

Heat losses (at high GVFs where cooling is poor)

Slip (in helico-axial and twin-screw designs)

Mechanical losses: in particular gear windage in twin-screws

PVT model inaccuracies

The mechanisms for slip and internal leakage are similar to those for compressors and
pumps, but because the units have to be designed for both high and low viscosities the
performance curves of multiphase phase devices can vary.

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Figure 3.4 Flow and leakage paths in a twinscrew pump.

According to the models published at Turbolab.tamu.edu, this form of slip is treated as
laminar flow through a micron gap and will break down at high rates. It should be noted that
the models for multiphase flow in twinscrews assume that the liquid phase migrates to the
outside because of cyclonic effects in the rotation. This may not be the case as the main flow
direction is normal to the direction of rotation. Xu treats the slip velocity as being related to
the differential pressure only

u slip = k * (Pstage ) 0.57

(3.1)

Where the stage is the Peak-to-Peak volume. The volumetric flow capacity is otherwise
directly proportional to the stage volume and the frequency.

Figure 3.5 Effect of slip on generated head in a twin screw pump

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Figure 3.6 Slip and Recirculation paths in an axial compressor / helicoaxial pump

Figure 3.7 Comparison of capacity curves for axial and centrifugal compressors.
3.2 Surge and Stall
All of the dynamic compressor types are prone to flow instabilities at both high and low head
operations. As the operating point moves to the left in Figure 2.6, the system becomes very
sensitive to changes in differential head. This is noted in a form of vibration known as surge.

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Axial compressors are prone to blade stall as the blades fail to generate head. Modern
control systems are designed to protect the compressor from both conditions.

Figure 3.8 Surge and Stall Control Lines

Figure 3.9 Typical Compressor Protection Scheme using antisurge recycles.

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3.3 Cavitation and NPSH

Cavitation is a phenomenon associated with boosting and level control and is associated with
the flow rate from the liquid source to the pump and the pressure drop in the piping. Most
literature references describe the limit in terms of the cavitation number:

K=

2 * ( P Pv )
*u 2

(3.2)

This formula should be familiar to those working in erosion (and is in fact the source of the
format for API RP 14E) which is aimed directly at the process illustrated below: designing a
piping solution for a liquid flowing by differential pressure controlled flow and little elevation
change. The classic topsides solution is to use available height to increase the pressure at
the pump inlet by putting the pumps on the so-called cellar deck.

Figure 3.10 Classic level control solution using an export pump.

Figure 3.11 Illustration of effect of loss of NPSH on pump performance

3.4 Erosion and Deposits

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Droplets and sand particles in the fluids can cause erosion damage to the booster. This is an
issue for all types of devices but some are more prone to damage than others.

Twin-screw pumps are prone to wear between the casing and the rotor. This
increases slip and can perforate the casing.

Centrifugal pumps/compressors are prone to erosion in the diffusers. This increases

circumferential slip, threatens the casing and can cause imbalance.

(Helico)Axial pumps/compressors are prone to blade wear. This causes slip,

imbalance and a can lead to blade failures.

Deposits are an issue for all three and are known to cause notable efficiency losses in axial
and centrifugal devices. (Twin Screw devices are somewhat self cleaning). Because
deposits are known to change the stall speed this should also provide a complication on
axial compressor control. The surge speed is expected to change for both dynamic devices.
The problem is illustrated below showing asphaltene deposits on a downhole flow
measurement tool.

Figure 3.12 Asphaltene deposits on a PLT spinner.

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4. Subsea Operational Issues

4.1 Start-up and shut down
A topsides process is designed to provide a high quality product in a safe and robust manner.
This means that the process looks like that illustrated below: These facilities include devices
intended to protect the rotating equipment.
Threat

Device

Mitigation

Sand

Pumps/valves

Separators and strainers

Droplets (Carry-over)

Compressors

Scrubbers and internals

Slugging

Pumps/compressors

Inlet Separator Volume

Deposits

All

Chemical Treatment

Figure 4.1 Atypical topsides process

This complexity means that a compressor or pump is conserved with its native fluid during a shutdown or start-up. This is not necessarily the case for a subsea application the fluids will segregate
in the vertical piping so that the equipment may have to tolerate very different conditions than
those for which they are designed. (Ref API 676)
Device

Normal Condition

Transient Condition

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Liquid filled

Gas-filled
Gas slugs

Compressor

Sand-free

Sand slugs

Discharge flow

Blocked discharge

Gas-filled

Liquid-filled
Liquid slugs
Carry-over

Electric Driver

Sand-free

Fines

Clean dielectric

Gas-contaminated
Sour
Water contaminated
Fines

Bearings

Clean Lubricant or Gas

Sand
Liquids

In-fact API 676 includes an optional requirement for ( potentially destructive). In fact one issue
(driver protection) is not even an issue on the topsides system. This means that a subsea booster
system ends up as being quite complex (despite operator wishes to the contrary)

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of a subsea system.

This is in fact illustrated by the subsea portion of the Ormen Lange test facility. The compressor
station will be tested for tolerance to the conditions described above. The reader will also not the
complexity of the electrical solution caused by the long step-out. A similarly complicated facility is
installed outside the pit to provide facilities to emulate slugging, sand production, etc.

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Figure 4.3 Ormen Lange Test Pit, Items in the green block are new.

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5. References and Relevant Reading

Friedemann J.D and Lvland, J.. Offshore Processing, NTNU, Trondheim Norway, Jan 2006.
Brennen, C. E. Hydrodynamics of Pumps, Oxford University Press, London, UK1994
Hanlon, P.C. ed. Compressor Handbook, McGraw-Hill, NYC, NY 2001
Xu, J. Modeling of Wet Gas Compression in Twin-Screw Multiphase Pump, PhD Thesis, Texas
A&M University, College Station TX 2008.

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6. Selection of Relevant Standards

ANSI B73.1 Specification for horizontal end suction centrifugal pumps for chemical process
ANSI B73.2 Specification for vertical in-line centrifugal pumps for chemical process
API 610 / ISO13709 Centrifugal pumps for petroleum petrochemical and natural gas industries.
API 617/ISO 10439 Axial and centrifugal compressors and expander-compressors for petroleum,
chemical and gas industry services.
API 618/ISO 13707 Reciprocating compressors for petroleum, chemical and gas industry services.
API 685/ISO 13709 Sealless Centrifugal pumps for Petroleum, petrochemical and gas industry
process service.
API 676 Positive Displacement Pumps Rotary
ISO 10440 Petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries Rotary-type positive
displacement compressors Part 1: Process compressors

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