Burning in a kiln formation of cement clinker

Because the raw ingredients are not completely melted, the mix must be agitated to ensure that
the clinker forms with a uniform composition. This is accomplished by using a long cylindrical
kiln that slopes downward and rotates slowly

A variety of fuels can be used, including pulverized coal or coke, natural gas, lignite, and fuel
oil. These fuels create varying types and amounts of ash, which tend to have compositions
similar to some of the aluminosilicate ingredients in the raw mix. Since the ash combines with
the raw mix inside the kiln, this must be taken into account in order to correctly predict the
cement compassion.
There is also an increasing trend to use waste products as part of the fuel, for example old
tires. In the best-case scenario, this saves money on fuel, reduces CO2 emissions, and
provides a safe method of disposal.
a kiln(without a preheater) is typically about 180 m long and 6 m in diameter, has a downward
slope of 3-4%, and rotates at 1-2 revolutions per minute. ------------- orient kiln 78 m long 5 m
diameter speed 3.6 to 5 RPM max

The raw mix enters at the upper end of the kiln and slowly works its way downward to the
hottest area at the bottom over a period of 60-90 minutes, undergoing several different
reactions as the temperature increases. It is important that the mix move slowly enough to
allow each reaction to be completed at the appropriate temperature. Because the initial
reactions are endothermic (energy absorbing), it is difficult to heat the mix up to a higher
temperature until a given reaction is complete.

Dehydration zone (up to ~ 450C): This is simply the evaporation and removal of the free
water. Even in the dry process there is some adsorbed moisture in the raw mix. Although the
temperatures required to do this are not high, this requires significant time and energy. In
the wet process, the dehydration zone would require up to half the length of the kiln, while the
dry process requires a somewhat shorter distance.
Calcination zone (450C 900C): At about 600C the bound water is driven out of the
clays, and by 900C the calcium carbonate is decomposed, releasing carbon dioxide. By

the end of the calcination zone, the mix consists of oxides of the four main elements which are
ready to undergo further reaction into cement minerals. Because calcination does not involve
melting, the mix is still a free-flowing powder at this point.
Solid-state reaction zone (900 - 1300C): solid-state reactions begin to occur. CaO and
reactive silica combine to form small crystals of C2S (dicalcium silicate), one of the four
main cement minerals. In addition, intermediate calcium aluminates and calcium ferrite
compounds form. These play an important role in the clinkering process as fluxing agents,
in that they melt at a relatively low temperature of ~ 1300C, allowing a significant increase in
the rate of reaction. Without these fluxing agents, the formation of the calcium silicate cement
minerals would be slow and difficult. In fact, the formation of fluxing agents is the primary
reason that portland (calcium silicate) cements contain aluminum and iron at all. The final
aluminum- and iron-containing cement minerals (C3A and C4AF) in a portland cement contribute
little to the final properties. As the mix passes through solid-state reaction zone it becomes
sticky due to the tendency for adjacent particles to fuse together.
Clinkering zone (1300C 1550C): This is the hottest zone where the formation of the
most important cement mineral, C3S (alite), occurs. The zone begins as soon as the
intermediate calcium aluminate and ferrite phases melt. The presence of the melt phase
causes the mix to agglomerate into relatively large nodules about the size of marbles consisting
of many small solid particles bound together by a thin layer of liquid (see Figure 3-3). Inside the
liquid phase, C3S forms by reaction between C2S crystals and CaO. Crystals of solid C3S grow
within the liquid, while crystals of belite formed earlier decrease in number but grow in size. The
clinkering process is complete when all of silica is in the C3S and C2S crystals and the amount
of free lime (CaO) is reduced to a minimal level (<1%).
Cooling zone: As the clinker moves past the bottom of the kiln the temperature drops
rapidly and the liquid phase solidifies, forming the other two cement minerals C3A
(aluminate) and C4AF (ferrite). In addition, alkalis (primarily K) and sulfate dissolved in the
liquid combine to form K2SO4 and Na2SO4. The nodules formed in the clinkering zone are now
hard, and the resulting product is called cement clinker. The rate of cooling from the maximum
temperature down to about 1100C is important, with rapid cooling giving a more reactive
cement. This occurs because in this temperature range the C3S can decompose back
into C2S and CaO, among other reasons. It is thus typical to blow air or spray water onto
the clinker to cool it more rapidly as it exits the kiln.
With a precalciner, the particles are nearly completely calcined as they enter the rotary kiln.
Preheaters and precalciners save on fuel and increase the rate at which the mix can be moved
through the rotary kiln.

Grinding and the addition of gypsum

a small amount of calcium sulfate such as gypsum (calcium sulfate dihydrate) is blended into
the cement. The calcium sulfate is added to control the rate of early reaction of the cement.

Cement kiln dust

As the hot kiln gas moves through the kiln, it carries with it the smallest particles of the raw
mix as well as volatilized inorganic substances such as alkalis (sodium and potassium) and
chlorides. As the gas cools, the volatiles condense back round the small particles, and the
resulting powder is called cement kiln dust (CKD)