Exponential Function

Appeared e i arg z in the polar decomposition of z.

Definition
The exponential function e z is the power series given by
P
zn
ez = 1
n=0 n! (z 2 C).

Since the radius of convergence of e z is 1, exponential is

holomorphic everywhere in C. Further,
z 0

(e ) =

1
X
nz n
n=1

n!

1
X
zn 1
=
= ez .
(n 1)!
n=1

Thus e z is a solution of the dierential equation f 0 = f . Moreover,

e z is the only solution of the IVP: f 0 = f , f (0) = 1.

Certainly, e z is not surjective as for no z 2 C, e z = 0. If w 6= 0

then by polar decomposition, w = |w |e i arg w (0 6 arg w < 2).
Also, since |w | = e log |w | , we obtain
w = e log |w |+i arg w .
Thus the range of e z is the punctured complex plane C \ {0}.
Further, since arg z is unique up to a multiple of 2, e z is one-one
in {z 2 C : 0 6 arg z < 2}, but not in C.

Theorem (Polynomials Vs Exponential)

If p is a polynomial then lim |p(z)| = 1. However,

|z|!1

lim |e z | =
6 1.

|z|!1

Parametrized curves
A parametrized curve is a function z : [a, b] ! C. We also say
that is a curve with parametrization z.
A parametrized curve z is smooth if z 0 (t) exists and is
continuous on [a, b], and z 0 (t) 6= 0 for t 2 [a, b].
A parametrized curve z is piecewise smooth if z is continuous
on [a, b] and z is smooth on every [ak , ak+1 ] for some points
a0 = a < a1 < < an = b.
A parametrized curve z is closed if z(a) = z(b).

Example
z(t) = z0 + re it (0 6 t 6 2) (+ve orientation).
z(t) = z0 + re it (0 6 t 6 2) ( ve orientation).
Rectangle with vertices R, R + iz0 , R + iz0 , R with +ve
orientation is a parametrized curve, which is piecewise smooth
but not smooth.

Integration along curves

Definition
Given a smooth curve parametrized by z : [a, b] ! C, and f a
continuous function on , define the integral of f along by
Z

f (z)dz =

f (z(t))z 0 (t)dt.

Remark. If there is another parametrization z(s) = z(t(s)) for

some continuously dierentiable bijection t : [a, b] ! [c, d] then,
Rb
R
0 (t)dt = d f (
f
(z(t))z
z (s))
z 0 (s)ds.
a
c

Definition
In case

is piecewise smooth, the integral of f along

Z
n 1 Z ak+1
X
f (z)dz =
f (z(t))z 0 (t)dt.
k=0 ak

is given by

Examples
Example
Let

be the circle |z| = 1, f (z) = z n for an integer n. Note that

Z

f (z)dz =

n 6=

1:

n=

1:

R
R

it

it 0

f (e )(e ) dt =
0

f (z)dz =
f (z)dz =

R 2
0

R 2
0

d e i(n+1)t
dt n+1 dt

e int ie it dt.

e i(n+1)t
n+1

= 0.
0

idt = 2i.

Theorem (Cauchys Theorem for Polynomials)

Let

be the circle |z

z0 | = R and let p be a polynomial. Then

Z
p(z)dz = 0.

Properties of Integrals over curves

Let

U with parametrization z and f : U ! C be continuous.

R
R
(f (z) + g (z))dz = f (z)dz +
g (z)dz.

If
(with parametrization z (t) = z(b + a
reverse orientation, then
Z
Z
f (z)dz =
f (z)dz.
If length( ) :=

t)) is

|z 0 (t)|dt then
f (z)dz sup |f (z)| length( ).
z2

with