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5 SEMESTER
DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
(I.T & Comp. Science Engg.)
Th
SYLLABUS
B.Tech (CSE/IT, Discrete Mathematical Structures)
Unit I
Logic: Propositional equivalence, predicates and quantifiers, Methods of proofs, proof
strategy, sequences and summation, mathematical induction, recursive definitions and
structural induction, program correctness.
Counting: The basics of counting, the pigeonhole principle, permutations and
combinations, recurrence relations, solving recurrence relations, generating functions,
inclusion-exclusion principle, application of inclusion-exclusion.
Unit II
Relations: Relations and their properties, n-array relations and their applications,
representing relations, closure of relations, equivalence of relations, partial orderings.
Graph theory: Introduction to graphs, graph terminology, representing graphs and graph
isomorphism, connectivity, Euler and Hamilton paths, planar graphs, graph coloring,
introduction to trees, application of trees.
Unit III
Group theory: Groups, subgroups, generators and evaluation of powers, cosets and
Lagrange's theorem, permutation groups and Burnside's theorem, isomorphism,
automorphisms, homomorphism and normal subgroups, rings, integral domains and
fields.
Unit IV
Lattice theory: Lattices and algebras systems, principles of duality, basic properties of
algebraic systems defined by lattices, distributive and complimented lattices, Boolean
lattices and Boolean algebras, uniqueness of finite Boolean expressions, prepositional
calculus. Coding theory: Coding of binary information and error detection, decoding and
error correction.
Text Books:
1) K.H. Rosen: Discrete Mathematics and its application, 5th edition, Tata McGraw
Hill.Chapter 1(1.1-1.5), Chapter 3(3.1-3.4,3.6), Chapter 4(4.1-4.3,4.5), Chapter
6(6.1,6.2,6.4-6.6) Chapter 7(7.1-7.6), Chapter 8(8.1-8.5,8.7,8.8)
2. C. L. Liu: Elements of Discrete Mathematics, 2 nd edition, TMH 2000.
Chapter 11(11.1 11.10 except 11.7), Chapter 12(12.1 12.8)
3.B.Kalman: Discrete Mathematical Structure, 3 rd edition, Chapter 11(11.1,11.2)
References:
Disclaimer
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a
substitute of prescribed text books. The information presented here is
merely a collection by the committee members for their respective
teaching assignments. Various sources as mentioned references at the
beginning of the document as well as freely available materials from the
internet were constituted for preparing this document. The ownership of
the information lies with respective authors or institutions. Further this
document is not intended to be used for commercial purposes and the
committee members are not accountable for any issues, legal or otherwise,
arising out of this document. The committee members make no
representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of the document and disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. The
committee members shall not be liable for any loss or profit or any other
commercial, incidental, consequential or any other damages.
Acknowledgement
The committee members gratefully acknowledge Google, NPTEL and different
reference books for getting help for preparation of this lecture note. The committee
members also want to express their gratitude to the persons those who thinks
knowledge should be free and be accessible and sharable without any restrictions so
that every individual on this world has the same opportunity to explore and become
enlightened by the collective gift of mankind.
This lecture note being first draft so there may be some error. Also detail proofs
and some graphs are omitted; however details discussion has been made in the class.
Thus apart from this lecture note students/readers are strongly recommended following
the mentioned books in the references and above all conferring with the faculty
members for thorough knowledge in the subject.
Consider an analog clock (One with hands that continuously rotate and show time in continuous
fashion) and a digital clock (It shows time in discrete fashion). The former one gives the idea of
Continuous Mathematics whereas the later one gives the idea of Discrete Mathematics. Thus,
Continuous Mathematics deals with continuous functions, differential and integral calculus etc.
whereas discrete mathematics deals with mathematical topics in the sense that it analyzes data
whose values are separated (such as integers: Number line has gaps)
Example of continuous math Given a fixed surface area, what are the dimensions of a cylinder
that maximizes volume?
Example of Discrete Math Given a fixed set of characters, and a length, how many different
passwords can you construct? How many edges in graph with n vertices? How many ways to
choose a team of two people from a group of n?
This course provides some of the mathematical foundations and skills that you need in your
further study of Information Technology and Computer Science & Engineering. These topics
include: Logic, Counting Methods, Relation and Function, Recurrence Relation and Generating
Function, Introduction to Graph Theory And Group Theory, Lattice Theory and Boolean Algebra
etc.
.
Unit I
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC AND COUNTING THEORY
OBJECTIVES:
INTRODUCTION :
Mathematics is assumed to be an exact science. Every statement in Mathematics
must be precise. Also there cant be Mathematics without proofs and each proof needs
proper reasoning.
mathematical statements. These rules are used to distinguish between valid & invalid
mathematical arguments.
The area of logic that deals with propositions is called the propositional calculus or
propositional logic. The mathematical approach to logic was first discussed by British
mathematician George Boole; hence the mathematical logic is also called as Boolean
logic.
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
ix)
(x)
5<4
The square of 5 is 15.
x 3 2
May God Bless you!
All of them are propositions except (iv), (v),(ix) & (x) sentences ( i), (ii) are true,
whereas (iii),(iv), (vii) & (viii) are false.
Sentence (iv) is command, hence not a proposition. ( v ) is a question so not a
statement. ( ix) is a declarative sentence but not a statement, since it is true or
false depending on the value of x. (x) is a exclamatory sentence and so it is not
a statement.
Mathematical identities are considered to be statements. Statements whi ch are
imperative, ex cl am at or y, i n t e r r o g a t i v e or open are not statements in logic.
Compound statements:
Many propositions are composites that are, composed of sub propositions and
various connectives discussed subsequently. Such composite propositions are
called compound propositions.
A proposition is said to be primitive if it cannot be broken down into simpler
propositions, that is, if it is not composite.
Example 2 : Consider, for example following sentences.
a. The sun is shining today and it is colder than
yesterday
b. Sita is intelligent and she studies every night.
Also the propositions in Example 1 are primitive propositions.
LOGICALOPERATIONS OR LOGICAL CONNECTIVES :
The phrases or words which combine simple statements are called logical
connectives. There are five types of connectives. Namely, not, and, or,
ifthen, iff etc. The first one is a unitary operator whereas the other four are
binary operators.
In the following table we list some possible connectives, their symbols &
the nature of the compound statement formed by them.
Sr. No.
Connective
Symbol
AND
OR
Disjunction
NOT
If....then
Conditional or
implication
Compound statement
Conjunction
Negation
Biconditional
PQ
Example 3:
PQ
Example 4:
P: Paris is in France
Q 23 6
then P Q : Paris is in France or 2 + 3 = 6.
Here, P Q is true since P is true & Q is False.
Thus, the disjunction P Q is false only when P and Q are both false.
Negation (NOT)
If P is true then P is false and if P is false then P is true. The truth table for
Negation is as follows:
P
Example 5:
PQ
If P then Q
P implies Q
P only if Q
Q if P
P is sufficient condition for Q
Q when P
Q is necessary for P
Q follows from P
if P, Q
Q unless P
PQ
We
can
construct
compound
propositions
using
the
We will
The
Precedence
LOGICAL EQUIVALANCE:
Compound propositions that have the same truth values in all possible
cases are called logically equivalent.
Definition: The compound propositions P and Q are said to be logically
equivalent if P Q is a tautology. The notation P Q denotes that P and Q
are logically equivalent.
Some equivalence statements are useful for deducing other equivalence statements.
The following table shows some important equivalence.
Logical Identities or Laws of Logic:
Name
1. Identity Laws
Equivalence
PT P
PF P
2. Domination Laws
PT T
PF F
3. Double Negation
P P
4. Idempotent Laws
PP P
PP P
5. Commutative Laws
PQ QP
PQ QP
6. Associative Laws
P Q R P Q R
P Q R P Q R
7. Distributive Laws
P Q R P Q P R
P Q R P Q P R
8. De Morgans Laws
P Q PQ
P Q PQ
9. Absorption Laws
P P Q P
P P Q P
P P T
P Q P Q Q P
P Q P Q
P Q P Q P Q
P P F
P Q QP
Sr. No.
1
2
3
4
P Q P Q
P Q P r P Q r
P r Q r P Q r
P Q P r P Q r
P r Q r P Q r
P Q P Q Q P
7
8
9
10
P Q P Q
11
12
P Q P Q
13
P Q P Q
P Q P Q P Q
is a
PQ
QP
Tautology:
A tautology or universally true formula is a well formed formula, whose truth
value is T for all possible assignments of truth values to the propositional
variables.
Example 10 : Consider P P , the truth table is as follows.
P
P P
Contradiction or fallacy:
A contradiction or (absurdity) is a well formed formula whose truth value is
false (F) for all possible assignments of truth values to the propositional
variables.
Thus, in short a compound statement that is always false is a contradiction.
Example 11 : Consider the truth table for P P .
P
P P
PQ
P Q
P Q
67
We can observe that the truth values of p q and p q agree for all possible
combinations of the truth values of p and q.
p
F
F
T
T
q
T
F
T
F
p q
T
F
T
T
pq
T
F
T
T
P Q P Q
P Q P Q
P Q P Q
P P Q Q
Solution:
i) The truth table for p q p q
pq
pq
p q p q
pq
P q
36
p q p q
is a
p q
pq
p q p q
p q
pq
p q p q
v)
p q
p p q
p p q q
together with subjects. It is denoted by the expression P(x) which has the
property that P(a) is true or false for each a A .
The set A is called domain of P(x) and the set Tp of all elements of A for which P (a)
is true is called the truth set of P(x).
Propositional functions can be converted to proposition by two aspects
(i) By assigning exact value to the variable and (ii) using quantification.
e.g. Let A = {x / x is an integer < 8}
Here P(x) is the sentence x is an integer less than 8.
The common property is an integer less than 8.
P(1) is the statement 1 is an integer less than 8.
P(1) is true.
Quantifiers:
1) The sentence P(x) : - (-x) = x is a predicate that makes sense for real
numbers x. The universal quantification of P(x),
x P(x) is a true
2)
x p( x )= v x p(x)
and v x p(x)= x p(x)
which
are t e m p l a t e s
for c o n s t r u c t i n g
valid
arguments. Rules of inference are our basic tools for establishing the truth of
statements. The rules of inference for statements involving existential and
universal quantifiers play an important role in proofs in Computer Science and
Mathematics, although they are often used without being explicitly mentioned.
Valid Argument:
An argument in propositional logic is a sequence of propositions. All propositions
in the argument are called hypothesis or Premises.The final proposition is called
the conclusion. An argument form in propositional logic is a sequence of
compound propositions - involving propositional variables.
An argument form is valid if no matter which particular propositions are
substituted for the propositional variables in its premises, the conclusion is true if
the premises are all true.
Thus we say the conclusion C can be drawn from a given set of premises or the
argument is valid if the conjunction of all the premises implies the conclusion is
a tautology.
Rules of Inference for Propositional logic
We can always use a truth table to show that an argument form is valid. Arguments
b a s e d o n t a u t o l o g i e s r e p r e s e n t u n i v e r s a l l y c o r r e c t method
o f r e a s o n i n g . Their validity depends only on the form of statements
involved and not on the truth values of the variables they contain such
arguments are called rules of inference.
These rules of inference can be used as building blocks to construct more
complicated valid argument forms
e.g.
Let
Where
is the symbol that denotes therefore we know that when P & Q are proposition
variables, the statement ((P Q) P) Q is a tautology
.
So, this is valid argument and hence is a rule of inference, called modus ponens or the
law of detachment.
(Modus ponens is Latin for mode that affirms)
The most important rules of inference for propositional logic are as follows..
Example16:
2.
3.
If every crow has 4 legs then every Buffalo is white and brisk.
4.
5.
Solution :
Let
PQ
(ii)
QR
(iii)
R ST
(iv)
PQ
premise (1)
2.
QR
Premise (2)
3.
PR
4.
R ST
Premise (iii)
5.
P ST
6.
Premise (iv)
7.
ST
8.
Line 7, simplification
Example17 :
Consider the following argument and determine whether it is valid or not. Either I will
get good marks or I will not graduate. If I did not graduate I will go to USA. I get
good marks. Thus, I would not go to USA.
Solution :
Let
P : I will get good marks.
Q : I will graduate.
R : I will go to USA
The given premises are
i)
PVQ
ii)
QR
iii)
P
The conclusion is R.
That is suppose we wish to show that P(n) is true for all integers n n0.
(b)
is true and the consequent is false; this step is usually done by showing that if
P(K) were true, then P(K + 1) would also have to be true. This step is called
induction step.
In short we solve by following steps.
1.
2.
3.
(i)
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n (n + 1) / 2
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Solution (i)
Let the statement P (n) be
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n (n + 1) / 2
STEP 1: We first show that p (1) is true.
Left Side = 1
Right Side = 1 (1 + 1) / 2 = 1
Both sides of the statement are equal hence p (1) is true.
STEP 2: We now assume that p (k) is true
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k = k (k + 1) / 2
and show that p (k + 1) is true by adding k + 1 to both sides of the above
statement
1 + 2 + 3 + ... + k + (k + 1) = k (k + 1) / 2 + (k + 1)
= (k + 1)(k / 2 + 1)
= (k + 1)(k + 2) / 2
Solution (iii)
Statement P (n) is defined by
1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + n 3 = n 2 (n + 1) 2 / 4
STEP 1: We first show that p (1) is true.
Left Side = 1 3 = 1
Right Side = 1 2 (1 + 1) 2 / 4 = 1
hence p (1) is true.
STEP 2: We now assume that p (k) is true
1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + k 3 = k 2 (k + 1) 2 / 4
add (k + 1) 3 to both sides
1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + k 3 + (k + 1) 3 = k 2 (k + 1) 2 / 4 + (k + 1) 3
factor (k + 1) 2 on the right side
= (k + 1) 2 [ k 2 / 4 + (k + 1) ]
set to common denominator and group
= (k + 1) 2 [ k 2 + 4 k + 4 ] / 4
= (k + 1) 2 [ (k + 2) 2 ] / 4
We have started from the statement P(k) and have shown that
1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + k 3 + (k + 1) 3 = (k + 1) 2 [ (k + 2) 2 ] / 4
Which is the statement P(k + 1).
Hence , by method of induction P(n) is true for all n.
Solution (iv)
Statement P (n) is defined by
n 3 + 2 n is divisible by 3
STEP 1: We first show that p (1) is true. Let n = 1 and calculate n 3 + 2n
1 3 + 2(1) = 3
3 is divisible by 3
hence p (1) is true.
STEP 2: We now assume that p (k) is true
k 3 + 2 k is divisible by 3
is equivalent to
k 3 + 2 k = 3 M , where M is a positive integer.
We now consider the algebraic expression (k + 1) 3 + 2 (k + 1); expand it and group like
terms
(k + 1) 3 + 2 (k + 1) = k 3 + 3 k 2 + 5 k + 3
= [ k 3 + 2 k] + [3 k 2 + 3 k + 3]
= 3 M + 3 [ k2 + k + 1 ] = 3 [ M + k2 + k + 1 ]
Hence (k + 1) 3 + 2 (k + 1) is also divisible by 3 and therefore statement P(k + 1) is true.
k! > 2 k
COUNTING:
The two main counting rules: The Multiplication Rule states that if one can do a
job by doing two tasks one after the other, and there are m ways to do the first task and
then n ways to do the second, then there are mn ways to do the whole job.
For Example, suppose there are 3 routes from Burla to Sambalpur and 4 routes from
Sambalpur to Cuttack, then by FPC the total number of ways for performing journey
from Burla to Cuttack is 12.
The Addition Rule, states that if one can do a job by doing one or the other (but not
both) of two tasks, and there are m ways to do then first task and n ways to do the
second, then there are m+n ways to do the whole job.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS:
(i)
Factorial Rule: For n items, there are n! (pronounced n factorial) ways to arrange them.
6! = (6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) = 720
Note: 0!=1
Example 2:
Lets say you have four friends, but only need to text three of them when order matters.
Find the number of ways to text your friends.
Solution:
P(4,3) =
4!
24
=
= 24
(4 - 3)! 1!
There are 24 ways to test three out of your four friends if order matters.
Combination Formula:
The permutation of n things taken r at a time is:
The art club has 4 members. They want to choose a group of three to compete in a
regional competition. How many ways can three members be chosen?
Solution:
There are 4 ways to chose 3 people for the competition when order is not important
The general rule states when there are k pigeonholes and there are k+1 pigeons, then
they will be 1 pigeonhole with at least 2 pigeons. A more advanced version of the
principle will be the following: If mn + 1 pigeons are placed in n pigeonholes, then there
will be at least one pigeonhole with m + 1 or more pigeons in it.
For Example, 13 people are involved in a survey to determine the month of
their birthday. As we all know, there are 12 months in a year, thus, even if the first 12
people have their birthday from the month of January to the month of December, the
13th person has to have his birthday in any of the month of January to December as well.
Thus, by PHP we are right to say that there are at least 2 people who have their birthday
falling in the same month.
In fact, we can view the problem as there are 12 pigeonholes (months of the
year) with 13 pigeons (the 13 persons). Of course, by the Pigeonhole Principle, there
will be at least one pigeonhole with 2 or more pigeons.
PRINCIPLE OF INCLUSION-EXCLUSION:
Example :
In a room of 50 people whose dresses have either red or white color, 30 are wearing red dress,
16 are wearing a combination of red and white. How many are wearing dresses that have only
white color?
Solution
W) = 16
The total number of people in the room = number of people who are wearing dresses
that have either red or white colour = n (R
W) = 50.
We know,
n (R
W)
50 = 30 + n(W) - 16
50 - 14 = n(W) - 16
n(W) = 36
i.e., the number of people who are wearing a white dress = 36.
Therefore, number of people who are wearing white dress only = n(W) - n(R
W) =
36 - 16 = 20
Example :
How many members of {1, 2, 3, .., 105} have nontrivial factors in common
with 105?
Solution
105 = 3 . 5. 7, so a number shares factors with 105 if and only if it is divisible by 3, 5,
or 7.
Let A, B, and C be the members of {1, 2, 3, .., 105} divisible by 3, 5, and 7
respectively.
Clearly |A| = 35, |B| = 21, and |C| = 15. Furthermore, A B consists of those numbers
divisible by both and 5, i.e., divisible by 15. Likewise, A C and B C contain
multiples of 21 and 35
respectively, so |A B| = 7, |A C| = 5, and |B C|= 3. Finally, A B C consists
only of the number 105, so it has 1 member total. Thus,
|A U B U C| = 35 + 21 + 15 - 7 - 5 - 3 + 1 = 57
Example:
At Sunnydale High School there are 28 students in algebra class,30 students in biology
class, and 8 students in both classes. How many students are in either algebra or biology
class?
Solution:
Let A denote the set of students in algebra class and B denote the set of students in
biology class. To find the number of students in either class, we first add up the students
in each class:
|A| + |B|
However, this counts the students in both classes twice. Thus we have to subtract them
once:|A B|
This shows
|AUB|=|A| + |B|-|A B|
|AUB|=28 + 30 - 8 = 50
so there are 50 students in at least one of the two classes.
Example:
At Sunnydale High School there are 55 students in either algebra, biology, or chemistry
class 28 students in algebra class, 30 students in biology class, 24 students in chemistry
class, 8 students in both algebra and biology, 16 students in both biology and chemistry,
5 students in both algebra and chemistry. How many students are in all three classes?
Solution:
Let A, B, C denote the set of students in algebra, biology, and chemistry class,
Respectively. Then A U BU C is the set of students in one of the three classes, AB is
the set of students in both algebra and biology, and so forth. To count the number of
Students in all three classes, i.e. count | A U BU C |, we can first add all the number of
students in all three classes:
|A| + |B|+|C|
However, now we've counted the students in two classes too many times. So we subtract
out the students who are in each pair of classes:
-|A B|-|A C|-|B C|
For students who are in two classes, we've counted them twice, then subtracted them
once, so they're counted once. But for students in all three classes, we counted them 3
times, then subtracted them 3 times. Thus we need to add them again:|ABC|
Thus
| A U BU C |=|A| + |B|+|C| -|A B|-|A C|-|B C|+|ABC|
55 = 28 + 30 + 24 - 8 - 16 - 5 + |ABC|
Thus |ABC| = 2, i.e. there are 2 students in all three classes.
RECURRENCE RELATION:
can be
Example : Towers of Hanoi is a popular puzzle. There are three pegs mounted
on a board, together with disks of different sizes. Initially, these discs are placed
on the first peg in order of different sizes, with the largest disc at the bottom and
the smallest at the top. The task is to move the discs from the first peg to the
third peg using the middle peg as auxiliary. The rules of the puzzle are:
Only one disc can be moved at a time.
No disc can be placed on the top of a smaller disc.
This is a popular puzzle and we shall discuss its solution, using the one of the
techniques discussed in this chapter.
With these illustrations, we define recurrence relation now.
Definition:
recurrence
relation
for
the
sequence
{an}
is
an
Hn = 1
if n = 1.
Hn = 2Hn1 + 1
otherwise.
Example: Find recurrence relation and initial condition for the number of bit
strings of length n that do not have two consecutive 0s.
Solution: Let an denote the number of bit strings of length n that do not
Now, in this section we shall discuss a few methods of solving recurrence relation
and hence solve the relations that we have formulated in the previous section.
Backtracking Method:
This is the most intuitive way of solving a recurrence relation. In this method,
we substitute for every term in the sequence in the form of previous term (i.e. an
in the form of an1, an1 in the form of an2 and so on) till we reach the initial
condition and then substitute for the initial condition.
To
understand
this
better, we shall solve the recurrence relations that we have come across earlier.
Example: Solve the recurrence relation an = 1.06an1, with a0 = 0.5.
Solution: Given recurrence relation is an = 1.06an1, with a0 = 0.5. From this
equation, we have an = 1.06an1 = 1.061.06 an2 = 1.061.061.06
an3 Proceeding this way, we have an = (1.06)na0. But, we know that a0 =
0.5.Thus, explicit solution to the given recurrence relation is an =
n
0.5(1.06) for n 0.
recurrence
relation.
However,
not all
the
with constant
Example :
Example: The recurrence relation a n an-1 not linear (due to ansquare term), whereas the relation Hn = 2Hn1 + 1 is not homogeneous
(due to constant 1).
nk
(ii)
Roots are equal, say s. Then it can be shown that an solution to the
GENERATING FUNCTION:
Let a0 , a1 ,...an be a sequence, and then the corresponding generating function is given
by:
A(x) = a0 x 0 a1 x1 ... an x n
For Example, if 1, 1, 1,. be a sequence then the corresponding generating function is
given by:
A(x) = 1 x x 2 .... 1 /(1 x)
From a given sequence we can find the corresponding generating function and vice
versa.
Unit II
INTRODUCTION TO RELATIONS AND
GRAPH THEORY
OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit, you will be able to know:
Definition of Relation.
Representation of Relations
Types of Relations
Equivalence of relations
Closure of relations.
Introduction to graphs
Graph terminology
Graph isomorphism
Connectivity
Planar graphs
Graph colouring
Introduction to trees
INTRODUCTION :
Relationships between elements of sets occur in many
contexts. We deal with many relationships such as students name
and roll no., teacher and her specialization, a person and a relative
(brother sister, mother child etc.). In this section, we will discuss
mathematical approach to the relation. These have wide applications in
Computer science (e.g. relational algebra)
RELATIONS:
Relationship between elements of sets is represented using a mathematical structure
called relation. The most intuitive way to describe the relationship is to represent
in the form of ordered pair. In this section, we study the basic terminology
and diagrammatic representation of relation.
Definition :
REPRESENTATION OF RELATIONS:
Matrices and graphs are two very good tools to represent various
algebraic structures. Matrices can be easily used to represent relation in
any
programming
language
in
computer.
Here we
x y
1 1
0 0
2 1
0 0
3 0 1 1
4 0 0 0
Fig. 1
discuss
the
Thus, if a R b, then we enter 1 in the cell (a, b) and 0 otherwise. Same relation can
be represented pictorially as well, as follows:
1
2
3
4
y
z
Fig 2
Thus, two ovals represent sets A and B respectively and we draw an arrow from
a A to b B, if a R b.
If the relation is from a finite set to itself, there is another way of pictorial representation,
known as diagraph.
For example, let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R be a relation from A to itself, defined
as follows:
R = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 3)} Then, the diagraph of R is
drawn as follows:
4
Fig 3
The directed graphs are very important data structures that have
applications in Computer Science (in the area of networking).
Definition : Let A, B and C be three sets. Let R be a relation from A to B and S
be a relation from B to C. Then, composite relation RS, is a
relation from A to C, defined by, a(RS)c, if there is some b B, such
that a R b and b S c.
Example 6: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {a, b, c, d},C = {x, y, z } and let R = {(1, a), (2, d),
(3, a), (3, b), (3, d)} and S = {(b, x), (b, z), (c, y), (d, z)}.
1
2
3
4
a
b
c
d
x
y
z
Fig.4
Thus, from the definition of composite relation and also from Fig 4, RS
will be given as below.
RS = {(2, z), (3, x), (3, z)}.
There is another way of finding composite relation, which is using
matrices.
Example7: Consider
as follows.
1 0
0 0
MR
1 1
0 1
0 1
0 0 0
1 0 1
MS
0 1 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 1
Consider the product of matrices MR and MS as follows: Observe that the non-zero entries
in the product tell us which elements are related in RS. Hence, MRMS and MRS have
same non-zero entries.
TYPES OF RELATIONS:
In this section, we discuss a number of important types of relations defined from a set
A to itself.
Definition : Let R be a relation from a set A to itself. R is said to be reflexive, if for
every a A, a R a (a is related to itself).
Example 8: Let A = {a, b, c, d} and R be defined as follows: R = {(a, a), (a, c), (b, a), (b, b),
(c, c), (d, c), (d, d)}. R is a reflexive relation.
Example 9: Let A be a set of positive integers and R be a relation on it defined as,
a R b if a divides b. Then, R is a reflexive relation, as a
divides to itself for every positive integer a.
Note : If we draw a diagraph of a reflexive relation, then all the vertices will have a
loop.
Also
if we represent
Example 15: Let A = {a, b, c, d} and R be defined as: R = {(a, b), (b, a), (a, c), (c, d),
(d, b)}. R is not symmetric, as a R c but c R a . R is not anti-symmetric, because
a R b and b R c , but a b.
.Example 16: The relation less than or equal to (), is an anti- symmetric
relation.
Example 17: Relation is less than ( < ), defined on the set of all real numbers, is an
asymmetric relation.
Definition : Let R be a relation defined from a set A to itself. R is said to transitive, if for
a, b, c A, a R b and b R c, then a R c.
Example 18: Let A = {a, b, c, d} and R be defined as follows: R = {(a,b), (a, c), (b, d),
(a, d), (b, c), (d, c)}. Here R is transitive relation on A.
Example 19: Relation a divides b, on the set of integers, is a transitive relation.
Definition : Let R be a relation defined from a set A to itself. If R is reflexive, symmetric
and transitive, then R is called as equivalence relation.
Example 20: Consider the set L of lines in the Euclidean plane. Two lines in the plane
are said to be related, if they are parallel to each other. This relation is an
equivalence relation.
Example 21: Let m be a fixed positive integer. Two integers, a, b are said to be
congruent modulo m, written as: a b (mod m), if m divides a b. The
congruence relation is an equivalence relation.
Example 22 : Let A2,3,4,5 and let R 2,3 , 3,3 , 4,5 , 5,1 . Is R symmetric,
asymmetric or antisymmetric
Solution :
a)
I)
Solution :
1)
R is reflexive because a a 02,a A
2)
3)
4)
5)
5R44R5
R is not antisymmetric because 1R2 & 2R1 1R21 2 2 &
2R1 2 12 . But 12
6)
II)
Solution :
As per above example we can prove that R is not reflexive, R is
irreflexive, symmetric, not asymmetric, not antisymmetric & not transitive
III)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
R is antisymmetric because 2R2,2R222
6)
R is transitive.
IV)
Let AZ ,aRb iff GCD (a, b) = 1 we can say that a and b are
relatively prime.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
V)
A = Z a R b iff ab1
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Example 25: Consider the partition defined in Example 23. Then the equivalence
relation as defined from the partition is:
R={(1, 1),(1, 2),(2, 1),(2, 2),(3, 3),(3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5), (4, 4)}.
Now, we shall define equivalence classes of R on a set A.
Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A and let a, b A, then a R b if and
only if R(a) = R(b), where R(a) is defined as: R(a) = {x A: a R x}. R(a) is
called as relative set of a.
Example26: If we consider an example in 25, we observe that, R(1) = R(2), R(3) = R(5).
Because R (1) = {1,2}, R (2) = {1,2}, R (3) = {3,5}, R(5) = {3,5}.
Earlier, we have seen that, a partition defines an equivalence relation. Now,
we shall see that, an equivalence relation defines a partition.
Theorem: Let R be an equivalence relation on A and let P be the collection of all distinct
relative sets R(a) for a A. Then P is a partition of A and R is equivalence
relation of this partition.
Note: If R is an equivalence relation on A, then sets R(a) are called as equivalence
classes of R.
Example 27: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3,4), (4, 3), (3, 3),
(4, 4)}. We observe that R(1) = R(2) and R(3) = R(4) and hence P = { {1, 2}, {3,
4} }.
Example 28: Let A = Z (set of integers) and define R as
R = {(a, b) A A: a b (mod 5)}. Then, we have,
R(1) = {......,14, 9, 4, 1, 6, 11, ..... }
R(2) = {......,13, 8, 3, 2, 7, 12, ..... }
R(3) = {......,12, 7, 2, 3, 8, 13, ..... }
R(4) = {......,11, 6, 1, 4, 9, 14, ..... }
R(5) = {......,10, 5, 0, 5, 10, 15, ..... }.
R(1), R(2), R(3), R(4) and R(5) form partition on Z with respect to given
equivalence relation.
0
0
0
0
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1
diagraphs of the partial order relations, to represent the relations in a very suitable way
where there no arrowhead and transitivity shown indirectly known as Hasse diagram.
We understand the Hasse diagram, using following example.
Example 1: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and the following diagram represents the diagraph of
the partial order relation on A.
a
Fig.1
Now, we shall draw Hasse diagram from the above diagrams using following rules.
(i) Drop the reflexive loops
c
a
Fig. 2
a
Fig. 3
(iii)Drop arrows
c
a
Fig.4
Note : In many cases, when the graphical representation is so oriented that all the arrow
heads point in one direction (upward, downward, left to right or right to left). A
graphical representation in which all the arrowheads point upwards, is known as
Hasse diagram.
Note : The reader is advised to verify that this relation is indeed a partial order relation.
Further, arrive at the following Hasse diagram from the diagraph of a relation as
per the rules defined earlier.
6
4
Fig.5
Example 5 : Determine the Hasse diagram of the relation on A = {1,2,3,4,5}
whose MR is given below :
10111
01111
M R 0011
0
00001
Solution :
Reflexivity is represented
by 1 at diagonal
place.
So after removing
1, 3 3, 4 R
remove 1, 4 R
2, 3 3, 5 R remove 2, 5R
R1, 3 , 2, 3 , 3, 4 , 3, 5
and so on.
1
Example 6 :
1
Solution :
Here A = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
Write all ordered pairs (a, a) a A i.e. relation is reflexive.
Then write all ordered pairs in upward direction. As (1, 2) R & (2,4) R1, 4 R since
R is transitive.
R1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,1,2,2,4,2,4,1,4 ,1,3,3,5,1,5
MR
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
Consider a given set A and let R be a relation on A. Let P be a property of such relations,
such as being reflexive or symmetric or transitive. A relation with property P will be called
a P-relation. The P-closure of an arbitrary relation R on A, written P (R), is a P-relation such
that
R P (R) S
for every P-relation S containing R. We will write
reexive (R), symmetric(R), and transitive(R)
for the reexive, symmetric, and transitive closures of R.
Generally speaking, P (R) need not exist. However, there is a general situation where P (R)
will always exist. Suppose P is a property such that there is at least one P-relation containing
R and that the intersection of any P-relations is again a P-relation. Then one can prove that
P (R) = (S | S is a P -relation and R S)
Thus one can obtain P (R) from the top-down, that is, as the intersection of relations. However,
one usually wants to nd P (R) from the bottom-up, that is, by adjoining elements to R to obtain
P (R). This we do below.
Reexive and Symmetric Closures
The next theorem tells us how to obtain easily the reexive and symmetric closures of a
relation. Here
A = {(a, a) | a A} is the diagonal or equality relation on A.
Theorem: Let R be a relation on a set A. Then:
(i) R A is the reexive closure of R.
(ii) R R1 is the symmetric closure of R.
In other words, reexive(R) is obtained by simply adding to R those elements (a, a) in the
diagonal which do not already belong to R, and symmetric(R) is obtained by adding to R all pairs
(b, a) whenever (a, b) belongs to R.
EXAMPLE 10
set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}.
Consider the relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 3), (4, 3)} on the
Then
reexive(R) = R {(2, 2), (4, 4)} and symmetric(R) = R {(4, 2), (3, 4)}
Transitive Closure
2
n
Let R be a relation on a set A. Recall that R = RR and R = R n1 R. We dene
The following theorem applies:
Theorem : R is the transitive closure of R.
R = R R . . . R
transitive (R) = R R . . . R
EXAMPLE 11
Consider the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3)} on A = {1, 2, 3}.
Then:
2
R = R R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)} and R = R R = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3)}
Accordingly,
transitive (R) = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 3), (1, 3)}
MAXIMAL, MINIMAL
h
g
f
i
b
c
f
g
a
d
a
Fig. 6
e
Fig. 7
Graph Theory
Graphs with Basic Terminology
The fundamental concept of graph theory is the graph, which (despite the name) is best
thought of as a mathematical object rather than a diagram, even though graphs have a
very natural graphical representation. A graph usually denoted G(V,E) or G = (V,E)
consists of set of vertices V together with a set of edges E. Vertices are also known as
nodes, points and (in social networks) as actors, agents or players. Edges are also
known as lines and (in social networks) as ties or links. An edge e = (u,v) is defined by
the unordered pair of vertices that serve as its end points. Two vertices u and v are
adjacent if there exists an edge (u,v) that connects them. An edge e = (u,u) that links a
vertex to itself is known as a self-loop or reflexive tie. The number of vertices in a graph
is usually denoted n while the number of edges is usually denoted m.
As an example, the graph depicted in Figure 1 has vertex set V={a,b,c,d,e.f} and edge
set E = {(a,b),(b,c),(c,d),(c,e),(d,e),(e,f)}.
Figure 1.
When used to represent social networks, we typically use each line to represent
instances of the same social relation, so that if (a,b) indicates a friendship between the
person located at node a and the person located at node b, then (d,e) indicates a
friendship between d and e. Thus, each distinct social relation that is empirically
measured on the same group of people is represented by separate graphs, which are
likely to have different structures (after all, who talks to whom is not the same as who
dislikes whom).
Every graph has associated with it an adjacency matrix, which is a binary nn matrix A
in which aij = 1 and aji = 1 if vertex vi is adjacent to vertex vj, and aij = 0 and aji = 0
otherwise. The natural graphical representation of an adjacency matrix is a table, such as
shown in Figure 2.
a b c d e f
a 0 1 0 0 0 0
B 1 0 1 0 0 0
c 0 1 0 1 1 0
D 0 0 1 0 1 0
e 0 0 1 1 0 1
f 0 0 0 0 1 0
Examining either Figure 1 or Figure 2, we can see that not every vertex is adjacent to
every other. A graph in which all vertices are adjacent to all others is said to be
complete. The extent to which a graph is complete is indicated by its density, which is
defined as the number of edges divided by the number possible. If self-loops are
excluded, then the number possible is n(n-1)/2. If self-loops are allowed, then the
number possible is n(n+1)/2. Hence the density of the graph in Figure 1 is 6/15 = 0.40.
A clique is a maximal complete subgraph. A subgraph of a graph G is a graph whose
points and lines are contained in G. A complete subgraph of G is a section of G that is
complete (i.e., has density = 1). A maximal complete subgraph is a subgraph of G that is
complete and is maximal in the sense that no other node of G could be added to the
subgraph without losing the completeness property. In Figure 1, the nodes {c,d,e}
together with the lines connecting them form a clique. Cliques have been seen as a way
to represent what social scientists have called primary groups.
hile not every vertex in the graph in Figure 1 is adjacent, one can construct a sequence
of adjacent vertices from any vertex to any other. Graphs with this property are called
connected. Similarly, any pair of vertices in which one vertex can reach the other via a
sequence of adjacent vertices is called reachable. If we determine reachability for every
pair of vertices, we can construct a reachability matrix R such as depicted in Figure 3.
The matrix R can be thought of as the result of applying transitive closure to the
adjacency matrix A.
c
g
Figure 3.
is called a geodesic. Of course, all geodesics are paths. Geodesics are not necessarily
unique. From vertex a to vertex f in Figure 1, there are two geodesics: a,b,c,d,e,f and
a,b,c,g,e,f.
The graph-theoretic distance (usually shortened to just distance) between two vertices is
defined as the length of a geodesic that connects them. If we compute the distance between
every pair of vertices, we can construct a distance matrix D such as depicted in Figure 4. The
maximum distance in a graph defines the graphs diameter. As shown in Figure 4, the diameter
of the graph in Figure 1 is 4. If the graph is not connected, then there exist pairs of vertices
that are not mutually reachable so that the distance between them is not defined and the
diameter of such a graph is also not defined.
a B c d e f G
a 0 1 2 3 3 4 3
b 1 0 1 2 2 3 2
c
2 1 0 1 1 2 1
d 3 2 1 0 1 2 2
e 3 2 1 1 0 1 1
f
4 3 2 2 1 0 2
g 3 2 1 2 1 2 0
The powers of a graphs adjacency matrix, Ap, give the number of walks of length p
between all pairs of nodes. For example, A2, obtained by multiplying the matrix by
itself, has entries aij2 that give the number of walks of length 2 that join node vi to node
vj. Hence, the geodesic distance matrix D has entries dij = p, where p is the smallest p
such that aijp > 0. (However, there exist much faster algorithms for computing the
distance matrix.)
The eccentricity e(v) of a point v in a connected graph G(V,E) is max d(u,v), for all u V.
In other words, a points eccentricity is equal to the distance from itself to the point
farthest away. The eccentricity of node b in Figure 3 is 3. The minimum eccentricity of
all points in a graph is called the radius r(G) of the graph, while the maximum
eccentricity is the diameter of the graph. In Figure 3, the radius is 2 and the diameter is
4. A vertex that is least distant from all other vertices (in the sense that its eccentricity
equals the radius of the graph) is a member of the center of the graph and is called a
central point. Every tree has a center consisting of either one point or two adjacent
points.
Directed Graphs
As noted at the outset, the edges contained in graphs are unordered pairs of nodes (i.e.,
(u,v) is the same thing as (v,u)). As such, graphs are useful for encoding directionless
relationships such as the social relation sibling of or the physical relation is near.
However, many relations that we would like to model are not directionless. For
example, is the boss of is usually anti-symmetric in the sense that if u is the boss of v,
it is unlikely that v is the boss of u. Other relations, such as gives advice to are simply
non-symmetric in the sense that if u gives advice to v, v may or may not give advice to
u.
To model non-symmetric relations we use directed graphs, also known as digraphs. A
digraph D(V,E) consists of a set of nodes V and a set of ordered pairs of nodes E called
arcs or directed lines. The arc (u,v) points from u to v.
Figure 5a
b
c
e
f
Figure 5b
Digraphs are usually represented visually like graphs, except that arrowheads are placed
on lines to indicate direction (see Figure 5). When both arcs (u,v) and (v,u) are present in
a digraph, they may be represented by a double-headed arrow (as in Figure 5a), or two
separate arrows (as shown in Figure 5b).
In a digraph, a walk is a sequence of nodes vo,v1,vn in which each pair of nodes vi,
vi+1 is linked by an arc (vi,vi+1). In other words, it is a traversal of the graph in which
the flow of movement follows the direction of the arcs, like a car moving from place to
place via one-way streets. A path in a digraph is a walk in which all points are distinct.
A semiwalk is a sequence of nodes vo,v1,vn in which each pair of nodes vi, vi+1 is
linked by either the arc (vi,vi+1) or the arc (vi+1,vi). In other words, in a semiwalk, the
traversal need not respect the direction of arcs, like a car that freely goes the wrong way
on one-way streets.
semicycle.
Another way to think of semiwalks is as walks on the underlying graph, where the
underlying graph is the graph G(V,E) that is formed from the digraph D(V,E) such that
(u,v) E if and only if (u,v) E or (v,u) E. Thus, the underlying graph of a digraph
is basically the graph formed by ignoring directionality.
A digraph is strongly connected if there exists a path (not a semipath) from every point
to every other. Note that the path from u to v need not involve the same intermediaries
as the path from v to u. A digraph is unilaterally connected if for every pair of points
there is a path from one to the other (but not necessarily the other way around). A
digraph is weakly connected if every pair of points is mutually reachable via a semipath
(i.e., if the underlying graph is connected).
A strong component of a digraph is a maximal strongly connected subgraph. In other
words, it is a subgraph that is strongly connected and which is as large as possible (there
is no node outside the subgraph that is strongly connected to all the nodes in the
subgraph). A weak component is a maximal weakly connected subgraph.
The number of arcs originating from a node v (i.e., outgoing arcs) is called the outdegree
of v, denoted od(v). The number of arcs pointing to a node v (i.e., incoming arcs) is
called the indegree of v, denoted id(v). In a graph representing friendship feelings
chordless cycle : A simple cycle [v0 , v1, v2 ,... vl , v0 ] is chordless if vi vjE for
i and j differing by more than 1 mod l+1.
Theorem : In a (directed or undirected) graph with n vertices, if there is a path from
vertex v1 to vertex v2, then there is a path of no more than n-1 edges from v1 to
vertex v2.
bipartite graph : An undirected graph G=(V,E) is bipartite if its vertices can be
partitioned into two disjoint stable sets V=S1+S2.
complete bipartite graph : A bipartite graph G=(S1,S2,E) is complete if for every xS1
and yS2 we have xyE, i.e., every possible edge that could exist does exist.
Eulerian Paths and Circuits
L. Euler, the father of the graph theorysolved the Knigsbergs bridge problem,
1736
Eulerian path problem : a path that traverses each edge in the graph once and only
once.
Theorem: An undirected graph possess an Eulerian path if and only if it is
connected and has either zero or two vertices of odd degree.
Proof. () Suppose that the graph possess an Eulerian path. It must be connected.
When the eulerian path is traced, we observe that every time the path meets a
vertex, it goes through two edges which are incident with the vertex and have
not been traced before.
Thus, except for the two vertices at the ends of the path, the degree of any
vertex in the graph must be even.
() omitted.
Theorem: An undirected graph possess an Eulerian circuit if and only if it is
connected and has no vertices of odd degree.
Theorem : An directed graph possess an Eulerian circuit if and only if it is
connected and the incoming degree of every vertex is equal to its outgoing degree.
An directed graph possess an eulerian path if and only if it is connected and the
incoming degree of every vertex is equal to its outgoing degree with the possible
exception of two vertices. For these two vertices, the incoming degree of one is one
larger than its outgoing degree, and the incoming degree of the other is one less than
its outgoing degree.
Hamiltonian path : A path that passes through each of the vertices in a graph exactly
once.
No simple necessary and sufficient condition is known for graph to have a
Hamiltonian path or circuit.
Theorem : Let G be a linear graph of n vertices. If the sum of the degrees for each
pair of vertices in G is n - 1 or larger, then there exists a hamiltonian path in G.
Proof. (1) G is connected:
Suppose G has two or more disconnected components. Let v1 be a vertex in
one component that has n1 vertices and v2 be a vertex in another component
that has n2 vertices.
Since the degree of v1 is at most n1 - 1 and the degree of v2 is at most n2 -1,
the sum of their degrees is at most n1 + n2 - 2 < n - 1, contradicts to the
assumption.
If vp is adjacent to one of v i 1 ,v i 1 ,
1
2
the cycle.
If vp is not adjacent to any one of v i 1 ,v i 1 ,
1
2
...,v i k 1 , then
Application of Eulers formula : In any connected planar graph that has no loops
and has two or more edges,e 3v -6.
Theorem (Kuratowski): A graph is planar if and only if it does not contain any
subgraph that is isometric to o either K5 or K3,3.
There are two algorithms namely Kruskals and Prim algorithms to find the MST.
Unit III
GROUP THEORY
OBJECTIVES:
After going through this unit, you will be able to know:
Binary Operation
Permutation groups
INTRODUCTION:
In this chapter, we will study, binary operation as a function, and two more algebraic
structures, semigroups and groups. They are called an algebraic structure because the
operations on the set define a structure on the elements of that set. We also define
the notion of a hornomorphism and product and quotients of groups and semigroup.
BINARY OPERATION
A binary operation on a set A is an everywhere defined function f : A A A , generally
the operation is denoted by * on A, then a b A a, b A.
Properties of binary operation : Let
be a binary operation on a set A,
Then satisfies the following
properties, namely
Closure property
Associative property
Identity Property
Inverse property
SEMIGROUP
A non-empty set S together with a binary operation is called as a semigroup if
i)
binary operation is closed
ii)
binary operation is associative
we denote the semigroup by (S, )
Commutative Semigroup :- A semigroup (S, ) is said to be
commutative if is commutative i.e. a b b aa S
Examples :
1)
2)
3)
IDENTITY ELEMENT :
An element e of a semigroup (S, ) is called an identity element if e a a e a a S
Monoid A non-empty set M together with a binary operation *defined on
it, is called as a monoid if
i)
binary operation is closed
ii)
binary operation is associative and
iii)
(M, ) has an identity.
i.e. A semi group that has an identity is a monoid.
A a non-empty set G together with a binary operation defined on it is
called a group if
(i)
binary operation is close,
(ii)
binary operation is associative,
(iii) (G, ) has an identity,
(iv)
every element in G has inverse in G,
We denote the group by (G, )
G a
operation
of
multiplication.
Note
that G i .
Because
12345
For example
denotes the permutation on the 5 symbols
53124
(1,2,3,4,5). maps 1 to 5, 2 to 3, 3 to 1, 4 to 2 and 5 to 4.
Product of permutation : - Let A = {1,2,3,4}
1234
1234
Let
and
.
3241
432
1234 56
2341 65
i)
Transposition :
A cycle of length two is called transposition.
For example following permutation can be expressed as a product
of transpositions.
1837 25 46
18 13 17 25 46
Even (odd) Permutation Let A {1, 2, .n). A permutation sn is even or odd according
to whether it can be expressed as the product of an even number of
transpositions or the product of an odd number of transpositions
respectively.
For example we can consider following permutation :
145 23
14 15 23
= odd no. of transpositions so is odd permutation
Example 1 : Show that defined as x y x is a binary operation on the
set of positive integers. Show that is not commutative but is associative.
Solution : Consider two positive integers x and y. By definition x y x
which is a positive integer. Hence is a binary operation.
For commutativity : x y x and y x x . Hence x y y x in general
is not commutative.
But
x ( y z) x y x
and
x ( y z) ( x y) z . is associative
( x y) z x z x .
Hence
a)
b)
c)
Solution :
a)
Example 3 : Determine whether the following set together with the binary
operation is a semigroup, a monoid or neither. If it is a monoid, specify the
identity. If it is a semigroup or a monoid determine whether it is
commutative.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
ab
2
vi)
Set of real numbers with a b a b 2
vii)
The set of all mn matrices under the operation
of addition.
Solution :
i) A = set of all positive integers. a b max{a, b} i.e. bigger of a and b.
Closure Property: Since Max {a, b} is either a or b a b A . Hence
closure property is verified.
Associative Property :
Since a (b c) max{{a, b}, c} max {a, b, c}
= Max{a,{b, c} } = (a.b).c
is associative.
(A, ) is a semigroup.
Existence of identity : 1 A is the identity because
1.a = Max{ 1,a}= a
aA
(A, ) is a monoid.
Commutative property : Since Max{a, b) = max{b, a) we have
a b b a Hence is commutative.
Therefore A is commutative monoid.
ii)
1 2 3 6 12
1
2
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
1
2
1 1 3 3
1 2 3 6
12 1 2 3 6 12
Closure Property : Since all the elements of the table S, closure
property is satisfied.
Associative Property :Since
a (b c) a (b c) a GCD{b, c} GCD {a, b, c}
1
2
1
2
2
2
3
6
6
6
18
18
18
9 18
18 18
9
18
18 18
9
18
18 18 18 18 18 18 18
Closure Property : Since all the elements of the table S, closure
property is satisfied.
Associative Property : Since a (b c) a LCM {b, c} LCM {a, b, c}
And (a b) c LCM {a, b} c LCM {a, b, c}
a (b c) (a b) c
is associative.
(S, ) is a semigroup.
(S, ) is a monoid.
Commutative property : Since LCM{a, b} = LCM{b, a} we have
a b b a . Hence is commutative.
a*b *c abab *c
ababc a b ab c
ab abc acbc abc
ab c ab ac bc abc
a* b * c a* b c bc
a b c bc a b c bc
a b c bc ab ac abc
(2)From 1 & 2
a*b * c a* b * c a,b,c z
* is associative
(z, &) is a semigroup.
Existence of Identity : Let e be the identity element a * e = q
a + e - q.e = a
a + e - a.e = a
e ( 1-a) = 0
e = 0 or a = 1
But a1
E=0
OZ is the identity element.
(Z, *) is monoid.
Commutative property : a,bz
a * b = a + b - ab
= b + a - ba
=b*a
* is commutative
(Z, *) is commutative monoid.
OZ is the identity
(1)
v)
ab
2
abc ab
Property : Since a (b c) q bc
c (a b) c
2
4
2
is associative.
(E, ) is a semigroup.
2a
= a a E
2
(E, ) is a monoid.
Commutative property : Since
ab ba
, we have a b b a Hence is
2
2
commutative.
(E,*) is commutative monoid.
(vi)
(vii)
-2A is identity
0 0
0 0 M is the identity
(a b) b 1 (c b) b 1
a (b b 1 ) c (b b 1 )
Associative property
e a ec
b b 1 e G
a=c
eG is the identity
(ii)
To prove the left cancellation law i.e. a b c b a c
Let a, b, cG: Since G is a group, every element has inverse in G.
a1 G
Consider
a b a c
Multiply both sides by a1 from the left
a 1 (a b) a 1 (a c)
(a 1 a) b (a 1 a) c
Associative property
eb ec
a 1 a e G
b=c
eG is the identity
(ii)
(iii)
(ab) 1 = b1a1
(ii)
inverse of a G is unique.
(iii)
a(bb1)a1
aa1 e = a
eaa1 = e
Associative property
Let G be a group.
Given a2 = e for all aG. Multiply by a1
we get a1a2 = a1 e
a = a1
i.e. every element is its own inverse
Example 7 : Show that if every element in a group is its own inverse, then the group must
be abelian.
OR
Let G be a group with identity e. Show that if a2 = e for all a in G, then G
is abelian.
Solution :
Let G be a group.
Consider (ab) 1
G is abelian.
Example 8 :Let Zn denote the set of integers (0, 1, .. , n-1). Let be binary operation
on Zn such that ab = the remainder of ab divided by n.
i)
Construct the table for the operation for n=4.
ii)
Show that (Zn, ) is a semi-group for any n.
iii)
Is (Zn, ) a group for any n? Justify your answer.
Solution : (i) Table for the operation for n = 4.
0 1 2 3
(ii)
0
1
0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3
0 2 0 2
0 3 2 1
(Zn, ) is a semi-group
(iii) (Zn, ) is not a group for any n.
Example 9 : Consider the group G = {1,2,3,4,5,6} under multiplication
modulo 7.
(i)
Find the multiplication table of G
(ii)
Find 21, 31, 61.
(iii) Find the order of the subgroups generated by 2 and 3.
(iv)
Is G cyclic?
Solution : (i) Multiplication table of G
Binary operation is multiplication modulo 7.
* 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4
4 4 1 5 2 6 3
5 5 3 1 6 4 2
6 6 5 4 3 2 1
From the table we observe that 1G is identity.
(ii)
iii)
(iv)
xy1 H
H is a subgroup.
Example 16 : Let G be a group and let H = (x/xG and xy = yx for all
yG}. Prove that H is a subgroup of G.
Solution : Let x, z H xy = yx for every yG x = yxy1.
Similarly zy = yz for every yG
z = yzy1.
Now consider xz1
=
(yxy1)(yzy1) 1
yxy 1yz 1y 1yxz 1y 1
(x.z1)y = y(xz1) H.
xz1 H
H is a subgroup
0 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 0
2 3 4 0 1
3 4 0 1 2
4 0 1 2 3
Solution:
a)
Let H= set of all even integers.
We know, additive inverse of an even number is even and sum of
two even integers is also even. Thus for a,bH we have ab1H.
Hence H is a subgroup of G.
b)
Solution :
(i)
Let a, a H
(ii)
(iii)
i.e. e H
Let e, a H
a a1 H.
ea1 H.
i.e. a1 H
Let a, b H. b1 H.
a(b1) 1 H. i.e. ab H.
HK is a subgroup of G.
called
(iii)
a ae
b f (a) f (a e) f (a) f (e) b ' f (e) (f is isomorphism)
Similarly, since a e a ,
Solution :
Step-1 : Assume G is abelian. Prove that f : G G defined by f(a) = a2 is
a homomorphism.
Let a,bG.
f(a) = a2 , f(b) = b2 and f(ab) = (ab)2 by definition of f.
f(ab)=(ab)2
=
(ab)(ab).
=
a(ba)b
associativity
=
a(ab)b
G is abelian
=
(aa)(bb)
associativity
=
a 2 b2
=
f(a)f(b)
definition of f
f is a homomorphism.
Step 2 :
ya 2 GaGst
f(a)ya 2
f is onto.
Step-3 : Assume, f : G G defined by f(a) = a2 s a homomorphism.
Prove that G is abelian.
2
Let a,bG.
f(a) = a , f(b) = b2 and f(ab) = (ab)2 by definition of f.
f(ab) = f(a)f(b)
2
(ab) = a2 b2
(ab)(ab) = (aa)(bb)
a(ba)b = a(ab)b
ba = ab
G is abelian.
f is homomorphism
definition of f
associativity
left and right cancellation taws
f a : G G defined by
f a ( x) axa 1 for xG is an
isomorphism.
Solution :
Step-1: Show that f is 1-1.
f a ( x) axa
axa1 = aya1
x=y
f is 1- 1
for x, y G
definition of f
left and right cancellation laws
Step 2 :
yaxa 1GxGs.t.
fa (x)axa 1
f is onto.
Step-3 : Show that f is homomorphism.
For x, yG
f ( x) a x a 1 ,
f ( y) a y a 1 and f ( x y) a ( x y) a 1
Consider f ( x y) a ( x y) a 1
f ( x y) a ( x e y) a 1
for
x, yG
eG is identity
= a ( x a 1 a y) a 1
a 1 a e
= (a x a 1 ) (a y a 1) associativity
f ( x y) f ( x) f ( y)
f is homomorphism.
Since f is 1-1 and homomorphism, it is isomorphism.
Example 2 : Let G be a group. Show that the function f : G G defined
by f(a) = a1 is an isomorphism if and only if G is abelian.
Solution :
Step-1: Assume G is abelian. Prove that f : G G defined by f(a) = a1 is
an isomorphism.
i)
ii)
Let f(a)=f(b)
a1 = b1
a = b
f is 1- l.
aGa G
x1 G
f x x 1
f is onto.
iii)
Let a,bG.
f(a) = a1, f(b) = b1 and f(ab) = (ab)
definition of f.
f(ab) = (ab) 1
= b1a1
reversal law of inverse
= a1b1
G is abelian
= f(a)f(b)
definition of f.
f is a homomorphism.
Since f is 1-1 and homomorphism, it is isomorphism.
by
1
1 1
(ab) = a b
definition of f
1 1
1 1
b a =a b
reversal law of inverse
G is abelian.
Example 3 : Define (Z, +) (5Z, +) as f(x) = 5x, where 5Z=(5n : n
Z). Verify that f is an isomorphism.
Solution:
Step -1
Consider
Step 2 :
5xG,x G
s.t.f(x)5x
f is onto.
Step-3: Show that f is homomorphism.
For x y G
f(x) = 5x, d(y) = 5y and f(x + y)
5(x+y)
Consider f(x+y) = 5(x+y)
for x, y G
= 5x + 5y
f is homomorphism.
Since f is 1-1 and homomorphism, it is isomorphism.
Example 4 : Let G be a group of real numbers under addition, and let G
be the group of positive numbers under multiplication. Let f : G G be
defined by f(x) = ex. Show that f is an isomorphism from G to G
OR
Show that the group G = (R,+) is isomorphic to G = (R+, x) where R is
the set of real numbers and R+ is a set of positive real numbers.
Solution :
Step 1:Show that f is 1-1.
Consider f(x) = f(y)
ex = ey
x=y
for x,yG
definition of f
f is 1-1.
f(ai) = f(aj)
ai = aj
x=y
for x, y G
definition of f
f is 1-1.
3)
F is homorphism
F (x + y) = 2 (x + y)
= 2x + 2y
= f(x) + f(y)
f is honomorphism.
Example 7 : For the set A = {a,b,c} give all the permutations of A. Show
that the set of all permutations of A is a group under the composition
operation.
Solution : A={a,b,c}.
a b c
f0
,
a b c
a b c
f3
,
b a c
c b a
a c b
a b c
a b c
f4
f5
,
b c a
c a b`
f3
f4
f 2 f3
f 4 f5
f4
f5
f2
f3
f3
f1
f1
f2
f4
f3 f 4
f 4 f3
f0 f 4
f5 f0
f1
f2
f5
f0
f5
f5 f 2
f3
f1
f0
f4
f0
f 0 f1
f1
f1 f0
f 2 f3
f2
f3
f5
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Hah* a | h H
is called the right coset of H in G determined by the element aG. The
element a is called the representative element of the right coset Ha.
Theorem : Let (H, ) be a subgroup of (G, ). The set of left cosets of H
in G form a partition of G. Every element of G belongs to one and only one
left coset of H in G.
Lagrange Theorem: The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides
the order of the group.
Corollary : If (G, ) is a finite group of order n, then for any aG, we
must have an=e, where e is the identity of the group.
Normal Subgroup : A subgroup (H, ) of (G, ) is called a normal
subgroup if for any aG, aH = Ha.
Example 8 : Determine all the proper subgroups of symmetric group (S3,
o). Which of these subgroups are normal?
Solution : S = {1, 2, 3}. S3 = Set of all permutations of S.
S3 = {f0, f1, f2, f3, f4, f5 } where
1 2 3
f0
,
1 2 3
1 2 3
f1
,
1 3 2
1 2 3
f3
3 2 1
1 2 3
f3
,
2 1 3
1 2 3
f4
,
2 3 1
1 2 3
f5
3 2 1
f3
f4
f5
f0
f0
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f1
f1
f0
f4
f5
f2
f3
f2
f2
f3
f0
f4
f3
f1
f3
f3
f4
f5
f0
f1
f2
f4
f4
f3
f1
f2
f5
f0
f5
f5
f2
f3
f1
f0
f4
From the table it is clear that {f0, f1}, {f0, f2,}, {f0, f3) and {f0, f4, f5} are
subgroups of (S3, 0): The left cosets of {f0, f1} are {f0, f1}, {f2, f5}, {f3, f4}.
While the right cosets of {f0, f1} are {f0, f1}, {f2, f4}, {f3, f5}. Hence {f0,
f1} is not a normal subgroup.
Similarly we can show that {f0, f2} and {f0, f1} are not normal subgroups.
On the other hand, the left and right cosets of {f0, f4, f5} are {f0, f4, f5} and
{f1, f2, f3}.
Hence {f0, f4, f5} is a nomal subgroup.
Example 9 : Let S = {1, 2, 3}. Let G = S3 be the group of all
permutations of elements of S, under the operation of composition of
permutations.
1 2 3
Let H be the subgroup formed by the two permutations
and
1 2 3
1 2 3
3 2 1 . Find the left coset of H in G. Is H a normal subgroup? Explain
1 2 3
f1
,
1 3 2
1 2 3
f3
3 2 1
1 2 3
f3
,
2 1 3
H={f0, f2}
1 2 3
f4
,
2 3 1
1 2 3
f5
3 2 1
Left Cosets of H in G :
f0H = {f0f0, f0f2} = {f0, f2}
f2H = {f2f0, f2f2} = {f2, f0}
f4H = {f4f0, f4f2} = {f4, f1}
Right Cosets of H in G
Hf0 = {f0f0, f2f0} = {f0, f2}
Hf1 = {f0f1, f2f1}={f1, f3}
Since f1 H Hf1 , H is not a normal subgroup of G.
Example 10 : Define a normal sub-group. Let S3 = Group of all
permutations of 3 elements (say 1, 2, 3). For the following subgroups of S,
find all the left cosets . Subgroup of A = {1,(1,2)}
Where I = identity permutation, (1, 2) is a transposition. Is A a normal
subgroup. State a normal subgroup of the above group if it exists.
Solution :
H = {f0, f3}
The left cosets of H in G are as follow.
f0H = {f0, f3}
f1H = {f1, f5}
f3H = {f3, f0}
f4H = {f4, f2}
Consider a right coset
Hf1 = {f1, f4}
Since f1H Hf1, H is not a normal subgroup of G.
Unit IV
LATTICE THEORY, BOOLEAN ALGEBRA AND
CODING THEORY
OBJECTIVES:
Coding theory
LATTICES
BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Definition:
A poset is a lattice if every pair of elements has a lub (join) and a glb (meet).
properties hold.
a b ^ a c => a b + c
a b ^ a c => a b*c
b a ^ c a => b*c a
b a ^ c a => b + c a
Theorem:
Let (L, ) be a lattice, For any a, b, c L, the
following inequalities hold.
a +(b*c) (a + b)*(a + c)
(a*b )+ (a*c) a*(b + c)
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA: A complemented distributive lattice is called a Boolean Algebra.
Theorem:
Let (A, *, +) be an Boolean algebra which satisfies the
Definitions
Algebraic system :A lattice is an algebraic system (L, *, +) with two binary operations
* and + on L which are both (1) commutative and (2) associative and (3) satisfy the
absorption law.
Sublattice : Let (L, *, +) be a lattice and let S be a subset of L. The algebra (S, *, +) is a
sublattice of (L, *, +) iff S is closed under both operations * and +.
Lattice homomorphism: Let (L, *, +) and (S, ^,V) be two lattice. A mapping g:LS is
called a lattice homomorphism from the lattice (L, *, +) to (S, ^ , V) if for any a, b L,
g(a*b) = g(a) ^ g(b) and g(a + b) = g(a) V g(b).
Order-preserving : Let (P, ) and (Q, ) be two partially ordered sets, A mapping
f: P Q is said to be order-preserving relative to the ordering in P and ' in Q iff for
any a, b P such that a b, f(a) ' f(b) in Q.
Complete Lattice: A lattice is called complete if each of its nonempty subsets has a
least upper bound and a greatest lower bound.
Greatest and Least elements
Let ( A, )> be a poset and B be a subset of A.
1. An element a B is a greatest element of B iff for every element a' B, a' a.
2. An element a B is a least element of B iff for every element a' B, a a '.
Least upper bound (lub)
Let ( A, ) be a poset and B be a subset of A.
1. An element a A is an upper bound for B iff for every element a' B, a' a.
2. An element a A is a least upper bound (lub) for B iff a is an upper bound for B and
for every upper bound a' for B, a a'.
EXAMPLE:
Construct the Hasse diagram of (P({a, b, c}), ).
The elements of P({a, b, c}) are
In the above Hasse diagram, is a minimal element and {a, b, c} is a maximal element.
In the poset above {a, b, c} is the greatest element. is the least element.
In the poset above, {a, b, c}, is an upper bound for all other subsets. is a lower bound
for all other subsets.
{a, b, c}, {a, b} {a, c} and {a} are upper bounds and {a} is related to all of them, {a}
must be the lub. It is also the glb.
EXAMPLE:
In the poset (P(S), ), lub(A, B) = A B. What is the glb(A, B)?
Solution:
Consider the elements 1 and 3.
Upper bounds of 1 are 1, 2, 4 and 5.
Upper bounds of 3 are 3, 2, 4 and 5.
2, 4 and 5 are upper bounds for the pair 1 and 3.
There is no lub since
- 2 is not related to 4
- 4 is not related to 2
- 2 and 4 are both related to 5.
There is no glb either.
The poset is n o t a lattice.
EXAMPLE:
Determine whether the posets represented by each of the following Hasse diagrams have
a greatest element an a least element.
rete Mathematics
Solution
The least element of the poset with Hasse diagram (a) is a. This poset has no greatest
element.
The poset with Hasse diagram (b) has neither a least nor a greatest element.
The poset with Hasse diagram (c) has no least element. Its greatest element is d.
The poset with Hasse diagram (d) has least element a and greatest element d.
EXAMPLE:
Find the lower and upper bounds of the subsets {a, b, c}, {j, h}, and {a, c, d, f } and find
the greatest lower bound and the least upper bound of {b, d, g}, if they exist.
Solution
The upper bounds of {a, b, c} are e, f, j, h, and its only lower bound is a.
There are no upper bounds of {j, h}, and its lower bounds are a, b, c, d, e, f .
The upper bounds of {a, c, d, f } are f, h, j, and its lower bound is a.
The upper bounds of {b, d, g} are g and h. Since g _ h, g is the least upper bound.
The lower bounds of {b, d, g} are a and b. Since a _ b, b is the greatest lower bound.
EXAMPLE:
Determine whether the posets represented by each of the following Hasse diagrams are
lattices.
Solution
The posets represented by the Hasse diagrams in (a) and (c) are both lattices because in
each poset every pair of elements has both a least upper bound and a greatest lower
bound.
On the other hand, the poset with the Hasse diagram shown in (b) is
not a lattice, since the elements b and c have no least upper bound. To see this note that
each of the elements d, e and f is an upper bound, but none of these three elements
precedes the other two with respect to the ordering of this poset.
EXAMPLE:
Bm BBB (m factors) is
group
under
the
operation
defined
x1,x 2 ....xm y1,y 2 ym x1y1,x 2 y 2,....xm ym
observe that B m has 2m elements. i.e. order of group Bm is 2m.
a
Important Terminology :
Let us choose an integer
e:Bm Bn .
1)
by
Encoding Function :
The function e is called an (m, n) encoding function. It means
that every word in Bm as a word in Bn.
2)
Code word :
If bBm then e(b) is called the code word
3)
Weight :
For xBn the number of 1s in x is called the weight of x and is
denoted by x .
e.g.
i) x10011B5 w x 3
ii) x001B 3 w x
4)
e.g. if x,yB 5
x00101,y10110
xy10011
w(xy)3
5)
Hamming Distance :
Let x,yBm . The Hamming Distance x, y between x and y is
Minimum distance :
Let x,yBn. then minimum distance = min
d x, y /x, yB .
n
Detection of errors :
Let e : Bm Bn mn is an encoding function then if minimum
distane of e is ( k + 1) then it can detect k or fewer errors.
8)
Correction of errors :
Let e : Bm Bn mn is an encoding function then if minimum
distance of e is (2k + 1) then it can correct k or fewer errors.
Weight of a code word : It is the number of 1s present in the given code
word.
Hamming distance between two code words : Let x x1x2 ...xm and
y y1 y2 ... ym be two code words. The Hamming distance between
them, x, y , is the number of occurrences such that xi yi for i 1,m .
Example 1 : Define Hamming distance. Find the Hamming distance
between the codes.
(a) x 010000, y 000101
(b) x 001100, y 010110
Solution : Hamming distance :
(a) x, y x y 010000 000101 010101 3
(b) x, y x y 001100 010110 011010 3
defined by
(b) y 1011
(b) d y 101
(b) d y 01
parity
m,m 1 check
code.
f : B m B m1 is called
If b b1 b2 ...bm B m ,
where
bm1 0 if b is even.
= 1 if b is odd.
Find e b if (a) b 01010
(b) b 01110
define
(b) e b 011101
x1x 2 w 0100113
w x1x 3 w100010
w x 2 x 3 w1100013
w
Minimum distance = e = 2
d) Minimum distance = 2
An encoding function e can detect k or fewer errors if the minimum
distance is k + 1. k12k1
The function can detect 1 or fewer (i.e. 0) error.
e) e can correct k or fewer error if minimum distance is 2k + 1.
2k + 1 = 2
1
k =
2
1
1
or less than i.e. 0 errors.
e can correct
2
2
GROUP CODE :
Since Bm has 2m
elements, there are 2m code words in Bn . We first list the code words in
a fixed order.
2 m
1
2
x ,x ,...,x
i
min x ,x1
1i2 m
x ,x
s
s
That is, x is a code word that is closest to x1 , and the first in the
s
list. If x e b , we define the maximum likelihood decoding function
d associated with e by
d xt b
are listed.
words in e B n
0
and H 1
0
0
1 0
1 1
0 0 .
1 0
0 1
Determine the
group code e H : B2 B5 .
Solution : We have B2 00,01,10,11 . Then e 00 00x1x 2 x 3
where
x1 0.1 0.0 0
x2 0.1 0.1 0
x3 0.0 0.1 0
e 00 00000
Now,
e 01 01x1x2 x3
where
x1 0.1 1.0 0
x2 0.1 1.1 1
x3 0.0 1.1 1
e 01 01011
Next
e 10 10 x1x2 x3
x1 1.1 0.0 1
x2 1.1 1.0 1
x3 1.0 0.1 0
e 10 10110
e 11 11101
Example : Let
0 0
1 1
1 1
be a parity check matrix. determine
0 0
1 0
0 1
0
1
H
1
0
e 100 100100
e 001 001111
e 101 101011
e 010 010011
e 110 110111
e 100 011100
e 111 111000
e : B2 B5 such that
Example : Consider the group code defined by
e 00 00000e 01 01110e 10 10101e 11 11011 .
Decode the following words relative to maximum likelihood decoding
function.
(a) 11110
(b) 10011
(c) 10100
Solution : (a) xt 1110
Compute
x , x 01110 11110 10000 1
x , x 10101 11110 01011 3
x , x 11011 11110 00101 2
min x , x 1 x , x
1
x , xt 00000 11110 11110 4
2
(b) xt 10011
Compute
x , x 01110 10011 00110 2
x , x 10101 11110 01011 3
x , x 11011 10011 01000 1
min x , x 1 x , x
1
x , xt 00000 10011 11101 4
2
x , x 01110 10100 11010 3
x , x 10101 10100 00001 1
x , x 11011 10100 01111 4
min x , x 1 x , x
1
x , xt 00000 10100 10100 2
2
0
1
1
Example : Let H 1
0 0 be a parity check matrix. decode the
0 1 0
0 0 1
following words relative to a maximum likelihood decoding function
associated with e H : (i) 10100, (ii) 01101, (iii) 11011.
Solution : The code words are e 00 00000,e 01 00101,e 10 10011,
e 11 11110 . Then N 00000,00101,10011,11110 . We implement
the decoding procedure as follows. Determine all left cosets of N in B5,
as rows of a table. For each row 1, locate the coset leader i , and rewrite
the row in the order.
1,i
0000
0110
1011
1100
0000
---
0110
1011
1100
---
1101
1010
---
0111
0110
1011
1100
---
encoding function
00000
01110
10101
11011
00000
00000
01110
10101
11011
01110
01110
00000
11011
10101
10101
10101
11011
00000
01110
11011
11011
10101
01110
00000
encoding function
e 11 11011 is a group code. Consider this group code and decode the
following words relative to maximum likelihood decoding function.
(a) 11110
(b) 10011.
Solution : Group Code
00000
01110
10101
11011
00000
00000
01110
10101
11011
01110
01110
00000
11011
10101
10101
10101
11011
00000
01110
11011
11011
10101
01110
00000
(a) xt 11110
x , x x x 01110 1110 10000 1
x , x x x 10101 1110 01011 3
x , x x x 11011 1110 00101 2
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 11110 11110 4
2
x , x x x 01110 10011 11101 4
x , x x x 10101 10011 00110 2
x , x x x 11011 10011 01000 1
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 10011 10011 3
2
Example : Let
0
1
H
1
0
0 0
1 1
1 1
be a parity check matrix. Determine
0 0
1 0
0 1
101011,110111,111000
00000
01110
10101
11011
00000
00000
01110
10101
11011
01110
01110
00000
11011
10101
10101
10101
11011
00000
01110
11011
11011
10101
01110
00000
3,7
encoding function e : B3 B7
defined by
e 000 0000000e 001 0010110e 010 0101000
0000000
0010110
0101000
0111110
1000101
1010011
1101101
1111011
0000000
0000000
0010110
0101000
0111110
1000101
1010011
1101101
1111011
0010110
0010110
0000000
0111110
0101000
1010011
1000101
1111011
1101101
0101000
0101000
0111110
0000000
0010110
1101101
1111011
1000101
1010011
0111110
0111110
0101000
0010110
0000000
1111011
1101101
1010011
1000101
1000101
1000101
1010011
1101101
1111011
0000000
0010110
0101000
0111110
1010011
1010011
1000101
1111011
1101101
0010110
0000000
0111110
0101100
1101101
1101101
1111011
1000101
1010011
0101000
0111110
0000000
0010110
1111011
1111011
0000000
3,8
encoding function e : B3 B8
defined by
e 000 0000000e 100 10100100e 001 10111000
e 101 10001001e 010 00101101e 110 00011100
e 011 10010101e 111 00110001 .
How many errors will e detect?
Solution :
0000000
0000000
0 1 1
H 1 0 0 . Determine the group code e H : B2 B5 . Decode the
0 1 0
0 0 1
following words relative to a maximum likelihood decoding function
associated with e H : 01110,11101,00001,11000 .
[Apr-04, May-07]
Solution : B2 00,01,10,11
eH 00 00000
eH 11 11x1x2 x3
eH 01 10110
eH 01 01011
eH 01 11101
(1) xt 01110
x , x x x 01011 01110 00101 2
x , x x x 10110 01110 11000 2
x , x x x 11101 01110 10011 3
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 01110 01110 3
2
(2) xt 11101
x , x x x 01110 11101 10110 3
x , x x x 10101 11101 01011 3
x , x x x 11011 11101 00000 0
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 11101 11101 4
2
x , x x x 01011 00001 01010 2
x , x x x 10110 00001 10111 4
x , x x x 11101 00001 11100 3
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 00001 00001 1
2
x , x x x 01110 11000 10011 3
x , x x x 10101 11000 01101 3
x , x x x 11011 11000 10000 1
1
1
x , xt x xt 00000 11000 11000 2
2