Civil engineering

military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including architectural engineering,
environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering,
control engineering, structural engineering, earthquake
engineering, transportation engineering, forensic engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources
engineering, materials engineering, wastewater engineering, oshore engineering, facade engineering, coastal engineering,[4] construction surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place in the public
sector from municipal through to national governments,
and in the private sector from individual homeowners
through to international companies.
A multi-level stack interchange, buildings, houses, and park in
Shanghai, China.

1 History of the civil engineering

profession
See also: History of structural engineering
Engineering has been an aspect of life since the be-

Philadelphia City Hall in the US is still the worlds tallest masonry

load-bearing structure.

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment,
including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and
buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the second-oldest
engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and
it is dened to distinguish non-military engineering from

Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of

columns

ginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of

civil engineering may have commenced between 4000
and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civi1

2 HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

lization, and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans

started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need
for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the
development of the wheel and sailing.

In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded

in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas
Telford became its rst president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil
engineering as a profession. Its charter dened civil enUntil modern times there was no clear distinction be- gineering as:
tween civil engineering and architecture, and the term
engineer and architect were mainly geographical varithe art of directing the great sources of
ations referring to the same occupation, and often
power in nature for the use and convenience
used interchangeably.[7] The construction of pyramids in
of man, as the means of production and of
Egypt (circa 27002500 BC) were some of the rst intrac in states, both for external and interstances of large structure constructions. Other ancient
nal trade, as applied in the construction of
historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat
roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigawater management system (the oldest is older than 3000
tion and docks for internal intercourse and exyears and longer than 71 km,[8] ) the Parthenon by Iktinos
change, and in the construction of ports, harin Ancient Greece (447438 BC), the Appian Way by
bours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and
Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China
in the art of navigation by articial power for
by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor
the purposes of commerce, and in the construcShih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed
tion and application of machinery, and in the
in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the exdrainage of cities and towns.[9]
tensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans
developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, 1.1 History of civil engineering education
dams and roads.
The rst private college to teach civil engineering in
the United States was Norwich University, founded in
1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[10] The rst degree in
civil engineering in the United States was awarded by
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[11][12] The rst
such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by
Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905.[13]
In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served
by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled
with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned
new engineering education initiatives: the Royal Polytechnic Institution was founded in 1838, the private
College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in
1839, and the UKs rst Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840.

2 History of civil engineering

John Smeaton, the father of civil engineering

Civil engineering is the application of physical and scientic principles for solving the problems of society, and
its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its
history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment,
mechanics and other elds.

In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined

to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military
engineering.[5] The rst self-proclaimed civil engineer
was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6] In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues
formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a
group of leaders of the profession who met informally Throughout ancient and medieval history most architecover dinner. Though there was evidence of some techni- tural design and construction was carried out by artisans,
such as stonemasons and carpenters, rising to the role of
cal meetings, it was little more than a social society.

3.1

Education and licensure

Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by

the Maya people of the Post Classic. The northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the
complex some 40 metres (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former
cenote.
Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of
Technology in the late 19th century.

A Roman aqueduct [built circa 19 BC] near Pont du Gard,

France

master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in
scale were incremental.[14]

curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specic topics in
civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most subdisciplines of civil engineering, they move onto specialize
in one or more sub-disciplines at advanced levels. While
an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides
successful students with industry-accredited qualication, some academic institutions oer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest.[16]
In most countries, a bachelors degree in engineering represents the rst step towards professional certication,
and a professional body certies the degree program. After completing a certied degree program, the engineer
must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certied.
Once certied, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South
Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth
countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia
and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are international
agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow
engineers to practice across national borders.

One of the earliest examples of a scientic approach to

physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil
engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian
mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD,
based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (vol- The benets of certication vary depending upon locaume) computations.[15]
tion. For example, in the United States and Canada,
only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign
and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to
3 The civil engineer
a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work
for public and private clients.[17] This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in
3.1 Education and licensure
Quebec.[18]
Main article: Civil engineer
Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree
in civil engineering. The length of study is three to
ve years, and the completed degree is designated as a
bachelor of engineering, or a bachelor of science. The

No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing
of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost
all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all
members must abide by.[19]

Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineers work fails, he may be subject to the law of tort
of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges.[20]
An engineers work must also comply with numerous
other rules and regulations such as building codes and
environmental law.

SUB-DISCIPLINES

metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and
chemistry. With recent media attention on nanoscience
and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at
the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis.

4.2 Coastal engineering

Sub-disciplines

Main articles: Coastal engineering and Coastal management

Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal

The Akashi Kaiky Bridge in Japan, currently the worlds longest

suspension span.

In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall

interface of human created xed projects with the greater
world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading,
drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service,dams,
electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch
of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting
a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers
spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers
apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of
all sizes and levels of construction.

Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier in the Netherlands.

areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and

coastal protection mean defense against ooding and erosion, respectively. The term coastal defense is the more
traditional term, but coastal management has become
more popular as the eld has expanded to techniques that
allow erosion to claim land.

4.3 Construction engineering

Main article: Construction engineering

Construction engineering involves planning and execution,

transportation of materials, site development based on
hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical en4.1 Materials science and engineering
gineering. As construction rms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering rms do,
Main article: Materials science
construction engineers often engage in more businesslike transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing
Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitorIt studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and ing prices of supplies.
deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and 4.4 Earthquake engineering
carbon bers.
Materials engineering involves protection and prevention Main article: Earthquake engineering
(paints and nishes). Alloying combines two types of

4.7

Water resources engineering

Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to

withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake
engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering.
The main objectives of earthquake engineering are[21] to
understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground;
foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and
design, construct and maintain structures to perform at
earthquake in compliance with building codes.

4.5

Va
Vv

Vw

Mw

Vt

Mt
Vs

Ms

Environmental engineering

Main article: Environmental engineering

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for

A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of

air, soil, water, and voids.

is applied to safely and economically design foundations,

retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landlls
have spawned a new area of research called geoenvironmental engineering.[22][23]
Identication of soil properties presents challenges to
geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often
well dened in other branches of civil engineering, but
unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are dicult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress-dependent) strength, stiness, and
dilatancy (volume change associated with application of
shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more
dicult.[22]
Water pollution

4.7 Water resources engineering

sanitary engineering, though sanitary engineering tradi- See also: Hydraulic engineering and Hydrology
tionally had not included much of the hazardous waste Water resources engineering is concerned with the colmanagement and environmental remediation work covered by environmental engineering. Public health engineering and environmental health engineering are other
terms being used.
Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purication of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after
waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the
topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purication, waste water treatment,
air pollution, solid waste treatment, and hazardous waste
management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology.
Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions.
Hoover dam

4.6

Geotechnical engineering

lection and management of water (as a natural resource).

As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrolMain article: Geotechnical engineering
ogy, environmental science, meteorology, conservation,
Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting and resource management. This area of civil engineercivil engineering systems. Knowledge from the eld of ing relates to the prediction and management of both the
soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics quality and the quantity of water in both underground

6
(aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams)
resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model
very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the
amount and content of water as it ows into, through, or
out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility
may be left to other engineers.

SUB-DISCIPLINES

a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within

that structure due to those loads, and then designing the
structure to successfully support and resist those loads.
The loads can be self weight of the structures, other dead
load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their
users and to successfully fulll the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some
loading conditions, sub-disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and
earthquake engineering.[24]

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the ow and

conveyance of uids, principally water. This area of
civil engineering is intimately related to the design of
pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm
sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of uid pressure, uid statics, Design considerations will include strength, stiness, and
stability of the structure when subjected to loads which
uid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.
may be static, such as furniture or self-weight, or dynamic, such as wind, seismic, crowd or vehicle loads, or
4.8 Structural engineering
transitory, such as temporary construction loads or impact. Other considerations include cost, constructability,
Main article: Structural engineering
safety, aesthetics and sustainability.
Structural engineering is concerned with the structural de-

4.9 Surveying
Main articles: Surveying and Construction surveying
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures

thumbtime=0:23

Civil engineering student using a theodolite.

Shallow foundation construction example

sign and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, towers,

yovers (overpasses), tunnels, o shore structures like oil
and gas elds in the sea, aerostructure and other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon

certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the

Earth. Surveying equipment, such as levels and theodolites, are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerisation, electronic distance measurement (EDM),
total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a

4.10

Transportation engineering

large extent supplanted traditional instruments. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earths surface in the form of a
map. This information is then used by civil engineers,
contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and
trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized
and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualications and licensing
arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of
surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information
systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways,
tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as
well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction.

7
Surveying existing conditions of the future work
site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when
possible;
lay-out or setting-out": placing reference points
and markers that will guide the construction of new
structures such as roads or buildings;
Verifying the location of structures during construction;
As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end
of the construction project to verify that the work
authorized was completed to the specications set
on plans.

Land surveying

4.10 Transportation engineering

Main article: Transportation engineering
Transportation engineering is concerned with moving

The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts

to make trac ow free-moving
BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 in San Xavier, Arizona.

In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and

most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their
own professional associations and licensing requirements.
The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries
of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision
plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land,
with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both
of which are generally referred to as Cadastral surveying.

people and goods eciently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying,
designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation
infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways,
rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes
areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, trac engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent
Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management.

4.11 Forensic engineering

Construction surveying

Main article: Forensic engineering

Construction surveying is generally performed by specialised technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting
plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors
perform the following tasks:

Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials,

products, structures or components that fail or do not
operate or function as intended, causing personal injury
or damage to property. The consequences of failure are

8
dealt with by the law of product liability. The eld also
deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to
accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although
it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate
cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents.

4.12 Municipal or urban engineering

Main article: Urban engineering
Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal in-

5 CIVIL ENGINEERING ASSOCIATIONS

Control engineering (or control systems engineering) is the
branch of civil engineering discipline that applies control
theory to design systems with desired behaviors. The
practice uses sensors to measure the output performance
of the device being controlled (often a vehicle) and those
measurements can be used to give feedback to the input
actuators that can make corrections toward desired performance. When a device is designed to perform without the need of human inputs for correction it is called
automatic control (such as cruise control for regulating a
cars speed). Multidisciplinary in nature, control systems
engineering activities focus on implementation of control
systems mainly derived by mathematical modeling of systems of a diverse range.

5 Civil engineering associations

Lake Chapultepec

frastructure. This involves specifying, designing, con- The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland
structing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid
American Society of Civil Engineers
waste management and disposal, storage depots for vari Canadian Society for Civil Engineering
ous bulk materials used for maintenance and public works
(salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastruc Conselho Federal de Engenharia e Agronomia
ture. In the case of underground utility networks, it may
also include the civil portion (conduits and access cham Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
bers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and
Engineers Australia
telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of waste collection and bus service networks.
European Federation of National Engineering AsSome of these disciplines overlap with other civil engisociations
neering specialties, however municipal engineering fo International Federation of Consulting Engineers
cuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks
and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and
Institution of Civil Engineers
managed by the same municipal authority. Municipal
The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors
engineers may also design the site civil works for large
buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads,
Institution of Engineers (India)
parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.)
Institution of Engineers of Ireland
Institute of Transportation Engineers

4.13 Control engineering

Main article: Control engineering

Pakistan Engineering Council

Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers
Transportation Research Board

See also
List of engineering branches
Glossary of civil engineering
Civil engineering software
Engineering drawing
Index of civil engineering articles
List of civil engineers
List of historic civil engineering landmarks
Macro-engineering
Railway systems engineering
Site survey

References

[1] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Miin Company,
2004. (accessed: 8 August 2007).
[2] History and Heritage of Civil Engineering. ASCE. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
[3] Institution of Civil Engineers What is Civil Engineering
(PDF). ICE. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
[4] What is Civil Engineering?". The Canadian Society for
Civil Engineering. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
[5] Civil engineering. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved
9 August 2007.
[6] Oakes, William C.; Leone, Les L.; Gunn, Craig J. (2001).
Engineering Your Future. Great Lakes Press. ISBN 1881018-57-1.
[7] The Architecture of the Italian Renaissance Jacob Burckhardt ISBN 0-8052-1082-2
[8] p. 4 of Mays, L. (30 August 2010). Ancient Water Technologies. Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-8631-0.
[9] Institution of Civil Engineers website. Retrieved 26
December 2007.

[15] Henry Thomas Colebrook, Algebra: with Arithmetic and

mensuration (London 1817)
[16] ,Cite Postgrad.
[17] Why Should You Get Licensed?". National Society of
Professional Engineers. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
[18] Engineers Act. Quebec Statutes and Regulations (CanLII). Retrieved 11 August 2007.
[19] Ethics Codes and Guidelines. Online Ethics Center. Retrieved 11 August 2007.
[20] Singapores Circle Line criminal trial started. New Civil
Engineer. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
[21] Chen W-F, Scawthorn C. Earthquake Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8493-0068-1, Chapter
2
[22] Mitchell, James Kenneth (1993), Fundamentals of Soil
Behavior (2nd ed.), John Wiley and Sons, pp 12
[23] Shro, Arvind V.; Shah, Dhananjay L. (2003), Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Taylor & Francis,
2003, pp 12
[24] Narayanan, R, A Beeby. Introduction to Design for Civil
Engineers. London: Spon, 2003.

8 Further reading
W . F . Chen and J . Y . Richard Liew, eds. (2002).
The Civil Engineering Handbook. CRC Press. ISBN
978-0-8493-0958-8.
Jonathan T. Ricketts, M. Kent Loftin, Frederick
S. Merritt, eds. (2004). Standard handbook
for civil engineers (5 ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN
0071364730.

9 External links
The Institution of Civil Engineers
Planete TP The World of Public Works
Civil Engineering Software Database

[10] Norwich University Legacy Website

The Institution of Civil Engineering Surveyors

[11] Griggs, Francis E Jr. Amos Eaton was Right!". Journal

of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, Vol. 123, No. 1, January 1997, pp. 3034.

Civil engineering classes, from MIT OpenCourseWare

[12] RPI Timeline

[13] Nora Stanton Blatch Barney. Encyclopdia Britannica
Online. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
[14] Victor E. Saouma. Lecture notes in Structural Engineering (PDF). University of Colorado. Retrieved 2 November 2007.

10

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Radon210, JD554, JuanFox, Oxymoron83, Miniapolis, KatieDOM, Arnobarnard, Fratrep, StaticGull, Rodrigo111, Wvfd14, Joshschr,
Denisarona, Escape Orbit, Thepizzaman182, RS1900, Martarius, Elassint, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Alnatour 2000, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Keeper76, Sassf, Freebullets, Zac wise, Agogino, SuperHamster, Skpperd, Mayy may y, CounterVandalismBot, LizardJr8, Shustov, Blkutter, Excirial, Mynameisnotpj, Chrispreece2007, Sun Creator, Verwol, Promethean, SoxBot, SchreiberBike, Calor, Amalabha,
Vegetator, PCHS-NJROTC, SoxBot III, Apparition11, Crowsnest, XLinkBot, Rror, Avoided, Mm40, Gazimo, Fmm81can, CalumH93,
LisaInig, Addbot, AlexandrDmitri, Audpro, Betterusername, Atethnekos, Friginator, Knight of Truth, Ucla90024, Blethering Scot, Parkicar, Xlasserre, Leszek Jaczuk, MrOllie, Bassbonerocks, Dynamization, Favonian, Tassedethe, Nevsal, Tide rolls, Teles, Gail,
, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Senator Palpatine, Fraggle81, Xu Davella, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, SwisterTwister,
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Crookesmoor, GenQuest, Grim23, Jmundo, AbigailAbernathy, Pyrite101, Ing. Cognito~enwiki, Chad.gemeinhardt, Plmr, AlexPlante,
D.tswell, Shadowjams, Urzic, Celuici, FrescoBot, Jakub.netik, Allion, Darkskynet, Neilbester, DivineAlpha, 117Avenue, Citation bot 1,
13ronis13, jlfr, Behnamnaderi, Pinethicket, ShadowRangerRIT, I dream of horses, Juddo, Editor0982, JohnCim, Agent C-4, RedBot, MertyWiki, Abhijitveer, White Shadows, Corinne68, Tim1357, SchreyP, Darigan, Fama Clamosa, Cjlim, Vrenator, Williamstormymauldin, Reztip, Jerd10, WikiTome, Weedwhacker128, Brian the Editor, Bongdentoiac, Onel5969, Mean as custard, Beyond My Ken,
Chris Rocen, Slon02, DASHBot, EmausBot, Dolescum, Acather96, Eddie20010, RA0808, Simonchalky, Pathikpatel, Fiate2000, Solarra, Amir136990, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Frglz, AvicBot, ZroBot, John Cline, Davidnporter, Traxs7, Sf5xeplus, Vijaycivil, Wayne
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Widr, Widener, Chillllls, Lawsonstu, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, WNYY98, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Jwchong, Hallows AG, Vikasgupta87, Sasan Geranmehr, MusikAnimal, Yevad, Wikivw, Mark Arsten, Leep.uce, Adamblack21, TBP25, PhilipTerryGraham, Thecivilengg, Uppalapadu, Pinkoyd134, Klilidiplomus, Shaun, Cristina rod5, Fylbecatulous, BattyBot, Pratyya Ghosh, W.D.,
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tanwar, Tiul mani, Brandon12344321, GeneralizationsAreBad, Blanksamurai, Engr irfan khan, KasparBot, 3 of Diamonds, Vinodcd1,
Ilt89, Aalugobi, AalugobiReturns, CAPTAIN RAJU, Nyein Chan Myint Tun, Vijendra haritwal, CamachoR, Jaydip Patel (JK), IndigoTiger, Jnelson1247, LynnM99 and Anonymous: 1199

10.2

Images

10.2

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Images

File:2013_Philadelphia_City_Hall_from_S._Broad_Street_at_Locust_Street.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/e/e1/2013_Philadelphia_City_Hall_from_S._Broad_Street_at_Locust_Street.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Beyond My Ken
File:Akashi-kaikyo_bridge3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Akashi-kaikyo_bridge3.jpg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Sam at en.wikipedia
File:Bureau_of_Land_Management_Cadastral_Survey_Marker_Arizona.jpg Source:
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commons/4/47/Bureau_of_Land_Management_Cadastral_Survey_Marker_Arizona.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Digital
camera Original artist: $1LENCE D00600D
File:Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Burj_Dubai_Evolution.ogv License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3B2KRj844w Original artist: Pierre F.
File:Chichen_Itza_3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Chichen_Itza_3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daniel Schwen
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Construccin_de_una_cimentacin_por_zapata_aislada.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/
Construcci%C3%B3n_de_una_cimentaci%C3%B3n_por_zapata_aislada.ogv License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Construccin de una cimentacin por zapata aislada.blend Original artist: C.calvo / Carlos Calvo Luna
File:FalkirkWheelSide_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/FalkirkWheelSide_
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File:Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Hoover_dam_from_air.jpg License:
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File:John_Smeaton.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/John_Smeaton.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Magnus Manske on en.wikipedia
File:LagoMenorChapultepec3.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/LagoMenorChapultepec3.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Thelmadatter
File:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
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File:Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Nuvola_apps_kcmsystem.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Own work based on Image:Nuvola apps kcmsystem.png by Alphax originally from [1] Original artist:
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File:Oosterscheldekering,_Netherlands.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Oosterscheldekering%
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File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
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File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
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File:Theodolite-Student_using_Theodolite.(Jaydip_Patel).jpg Source:
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Theodolite-Student_using_Theodolite.%28Jaydip_Patel%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jaydip
Patel (JK)
File:Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Tkkstudentsbackinthedays.jpg
License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://www.hs.fi/kirjat/artikkeli/Konstikoulusta+tuli+yli+sadassa+vuodessa+TKK/
HS20080408SI1AT023p1
http://www.hs.fi/artikkeli/Konstikoulusta+tuli+yli+sadassa+vuodessa+TKK/HS20080408SI1AT023p1
(2013-08-01)
Original artist:
Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718'
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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Viaduct_in_Puxi,_Shanghai.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Viaduct_in_Puxi%2C_
Shanghai.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Alex Needham at English
Wikipedia
File:Water_pollution.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Water_pollution.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rei-artur

10.3

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