CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be single sided (one copper
layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer (outer and inner layers). Multi-layer
PCBs allow for much higher component density. Conductors on different layers are
connected with plated-through holes called vias. Advanced PCBs may contain components capacitors, resistors or active devices - embedded in the substrate.
FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate upon which the vast majority of rigid
PCBs are produced. A thin layer of copper foil is laminated to one or both sides of an FR-4
panel. Circuitry interconnections are etched into copper layers to produce printed circuit
boards. Complex circuits are produced in multiple layers.
Printed circuit boards are used in all but the simplest electronic products. Alternatives to
PCBs include wire wrap and point-to-point construction. PCBs require the additional design
effort to lay out the circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.
Manufacturing circuits with PCBs is cheaper and faster than with other wiring methods as
components are mounted and wired with one single part. Furthermore, operator wiring errors
are eliminated.
When the board has only copper connections and no embedded components, it is more
correctly called a printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. Although more
accurate, the term printed wiring board has fallen into disuse. A PCB populated with
electronic components is called a printed circuit assembly (PCA), printed circuit board
assembly or PCB assembly (PCBA). The IPC preferred term for assembled boards is circuit
card assembly (CCA), and for assembled backplanes it is backplane assemblies. The term
PCB is used informally both for bare and assembled boards.

Fig 1 PCB

1.1

Design

A board designed in 1967; the sweeping curves in the traces are evidence of freehand design
using self-adhesive tape
Initially PCBs were designed manually by creating a photomask on a clear mylar sheet,
usually at two or four times the true size. Starting from the schematic diagram the component
pin pads were laid out on the mylar and then traces were routed to connect the pads. Rubondry transfers of common component footprints increased efficiency. Traces were made
with self-adhesive tape. Pre-printed non-reproducing grids on the mylar assisted in layout. To
fabricate the board, the finished photomask was photolithographically reproduced onto
a photoresist coating on the blank copper-clad boards.
Nowadays PCBs are designed with dedicated layout software, generally in the following
steps:
1. Schematic capture through an electronic design automation (EDA) tool.
2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the
PCB.
3. The positions of the components and heat sinks are determined.
4. Layer stack of the PCB is decided, with one to tens of layers depending on
complexity. Ground and power planes are decided. A power plane is the counterpart
to a ground plane and behaves as an AC signal ground while providing DC power to
the circuits mounted on the PCB. Signal interconnections are traced on signal planes.
Signal planes can be on the outer as well as inner layers. For
optimal EMI performance high frequency signals are routed in internal layers
between power or ground planes.
5. Line impedance is determined using dielectric layer thickness, routing copper
thickness and trace-width. Trace separation is also taken into account in case of
differential signals. Microstrip, stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.
6. Components are placed. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken into
account. Vias and lands are marked.
7. Signal traces are routed. Electronic design automation tools usually create clearances
and connections in power and ground planes automatically.
8. Gerber files are generated for manufacturing.

1.2 Manufacturing
PCB manufacturing consists of many steps.
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1.2.1 PCB CAM

Manufacturing starts from the PCB fabrication data generated by CAD. The Gerber or
Excellon files in the fabrication data are never used directly on the manufacturing equipment
but always read into the CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) software. CAM performs
the following functions:
1. Input of the Gerber data
2. Verification of the data; optionally DFM
3. Compensation for deviations in the manufacturing processes (e.g. scaling to
compensate for distortions during lamination)
4. Panelization
5. Output of the digital tools (copper patterns, solder resist image, legend image, drill
files, automated optical inspection data, electrical test files,...)

1.2.2 Panelization
Panelization is a procedure whereby a number of PCBs are grouped for manufacturing onto a
larger board - the panel. Usually a panel consists of a single design but sometimes multiple
designs are mixed on a single panel. There are two types of panels: assembly panels - often
called arrays - and bare board manufacturing panels. The assemblers often mount components
on panels rather than single PCBs because this is efficient. The bare board manufactures
always uses panels, not only for efficiency, but because of the requirements the plating
process. Thus a manufacturing panel can consist of a grouping of individual PCBs or of
arrays, depending on what must be delivered.
The panel is eventually broken apart into individual PCBs; this is called depaneling.
Separating the individual PCBs is frequently aided by drilling or routing perforations along
the boundaries of the individual circuits, much like a sheet of postage stamps. Another
method, which takes less space, is to cut V-shaped grooves across the full dimension of the
panel. The individual PCBs can then be broken apart along this line of weakness. Today
depaneling is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact. Laser panelization
reduces stress on the fragile circuits.

1.2.3 Copper patterning

The first step is to replicate the pattern in the fabricator's CAM system on a protective mask
on the copper foil PCB layers. Subsequent etching removes the unwanted copper.
(Alternatively, a conductive ink can be ink-jetted on a blank (non-conductive) board. This
technique is also used in the manufacture of hybrid circuits.)
3

1. Silk screen printing uses etch-resistant inks to create the protective mask.
2. Photoengraving uses a photomask and developer to selectively remove a UV-sensitive
photoresist coating and thus create a photoresist mask. Direct imaging techniques are
sometimes used for high-resolution requirements. Experiments were made with
thermal resist.
3. PCB milling uses a two or three-axis mechanical milling system to mill away the
copper foil from the substrate. A PCB milling machine (referred to as a 'PCB
Prototyper') operates in a similar way to a plotter, receiving commands from the host
software that control the position of the milling head in the x, y, and (if relevant) z
axis.
4. Laser resist ablation Spray black paint onto copper clad laminate, place
into CNC laser plotter. The laser raster-scans the PCB and ablates (vaporizes) the
paint where no resist is wanted. (Note: laser copper ablation is rarely used and is
considered experimental.)
The method chosen depends on the number of boards to be produced and the required
resolution.
Large volume

Silk screen printing used for PCBs with bigger features

Photoengraving used when finer features are required.

Small volume

Print onto transparent film and use as photo mask along with photo-sensitized boards.
(i.e., pre-sensitized boards), then etch. (Alternatively, use a film photoplotter)

Laser resist ablation.

PCB milling.

Hobbyist

Laser-printed resist: Laser-print onto toner transfer paper, heat-transfer with an iron or
modified laminator onto bare laminate, soak in water bath, touch up with a marker, then
etch.

Vinyl film and resist, non-washable marker, some other methods. Labor-intensive,
only suitable for single boards.

Fig 2 The two processing methods used to produce a double-sided PWD with plated through holes

1.2.4 Chemical etching

Chemical etching is usually done with ammonium persulfate or ferric chloride. For PTH
(plated-through holes), additional steps of electroless deposition are done after the holes are
drilled, then copper is electroplated to build up the thickness, the boards are screened, and
plated with tin/lead. The tin/lead becomes the resist leaving the bare copper to be etched
away.
The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion
etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride.
Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and
agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed
through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a
motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially
obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is
5

distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle
pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching
rates and high production rates.
As more copper is consumed from the boards, the etchant becomes saturated and less
effective; different etchants have different capacities for copper, with some as high as 150
grams of copper per litre of solution. In commercial use, etchants can be regenerated to
restore their activity, and the dissolved copper recovered and sold. Small-scale etching
requires attention to disposal of used etchant, which is corrosive and toxic due to its metal
content.

1.2.5 Lamination

Fig 3 Cut through a SDRAM-module, a multi-layer PCB.

1.2.6 Drilling

Fig 4 Eyelets

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid
coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board
materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective.
Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speedsteel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and
ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement
controlled by a drill tape or drill file.
6

CHAPTER 2
PCB CHARACTERSTICS

Much of the electronics industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control follows
standards published by the IPC organization.

2.1 Through-hole technology

Fig 5 Through-hole(leaded)register

The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components

by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on
the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more
compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal
installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and
diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the
board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to improve
the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may
be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine.
Through-hole PCB technology almost completely replaced earlier electronics assembly
techniques such as point-to-point construction. From the second generation of computers in
the 1950s until surface-mount technology became popular in the late 1980s, every component
on a typical PCB was a through-hole component.
Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled
accurately, and limits the available routing area forsignal traces on layers immediately below
the top layer on multi-layer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite
side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components were used where
possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably large for surface7

mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to mechanical

stress which might damage the PCB.

Fig 6 Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s home computer

2.2 Surface-mount technology

Fig 7 Surface mount components, including resistors, transistors, and anintegrated circuit

Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and
became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have
small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of
wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much smaller and component
placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole
mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities.
Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs and
greatly increasing production rates. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes.
Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of
8

through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper; prices of

semiconductor surface mount devices (SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the
package, with little price advantage over larger packages. Some wire-ended components,
such as 1N4148 small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD
equivalents.

Fig 8 PCB in computer mouse

2.3 Circuit properties of the PCB

Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The
resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for the
current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal
traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground
plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid
out in the form of stripline and microstrip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a
consistent impedance. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits
the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant
circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit
design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.
2.3.1 Materials
Excluding exotic products using special materials or processes all printed circuit boards
manufactured today can be built using the following four materials:
1. Laminates
2. Copper-clad laminates
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3. Resin impregnated B-stage cloth (Pre-preg)

4. Copper foil
2.3.2 Laminates
Laminates are manufactured by curing under pressure and temperature layers of cloth or
paper with thermoset resin to form an integral final piece of uniform thickness. The size can
be up to 4 by 8 feet (1.2 by 2.4 m) in width and length. Varying cloth weaves (threads per
inch or cm), cloth thickness, and resin percentage are used to achieve the desired final
thickness and dielectric characteristics. Available standard laminate thickness are listed
in Table 1:
IPC Laminat
e
Number

Thickness

Thickness

IPC Laminate

Thickness

Thickness

in inches

in millimeters

Number

in inches

in millimeters

L1

0.002

0.05

L9

0.028

0.70

L2

0.004

0.10

L10

0.035

0.90

L3

0.006

0.15

L11

0.043

1.10

L4

0.008

0.20

L12

0.055

1.40

L5

0.010

0.25

L13

0.059

1.50

L6

0.012

0.30

L14

0.075

1.90

L7

0.016

0.40

L15

0.090

2.30

CHAPTER 3
ENTERING THE SCHEMATIC INTO EXPRESSSCH
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1. Open ExpressSCH to create a fresh schematic. The first time you start ExpressSCH
you will get a dialog box with a link to a quick start guide for ExpressSCH. This can
be useful if you want to get a general overview for the tool. Once you are ready to
start, close the dialog box to view the empty schematic.

2. Click on Op-Amp-like symbol to place components. To place the resistors, select

Passive-Resistor in the text box in the upper right corner.

11

3. Then click on the schematic for the 4 resistors (not including the photoresistor or
potentiometer) in roughly the location you want them to display. Then zoom in using
the magnifying glass tool (or the wheel on the mouse) and pan the display (using the
sliding bars) to improve your view.

4. Now you need to give each of the resistors unique identifiers. Right click on a
resistor and choose Set component properties. In the Component Properties box,
under Component ID, select Auto assign Part ID. The program should assign this
resistor to be R1. Set its value 10k in the Part Name field and hit OK. Repeat this
process to identify and label R2 (10k), R3 (100k), and R4 (10k).

12

5. Rotate R4 by right clicking on it, selecting Rotate component and then Body left
90

13

6. Now add the capacitor, potentiometer, comparator, and transistor to the circuit by first
clicking back on the component placement tool (the red op-amp symbol) and using
the component names Passive-Capacitor polarized, Passive- Potentiometer, IC
National - LM311 Comparator DIP-8, and Semiconductor Transistor NPN.
Use set component properties to assign all of these parts Part IDs, label them and
position them (using the arrow tool) in a logical manner.

7. Now we need to add some components (the photoresistor and the buzzer) that dont
exist in the library. Lets start with the photoresistor. The easiest way to make new
parts is to start with a symbol thats already close to what you want and modify it.
Place a regular resistor on the layout (using the placement tool with Passive
Resistor). Go to the selection tool (the arrow), choose that resistor and go to the
Component menu at the top and select Ungroup component

14

8. Using the circle shaped tool from the tool menu, draw a circle around the resistor.

9. Select the whole object (using the arrow tool), and choose Component -> Group to
make component

15

10. In the component properties box that appears, assign the photoresistor a unique part
ID, such as PR1.

11. For future use, save this as a custom component by selecting Component -> Save
custom component and then in the dialog box that appears give the component a
name such as photoresistor. (If someone else has already completed the tutorial on
this computer, the part may already exist, in that case you should either save this
component with a unique name, or save your component on top of the one already
existing)

16

12. Move the photoresistor to the spot you want it in the circuit.
13. Now we will create the buzzer. The buzzer is a polarized device, so a good starting
point is a polarized capacitor. Go to the component selector, choose a polarized
capacitor, ungroup the capacitor, and then add a circle to the symbol to distinguish it
as a buzzer. Group the entire object as a component with part ID, BZ1, and label
CEP-2224 and save the component as a Buzzer under custom components. At the
last step, youre display will be as follows:

14. Now we need to add our connections to power and ground. Lets start with ground.
Go to the symbol or signal label tool, which looks like a ground, and select Power
ground from the text box in the upper right.

17

15. Place 5 grounds into the circuit, at the bottom of R2, near pins 1 and 4 of the LM311,
near the bottom of the capacitor, at the emitter of the BJT, and at the bottom of the
potentiometer.

16. Repeat this process, but using Power Voltage Supply +9V to put 5 power
connections in at the top of R1, the photoresistor, pin 8 of the LM311, the top of R3
and the top of the buzzer.
18

17. Now lets add in our battery connection. Place a battery into the circuit, using Misc
Battery. Assign the battery the part ID B1 and give it the label 9V. Then, use
the symbol tool to add a ground connection and a +9V network connection (this will
link the positive terminal of the battery with every other point in the circuit that
should go to 9Vif you wanted to add a switch to the circuit, you would add it
between the + terminal of the battery and the +9V symbol.)

19

18. Now select the wire tool, and wire your circuit together. The left-click starts the wire
and sets a bend, and the right click ends a wire. After wiring, the schematic should
appear as follows:

19. Save your work, using Save As.. to create a unique filename.
20. Check your file for netlist errors using File -> Check schematic for netlist errors

21. The pins inside of the BJT are not specified (this is because pin assignments vary for
different BJTs) so you will probably will get an error message, like that shown below:
20

22. Hit cancel on the error message, and then as that message suggested, select the part
and choose Component and then Ungroup Component. This example uses the
2n1711 BJT in the little tin can (the TO-39 package). For this package the base is pin
2, the emitter is pin 1, and the collector is pin 3. To set this in the schematic, double
click on just the collector pin, and assign it to pin 3.

21

23. In a similar fashion, assign 2 to the base, and 1 to the emitter. Then select the
entire component (this takes a lot of shift-clickingbe sure to get all the little parts),
choose Group to make component from the Component menu, and assign the part
ID to be Q1.

24. If youre going to be using the transistor again, its probably a good idea to then click
on it, select Component -> Save custom component and save it as the transistor
name, which in this case is 2n1711.

22

25. Now check your file for netlist errors again, using File -> Check schematic for
netlist errors, you might get an error like that shown below (if not skip to #28)

26. The cause of this error is that the wire isnt really connected. The snap-to-grid
function has prevented you from making a connection. Hit continue to exit the netlist
check. Then toggle the snap-to-grid function off, select the errant line end(s) and
move it (them) into the correct position. Repeat this process until all the lines are
properly connected.

23

27. Reattempt the netlist error check.

28. Once the netlist error check runs clean, you will be asked to save your file, which you
should definitely do. The final schematic should look like this:

29. Print your schematic to reference as you work on your layout. At this point, you
should review your schematic carefully to check for errors. Once you are satisfied
that the schematic is correct, close ExpressSCH.
Creating the Layout in ExpressPCB

When doing the layout, it is particularly useful to have the actual components and/or in front
of you, along with a ruler or set of calipers (the ruler and calipers are unnecessary for this
tutorial).

1. Open ExpressPCB. When you first open the program, a dialog box appears with links
to the Quick Start Guide and a PCB Design Tips file. If you have time, both of these
links can be instructive. Once youre ready to continue, hit OK to go to a new file.

24

2. Under File select New file. Choose the 2-layer board, with Default via 0.056
round via with 0.029 hole. Change both default clearances for the filled planes to
0.05 (the maximum allowed). Hit OK and again OK on the warning that appears in
the next window.

The yellow line on the screen shows the boundary for the PCB. The default boundary
is 3.8 x 2.5 inches, which matches the express PCB miniboard service. This demo
will use the entire boardhowever for our class project you should only use half the
board (1.9 x 2.5) so that we can double up designs. Also, be aware that no copper
(pads or traces) can be placed closer than 0.025" to the perimeter of the board.

25

3. The first thing you need to do is to place all of your components onto the layout.
Lets start with the resistors. Select the component placing tool, which looks like a
little IC, and from the pull-down menu on the upper right choose Resistor-0.25 watt
(lead spacing 0.4 inch). (This description matches the small resistors in Ri-024). Put
4 resistors on the schematic.

4. Now double click on each of the resistors to bring up the component properties box,
and assign the resistors with part IDs R1, R2, R3, and R4.

26

5. The LM311 for this example is in an 8-pin DIP package, so you place the comparator
using the component Dip 8-pin. Notice how the square pad denotes pin 1.

6. Double-click on the component and assign the part with the part ID U1

7. Now add the following components (this assumes that each of these component
descriptions match the components in the circuitits good to confirm this with a
27

ruler when you go to build your own circuitmatching lead spacings are particularly
important):
a. A capacitor with the description Cap radial electrolytic Lead spacing 0.2
inch and give it part ID, C1 (notice how the square pad denotes the positive
lead)
b. A transistor with the description Semiconductor TO-39 and give it part ID,
Q1
c. A potentiometer with the description Potentiometer Bourns series 3386H
and give it partID, R5

8. Save your work.

9. Now we need to build the components that arent already in the library: the
photoresistor, and the buzzer. Lets start with the photoresistor. The photoresistor
dimensions are as follows (you could get this either from the data sheet or by
measuring the actual component with calipers):

28

Like before, the easiest way to build a new component is to start with one that is
similar. So we look through the component options for a two-pin component with a
0.1 lead spacing. A good choice is Cap lead spacing 0.1 inch. Place this
component on the diagram, and zoom in so that you can get a better view.

10. Now select the component and choose Component -> Ungroup PCB Component
to break the component down into parts.

29

11. Remove the boundary around the part, and then draw in a circle using the arc tool.
Then double click on the circle to set its properties, and set the radius to 0.0825, and
the layer to the silkscreen layer (the yellow layer).

30

12. Select the entire part, and then choose Component -> Group to make PCB
component

13. Double click on the new component, and give it the part ID PR1 to match the
photoresistor ID from your circuit schematic.

31

14. To use this component again, save your component using Component -> Save
custom component, and save the component as photoresistor (if you use this in
your design later, be sure that your photoresistor matches these dimensionsif not
you will need to create a new part).

15. Now we will repeat this process for the buzzer, which has the dimensions shown
below (given in mm):

To create this part, we will start with a capacitor base again, this time with a lead
spacing of 0.6 inch (15 mm). Its best to use a polarized capacitor, as the buzzer is
32

polarized. Lets use Capacitor Axial electrolytic Lead spacing 0.6 inch. After
placing this part, the display will be as follows:

16. Ungroup the component, delete the rectangle, and add a circle in the silkscreen layer
that has a radius of 0.5 inches. Move other components out of the way if they are too
close. Your display will then look as follows:

33

17. Now we need to check that the pads are large enough for the buzzer, which has fat
leads. Double click on one of the pins to pull up its properties:

The holes have a diameter of 0.035, which corresponds to 0.89 mm. This could be a
little tight for our buzzer, where the pin diameter is specified as 0.8 +/- 0.1 mm. Pull
down on the pad type menu and select 0.100 square pad with 0.046 hole which
gives us a little clearance. (You need to make the pad and hole large enough that it the
part will fit considering tolerances on pin dimension and placement, but if you make
the holes too big it will be harder to solder the part in place --- a beginner should err
on the side of making the hole too large).

34

18. Repeat this process with the other pad to make it 0.100 round pad with 0.046 hole

19. Select all the parts of the buzzer, group it as a component, and give the component
part ID BZ1 to match the schematic. Save your component as buzzer to use again
later. (If someone else has already completed the tutorial on this computer, the part
may already exist, in that case you should either save this component with a unique
name)

35

20. Finally, we need to add in the battery, which is going to be connected by a battery
strap to the circuit, and therefore requires only two pads (the battery will lie off of the
board). This is a good opportunity for us to create a part from scratch. Use the pad
tool to place a pad with the description 0.150 square pad with 0.079 hole to be the
positive battery lead.

21. Make this pad correspond to pin 1 for the battery by choosing it with the select tool,
and assigning it to be pin 1.
36

22. Create another pad, this time round, using the description, 0.150 round pad with
0.079 hole, near the first pad, and assign it to be pin 2. Then select both pads, and
group them to make a component. Label the component with the Part ID B1. Save
the part as battery strap connection in the component library.

23. Now (Finally!) we have all the components on the board. You can now link in the
schematic file. To do this, select File -> Link schematic to PCB
37

24. Select your schematic file. You should then get a message like this:

25. Now if you select the net tool, and click on a pin, Express PCB will highlight all of
the pins that should connect to that pin. For example, select the net tool and click on
the + terminal of the battery, you should see something like this:
38

Click on some of the other pins to check your work and to get a sense of how the parts
will connect.
26. Now, we want to arrange our components in a logical fashion. Your goal is to
minimize the length of connecting wires. You also would like (ideally) to have a
single ground plane on the back and all of other connections on the front surface,
which means that you want to avoid having to cross wires over one another (this cant
always be avoided). To rotate a component, right click on it and select the desired
rotation. For example, here it might be nice to rotate R4:

39

27. Rotate the transistor and arrange the other parts until your board looks like this:

28. Now its time to draw in connection lines. One thing that you must consider when
drawing connector lines is the current capacity of the lines on the board. Here are
some general rules of thumb on line widths from the ExpressPCB web site:

0.010" 0.3 Amps

0.015" 0.4 Amps
0.020" 0.7 Amps
0.025" 1.0 Amps
0.050" 2.0 Amps
0.100" 4.0 Amps
0.150" 6.0 Amps

Most of our circuits will not draw more than 100 mA, so any line width should be
acceptable. However, if your circuit uses a component that draws a significant current,
such as a motor, than you should err towards larger line widths.

Lets begin with the +9V lines. Use the net tool to highlight the +9V net on your
board. Then click on the wire tool and select the upper metal (red) layer, and a 0.1
trace width (this is overkill, but its a good habit to make the power lines fat). Connect
the + terminal of the battery to the top of the buzzer:
40

29. Now connect to the other +9V points in the circuit.

30. The potentiometer (R5) is a little close to the one power connection, so rotate it and
shift it over:
41

31. Now create the signal connections. Highlight the unconnected pin of the
photoresistor with the net tool, then select the wiring tool and a 0.025 line width, and
connect the photoresistor to the potentiometer as shown:

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32. Complete the connections and repeat this process for the other signal nodes in the
circuit. When you get to R4, you may notice that the component would be more easy
to wire if it were flipped, you can right-click on the component to accomplish this:

33. After all the signal lines are completed, your circuit should look as follows (only the
grounds are unconnected):

34. Now for the ground plane. Select the Place a filled plane tool, which is the green
tool right above the circle tool. Say OK to the informational message on the tool that
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pops up, and then create a box that encompasses the entire circuit on the bottom layer
of the chipbut leaving a boundary of at least 0.025 from the board edge. To do this,
choose the green layer from the top bar, then click near the upper left corner of the
board (at least 0.025 from both boundaries). Click again near the upper right
cornerat this point your display looks something like this:

35. Continue down to the bottom right corner and then to the bottom left corner. Then
right-click to end the box. Your display should now look like this:

Notice how there is a space around each pad in the layer. The width of that space is
controlled by Board Properties, under the Layout menu, and we set that at the
largest possible size when we started this process (in step 2).

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36. Now we need to make our ground connections. Use the network tool to highlight the
ground connections. Right-click on the ground pad for the battery. Select Bottom
layer pad shape and then Thermal pad to filled plane. This will link that pad to the
ground plane. The thermal pad has some thermal isolation between it and the rest of
the plane, which will make it easier to solder later.

37. Repeat this for all of the ground pads in your layout. Your layout should now look
like this:

38. For your own circuit, you should also add your initials in an unused corner of the
chip. Do these initials in the top metal (red) layer rather than in the silkscreen (yellow)
layer, because if we use mini-boards, the silkscreen layer is not included. To add text,
select the text tool, select the layer where you want the text to appear, and enter the
text in the box on the upper right. Then click on the layout to place the text:
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39. Carefully inspect your circuit board. Use the layer visibility tools in the bottom left
corner to turn off and on layers. Zoom in to check for connections. Highlight all of
the pads with the network tool on to verify that they are correctly connected. Print out
your circuit and confirm that every connection specified in the schematic is present.
With circuit boards, you definitely want to measure twice and cut once. At this point,
you would be ready to submit the circuit.

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