Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
PROJECT ADVISOR
Mr. Rehan Hashmat
SUBMITTED BY
Talha Umair Hashmi
(2004-PET-36)
Ashfaq Ali
(2004-PET-42)
(2004-PET-52)
(2004-PET-56)
PREFACE
The choice of this project was quite natural because it is the need of hour to
highlight the importance of Drilling Bit Optimization in petroleum industry. this
project Drilling Bit Optimization can be regarded as a step ahead from the latest
technology., first defining basic drilling Optimization Concepts and then
illuminate the drill bit analysis based on offset well data. It includes previous well
and field records, bit run etc. modern technology in bits have greatly Optimize the
ROP and has resulted a huge reduction in trip time. The ability to select and
optimize bit and hydraulic criteria is recognizing as a critically important element
of drilling operation. Impregnated Hybrid Bits have greatly increased the ROP and
has decreased the trip time. Although these things, along with a number of
techniques are important but not the prime essential.
Case histories can be used to demonstrate the importance of drilling optimization.
These factual experiences establish a sense e of reality when learning optimization
concepts and methods that cannot be achieved hypothetical simulators exercises or
example calculations. Drilling in a very hard, abrasive and inter bedded formation
has always been extremely tough and challenging due to sudden changes in the
formation characteristics which results in reduction in ROP. Such formations have
proved a Museum Of Geology and drilling here has been most challenging and
difficult. During Drilling the reduced ROP from an unexpected zone was
encountered. Various techniques are applied to increase ROP and reduce trip time.
Using Impregnated and hybrid bits with Turbu-drills, this problem is solved in a
cost effective manner. The wells drill successfully to producing objectives after
applying this optimized technology. This project reviews the optimized selection
of bit, optimized hydraulics and in the end discusses a field example, where such
techniques were applied successfully.
Petroleum Engineering
_________________
Project Advisor
________________
External Examinar
__________________
Chairman Petroleum and Gas Engg. Deptt.
(Dr. Obaid-ur-Rehman Paracha)
Acknowledgment
We are glad that we have made it to this day when we can cherish the sense
of achievement by the blessing of Allah Almighty.
This project is a result of hard work and team effort which alone would have
had no meaning if the guidance and commitment of our Project Advisor, Mr
Rehan Hashmat was not there, whose helping hand has made this project a
land mark in our career. We are thankful to Mr. Shaukat Ali & Mr. Noor
Ahmed (Dewan Petroleum Pvt. Ltd.)
Mr. Hamad Ahmad (Reedhycalog) for providing the desired Data for the
Project.
We must thank all the Teachers of our Department whose support and
experience always served as batten during the project.
Dedication
To our
Beloved Parents,
Respected Teachers and
Sincere Friends whose utmost
love and attention for us brought us to
this height of knowledge with the blessings of
Allah Almighty.
PREFACE
The choice of this project was quite natural because it is the need of hour to
highlight the importance of Drilling Bit Optimization in petroleum industry. this
project Drilling Bit Optimization can be regarded as a step ahead from the latest
technology., first defining basic drilling Optimization Concepts and then
illuminate the drill bit analysis based on offset well data. It includes previous well
and field records, bit run etc. modern technology in bits have greatly Optimize the
ROP and has resulted a huge reduction in trip time. The ability to select and
optimize bit and hydraulic criteria is recognizing as a critically important element
of drilling operation. Impregnated Hybrid Bits have greatly increased the ROP and
has decreased the trip time. Although these things, along with a number of
techniques are important but not the prime essential.
Case histories can be used to demonstrate the importance of drilling optimization.
These factual experiences establish a sense e of reality when learning optimization
concepts and methods that cannot be achieved hypothetical simulators exercises or
example calculations. Drilling in a very hard, abrasive and inter bedded formation
has always been extremely tough and challenging due to sudden changes in the
formation characteristics which results in reduction in ROP. Such formations have
proved a Museum Of Geology and drilling here has been most challenging and
difficult. During Drilling the reduced ROP from an unexpected zone was
encountered. Various techniques are applied to increase ROP and reduce trip time.
Using Impregnated and hybrid bits with Turbu-drills, this problem is solved in a
cost effective manner. The wells drill successfully to producing objectives after
applying this optimized technology. This project reviews the optimized selection
of bit, optimized hydraulics and in the end discusses a field example, where such
techniques were applied successfully.
Table of Contents
Chapter # 1
Chapter # 2
2.3.1 Journal
2.3.2 Bearings
2.3.4 Seals
2.3.5 Nozzle
2.3.6 Cone
2.3.7 Cutters
Chapter # 3
10
3.3.1 Example
10
Chapter # 4
11
12
4.2.1 Example
13
13
14
15
15
Chapter # 5
16
17
17
17
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
22
25
25
25
26
26
27
30
30
30
31
32
32
32
32
33
34
35
35
35
35
35
36
6.5 Conclusion
36
37
37
38
38
38
38
38
38
38
38
Chapter # 7
7.1 Introduction
49
49
50
51
51
51
53
53
7.4.2Turbulent flow
53
54
54
54
55
57
58
58
59
60
61
7.8.1 Procedure
62
62
63
64
64
70
70
71
71
71
71
72
72
73
73
74
75
75
Chapter # 8
76
76
8.1.1 Advantages
76
77
77
78
78
79
79
80
81
81
81
8.6 Refining Bit Choice and Parameters Based On Previous Bit Run
82
82
8.7.1 Weight-RPM
83
83
83
83
84
85
85
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
87
Chapter # 9
9.0 Introduction
89
90
90
9.4 How Air and Gas Drilling Optimized ROP in Such Formation
90
91
Introduction
Chapter # 1
Introduction
Chapter # 1
hit-or-miss proposition, based on the chance that the companys drilling engineer on the
job might have drilled some of the offsets.
The optimization plan also usually involved a survey of historical bit record databases
that indicated how certain bit types reacted in formations likely to be encountered in the
upcoming well. The process was more qualitative than quantitative, and often required
subjective rather than objective decision-making. Such analogous information, when
combined with bit manufacturers technical data on specific products, yielded a list of
bits or bit types that could be used to drill a borehole as clean and as close to gauge as
possible in the least amount of time, given safety requirements and cost limits. In any
case, it took considerable time to rustle up the necessary historical data, yet the estimated
outcome still remained somewhat in doubt. The introduction of the Drill Bit Optimization
System was a driving forcing that helped change all that. DBOS is a multidiscipline
method for determining the optimum cutting structure, gauge protection, hydraulic configuration, and other bit design features for drilling with either roller cone or fixed cutter
bits, whether in the conventional rotary mode or with various down hole motor-driven
drilling tools. To characterize the down hole environment of a single well to be drilled,
DBOS analysis starts with a thorough reconstruction of expected ideologies, revealed by
customer- provided well logs from the closest offset well. The results include a formation
analysis, unconfirmed rock strength analysis, and both roller cone and fixed-cutter bit
selections.
We combine numerous parameters that affect rate of penetration (ROP). These include
bit record information, directional surveys, real-time ROPs and mud log data, along with
rock type and strength data and hydraulic and mechanical energy factors, among others.
In the BPA analysis we evaluates key bit performance variables over the given drillability intervals, identifying which bit type should be the most successful for drilling
through each single interval or over multiple intervals. The analysis also includes both
fixed cutter and roller cone bits in cases where either can be applied. To optimize the bit
performance, we need to quantify and analyze all aspects of the drilling process.
Chapter # 2
Chevron Bit
Chevron bits are designed for medium to hard formation and are used in areas that
contain a lot of rock and also drilling out concrete casings and plugs.
Scratcher Bit
A Scratcher Bit is designed for soft formation such as sand.
Step Bit
Step bits are the most common type of drag bit used in the world today. They are
primarily designed for soft to medium formation.
Chapter # 2
Insert Bits:
The cutting structure is a series of inserts pressed into the cones.
Chapter # 2
Chapter # 2
2.3.2 Bearings
Bearing is a rotating support placed between moving parts to allow them to move easily.
Bit bearings are used to perform the following functions; support radial loads, support
thrust or axial loads and secure the cones on the legs
There are two types of bearings;
1. Sealed Bearing
2. Unsealed Bearing
Roller-Ball-Roller (RBR)
It is the combination of two roller bearings with one ball bearing at the center shown in
the figure.
Figure RBR
Roller-Ball-Friction (RBF)
It is the combination of roller bearing, ball bearing and friction (case-hardened material)
shown in the figure.
Figure RBF
Chapter # 2
Ball-Roller-Ball (BRB)
It is the combination of two balls and one roller bearing at the center.
2.3.4 Seals
These are flexible slip which prevent the oil and grease leakage and
prevent the entrance of dust particles in to bearing as shown in figure
Figure Seal
2.3.5 Nozzle
A projecting part with an opening for the regulating and directing the
flow of fluid as shown in figure.
Figure Nozzle
2.3.6 Cone
The conical shell which is surrounding the bearing while the
cutters are milled or inserted on it as shown in figure3.
Two types of cones are usually used:
1. Flat Cone
Figure Cone
2. Rounded Cone
2.3.7 Cutters
The small teeth shape pieces inserted or milled on the cone shell use for chipping and
crushing the formation.
There are three types of cutters;
1. Milled Cutters
2. Inserted Cutters
3. PDC Cutters
Chapter # 3
Chapter # 3
Chapter # 3
R. Reinforced Welds
C. Center Jet
D. Deviation Control
X. Chisel Inserts
E. Extended Jets
Y. Conical Inserts
J. Jet Deflection
3.3.1 Example
Bit type with code 125A means that
Character 1: Formation Hardness; Its for Mill-Tooth Bit.
Character 2: Hardness within Class; Its for soft medium.
Character 3: Bearing Type; Its for Sealed Roller Bearing, Gauge Protected.
Character 4: Additional Design Features; Its for Air Application.
10
Chapter # 4
Chapter # 4
system which allows extended use at high motor RPMs or a fixed cutter bit should be
selected.
Due consideration should always be given to the jet system of the bit. When drilling
soft shale sections where the major limitations on ROP is bottom hole and cutter
cleaning, the use of centre jet, extended jets or lateral jet bits should be considered.
B (T t ) R
$ / ft
F
4.1
Where
C=cost per foot ($ / ft), B= Bit Cost ($), T= Trip Time (hrs), t= Rotating Time (hrs),
R= Rig Cost per Hr, F= Footage (ft)
Equation (4.1) shows that cost/ft is controlled by five variables and for a given bit cost
(B) and hole section (F), cost/ft will be highly sensitive to changes in rig cost per hour
(R), trip time (T) and rotating time (t). The trip time (T) is the sum of RIH and POOH
times. If the bit is pulled out for some reason, say, to casing shoe for a wiper trip, such
duration, if added, will influence the total trip time (T) and, in turn, cost/ft. Bit
performance, therefore, can be changed by some arbitrary factor and for accurate
comparisons of different bit types, the tip time should be based on the time required
for straight RIH and POOH. Rotating time is the total time the drill bit is rotating on
bottom while drilling.
The rig cost (R) will greatly influence the value of cost/ft. For a given hole section in
a field that is drilled by different rigs, having different values of 'R', the same bit will
produce different values of cost/ft, assuming the same rotating hours are used in all
rigs. It should be pointed out that if the value of R is taken as arbitrary (say 2000
$/hr), then Equation 4.1 will yield equivalent values of cost/ft for all rigs. The value of
cost/ft in this case is not a real value and does not relate to actual or planned
expenditure; it is merely used for comparison. The criterion for selection of bits on the
basis of cost/ft is to choose the bit which consistently produces the lowest value of C
in a given formation or hole section.
12
Chapter # 4
B (T t ) R
$ / ft
F
Bit XX;
Bit XY;
On the basis of cost/ft, bit type XX is more economical than bit XY and should be
used in the next well.
Figure 4.1
13
Chapter # 4
4.2
Where
W = weight on bit (lb)
N = rotary speed (rpm)
R = radius of bit (in)
The volume of rock removed in 1 minute is:
V = (R2) * PR in3
4.3
Where
PR = penetration rate in (ft/hr)
Dividing equations 4.2 & 4.3 gives specific energy in terms of volume as
SE = E/V
= W * 2R * N / (R2) * PR
= 10
W * N lb * in
R * PR in3
4.4
W * N in lb
D * PR in3
4.5
W *N
MJ / m 3
D * PR
4.6
It was decided that SE is not a fundamental intrinsic property of the rock. It is highly
dependent on type and design of bit. This means that for a formation of given
14
Chapter # 4
strength, a soft formation bit will produce an entirely different value of SE from that
produced by hard formation bit. This property of SE therefore, affords accurate means
for selection of appropriate bit type. The bit that gives the lowest value of SE in a
given section is the most economical bit.
Equation of SE also shows that, for a given type in a formation of constant strength,
SE can be taken constant under any combination of WN values. This is because
changes in WN usually lead to increase value of PR (under optimum hydraulics) and
this maintains the balance of equation. The ROP is, however highly influenced by
change in WN, and for a particular bit type an infinite number of PR values exist for
all possible combinations of WN values. It follows that SE is a direct measure of bit
performance in a particular formation and provides an indication of the interaction
between bit and rock. The fact that SE. when compared with the ROP, is less sensitive
to change in WN makes it practical tool for bit selection.
15
Chapter # 5
Journal Angle
Cutters
Bearings
Journal Angle
Cone Profile
Offset Angle
Journal Angle
Angle of Teeth
Length of Teeth
Number of Teeth
Spacing of Teeth
16
Shape of Teeth
Chapter # 5
Figure 5.1
Figure 5.2
17
Chapter # 5
A drill bit with zero offset has the centre lines of the three cones meeting at the centre of
the drill bit, see Figure 5.2. Skew angle is an angular measure of cone offset.
A cone with zero offset has a true rolling action as the cone moves in a circle centered at
the cone apex and bit centre.
If the cone is offset from the bit centre, then when the drill bit is rotated from surface, the
cone attempts to rotate around its own circle which is not centered at the bit centre. The
cone is forced by the much bigger drill string to rotate about the centerline of the bit and
drill string and this result in the cone slipping as it is rotating. This slipping produces
tearing and gouging actions which are beneficial in drilling soft rocks as it removes a
larger volume of rock.
The amount of offset is directly related to the strength of rock being drilled. Soft rocks
require a higher offset to produce greater scraping and gouging actions. Hard rocks
Cone Offset
Figure 5.3
Cone Onset
require less offset as rock breakage is dependent on crushing and chipping actions rather
than gouging, Cone offset increases ROP but also increases tooth wear, especially in the
gauge area, and increases the risk of tooth breakage.
As shown in Figure 5.4, drill bits can have slender and long teeth (Figure 5.4a) or short
and stubby teeth (Figure 5.4b). The long teeth are designed to drill soft formations with
Figure 5.4a. Tooth Shape low compressive strength where the rock is more yielding and
easily penetrated.
Figure 5.4
18
Chapter # 5
Penetration is achieved by applying weight on bit (WOB) which forces the teeth into the
rock by overcoming the rock compressive strength. Rotation of the bit helps to remove
the broken chips.
Harder rocks have high compressive strength and can not be easily penetrated using
typical field WOB values. Hard rock bits therefore have much shorter (and more) teeth
with a larger bearing area, therefore the short teeth will be less likely to break when they
are subjected to drilling loadings. The teeth apply load over a much larger area and break
the rock by a combination of crushing, creation of fractures and chipping. The teeth are
not intended to penetrate the rock, but simply to fracture it by the application of high
compressive loads.
Figure 5.5
19
Chapter # 5
Figure 5.6
Figure 5.7
20
Chapter # 5
Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
21
Chapter # 5
Gauge Retention
The majority of the drill bit work is spent around the heel and gauge area and therefore
this part suffers the greatest amount of wear.
Gauge trimmers are used to maintain bit gauge (diameter). This achieved by the use of Tshaped teeth on milled tooth bits and very short inserts in the gauge row. The gauge
inserts may be diamond coated.
Shirttail Protection
All drill bits may have tungsten carbide inserts placed in the heel area of the bit. A worn
shirttail (Figure 5.10) may expose the seal, leading to seal wear and bearing failure.
Various devices may be used to limit or delay shirttail wear. Tungsten Carbide Inserts
may be placed in the shirttail itself. Lug pads may be added to the upper part of the
shirttail. A band of hard metal can be added to the margin of the shirttail.
Figure 5.10
Chapter # 5
fluid and abrasive cuttings from entering the bearing cavities, 3) the shirttail is designed
and hard faced to protect the seal, 4) a lubricant, an elastic-hydrodynamic type, is used to
ensure minimum friction and wear, 5) the reservoir, which stores and supplies the
lubricant to the bearings, and 6) the vented breather plug, which transfers down hole fluid
pressure against the lubricant-filled flexible diaphragm to equalize pressures surrounding
the bearing seal Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11
There is, however, one serious drawback to the roller-ball-roller bearing system. The
primary cause of roller bearing failure is journal spalling, which causes destruction of the
rollers and the locking of the cone. To remedy this, instead of the standard roller bearing
assembly, the journal bearing system utilizes solid metal bushings for direct cone to
journal contact. This offers a distinct mechanical advantage over roller arrangements in
that it presents a larger contact area at the load bearing point. This distribution of the load
eliminated the chief cause of roller bearing assembly failure - spalling in the load portion
of the bearing face. Journal bearing systems in the tungsten carbide insert bits features a
metal bearing surface combined with a hard faced journal and a lubricant. Specialized
seals and reliable pressure equalization systems keeps the drilling fluid and formation
contaminants out of bearings, and positively seals the graphite-based lubricant inside the
23
Chapter # 5
bearing. Precision fit of the journal and cone distributes contact loading evenly
throughout a near-perfect arc. Bearing surfaces are finished to a carefully controlled
surface texture to ensure optimum lubrication. The manufacturing of the journal bearing
system consists of having the journals milled, grooved or pressed (depending on the bit
company) to accommodate the bushing. Then the bushings are inlaid on the journal. Once
the cone is fitted with teeth and gauge protection, the journal is then machine-pressed into
the cone. To complete the seal between the cone and the journal, special rings (seals)
have been developed.
Figure 5.12
24
Chapter # 5
5.2.7 Seals
The first and still most popular seal is the radial seal (used mainly on the sealed roller
bearing bits). The radial seal is a circular steel spring encased in rubber, which seals
against the face of the shank and the face of the cone. The newer O ring seal is
considered the most effective seal. The major problem confronting the O ring is
tolerance, which must be precise in order to maintain an effective seal. An understanding
of lubricants and lubricating systems is necessary for successful drilling operations. The
lubricating systems are essentially the same, and are composed of an external equalizer
located under the bit or on back of the shanks, a grease reservoir with some sort of
expandable diaphragm to distribute the grease, and some sort of distribution system to the
bearings. In addition, there is a pressure relief valve to release any trapped pressure,
which might otherwise rupture the seals. Pressure surges can be detrimental to these
sealed systems. As pressure and temperature increase, the viscosity of the lubricant
increases. As a result, the system cannot instantaneously compensate for abrupt changes
in pressure due to surges (going into the hole, making connections, etc.) and small
quantities of mud invade the system. With the close tolerance necessary for effective
sealing, mud solids can be damaging. Adequate cleaning is even more important with
sealed bearing bits. If drilled cuttings are allowed to build up around the shirttail, seal
damage and premature bearing failure may result. Gauge protection is also important to
seal and bearing life, because seal damage can occur from shirttail wear caused by
inadequate gauge protection. Any time a sealed bearing bit is rerun, the seals and shirttail
should be carefully checked for excessive wear or grooving. To complete the journalcone assembly, a positive seal is required to keep drilling fluid out, while allowing the
graphite lubricant in, which keeps the bearings from overheating. The positive seal
requires a relief valve to allow escape of excess pressure, which can overload the seal and
cause seal failure.
Chapter # 5
Cutters
Number of Cutters and spacing of cutters
Size of Cutters
Back Rake
Side Rake
3. Geometry of Bit
Number of Blades
Blade Depth
4. Diamond table
Substrate interface
Composition
Shape
Number of Cutters
Soft rocks can be penetrated easily and hence fewer cutters are used on soft PDC bits as
each cutter removes a greater depth of cut. More cutters must be added to hard PDC bits
for harder formation to compensate for the smaller depth of cut.
26
Chapter # 5
Cutter Size
Large cutters are used on softer formation bits and smaller cutters on the harder formation
bits. Usually a range of sizes is used, from 8mm to 19mm is used on any one bit.
Back Rake
Cutter orientation is described by back rake and side rake angles. Back rake is the angle
presented by the face of the cutter to the formation and is measured from the vertical, see
Figure the magnitude of rake angle affects penetration rate and cutter resistance to wear.
As the rake angle increase, ROP decreases but the resistance to wear increases as the
applied load is now spread over a much larger area.PDC cutters with small back rakes
take large depths of cut and are therefore more aggressive, generate high torque, and are
subjected to accelerated wear and greater risk of impact damage. Cutters with high back
rake have the reverse of the above. Back rake angles vary between, typically, 15 to 45.
They are not constant across the bit, nor from bit to bit.
Side Rake
Side rake is an equivalent measure of the orientation of the cutter from left to right. Side
rake angles are usually small. The side rake angle assists hole cleaning by mechanically
directing cuttings toward the annulus.
Cutter Shape
The edge of the cutters may be beveled or chamfered to reduce the damage caused by
impacts.
Bit Style
When all of the above features are put together, a variety of bit styles emerge as shown in
Figure. The bit on the extreme left of Figure is a light set bit with a few, high blades and a
few but large cutters with small back rake angles. Thus light set bits typically have a few,
high blades, with few large cutters, probably with low back
27
Chapter # 5
For hard rocks, PDC bits will have more blades, with smaller and more numerous cutters
and this trend continues to the heavy set bits on the extreme right.
Figure 5.13
Gauge Protection
As discussed before, the greatest amount of work is done on the heel and gauge of the
drill bit. A PDC bit that wears more on the gauge area will leave an under gauge hole
which will require reaming from the next bit. Reaming is time consuming and costly and
in some cases can actually destroy an entire bit without a single foot being drilled. Hence
maintaining gauge is very important. One or more PDC cutters may be positioned at the
gauge area. Pre-flatted cutters are used to place more diamond table against gauge.
Tungsten carbide inserts, some with natural or synthetic diamonds embedded in them
may be placed on the flank of the bit. A major advantage with fixed cutter bits over
roller cone bits are those the gauge on fixed cutter bits may be extended to a larger length
of the drill bit.
Bit Length
This is important for steer ability. Shorter bits are more steerable. The two bits on the left
of Figure 5.14 are sidetrack bits, with a short, flat profile. The Steering Wheel bit on the
right of is designed for general directional work
Figure 5.14
28
Chapter # 5
Bit Profile
Bit profile affects both cleaning and stability of the bit. The two most widely used
profiles are: double cone and shallow cone, Figure 5.15.
The double cone profile allows more cutters to be placed near the gauge giving better
gauge protection and allowing better directional control. The shallow cone profile gives
faster penetration but has less area for cleaning. In general a bit with a deep cone will
tend to be more stable than a shallow cone.
Figure 5.15
Blade Geometry
PDC bits can be manufactured with a variety of blade shapes ranging from straight to
complex curve shapes. Experience has shown that curved blades provide a greater
stability to the bit especially when the bit first contacts the rock.
Blade Height
A soft formation PDC bit will have a lager blade height than a hard PDC bit with a
consequent increase in junk slot area. Higher blades can be made in steel bodied- bits
than matrix bits, because of the greater strength of steel over that of matrix.
Number of Blades
Using the same analogy for roller cone bits, a PDC
bit designed for soft rocks has a fewer blades (and
cutters) than one designed for hard rocks. The soft
formation PDC bit will therefore have a large junk
slot area to remove the large volume of cut rock and
to reduce bit balling in clay formations, Figure 5.16a.
Figure 5.16
29
Chapter # 5
A hard PDC bit with many blades requires many small cutters, each cutter removing a
small amount of rock, Figure 5.16b.
Figure 5.17
30
Chapter # 5
31
Chapter # 6
Cutting Structure
0
No Wear
50% Wear
No Useable Cutting
Using a linear scale from 0 to 8, as before, a value is given to cutter wear in both the,
32
Chapter # 6
Figure 6.1
Chapter # 6
in the area
Dull/Other Characteristics
BC -Broken Cone
LT -Lost Teeth/Cutters
BF -Bond Failure
NO - No Major/Other Dull
BT -Broken Teeth/Cutters
NR -Not Rerun-able
BU -Balled Up
OC -Off-Center Wear
CC -Cracked Cone
PB -Pinched Bit
CD -Cone Dragged
PN -Plugged Nozzle/
CI -Cone Interference
Flow Passage
CR -Cored
RG -Rounded Gauge
CT -Chipped Teeth/Cutters
RO -Ring Out
ER -Erosion
RR Rerun-able
SD -Shirttail Damage
HC -Heat Checking
JD -Junk Damage
TR -Tracking
LC -Lost Cone
LN -Lost Nozzle
WT -Worn Teeth/Cutters
The most prominent or "primary" physical change from new condition of a cutter is
recorded in the third space. "Other" dull characteristics of the bit are noted in the
seventh space the difference being that space 3 describes cutter wear, while space 7
may concern other wear characteristics of the bit as a whole. Codes for dull
characteristics of both categories are listed in the table in Figure 6.1, including the
addition of "BF" for bond failure.
Location
C - Cone
G - Gauge
N - Nose (Row)
T - Taper
M - Middle Row
S Shoulder
H Heel Row
34
Chapter # 6
Figure6. 3
The fourth space is used to indicate the location of the primary dull characteristic
noted in the third space. Locations are designated in the diagram.
Bearing/Seals
Non-Sealed Bearing
Sealed Bearing
No life Used
Seals Effective
Sealed Failed
Gauge
1
in gauge
Chapter # 6
relate specifically to cutting structure wear, as recorded in the third space, or may note
identifiable wear of the bit as a whole, such as "erosion". Many times, this
"secondary" dull grade identifies the cause of the dull characteristic noted in the third
space.
Codes for grading both "primary" and "secondary" dull characteristics are listed in the
table shown in Figure. The designations "RR" and "NR" have been included as
options for noting whether the bit is rerun-able or not.
FM-Formation Change
HP-Hole Problems
HR-Hours
PP-Pump Pressure
PR-Penetration Rate
LOG-Run Logs
RIG-Rig Repair
TQ-Torque
CM-Condition Mud
TW-Twist Off
CP-Core Point
WC-Weather Conditions
DP-Drill Plug
6.5 Conclusion
Despite their minor nature, the changes described in this "First Revision to the IADC
Dull Grading System" are expected to facilitate easier, more accurate evaluation of
fixed cutter bit wear. With the addition of new dull characteristic codes, more specific
descriptions of bit wear are possible, while the revised criteria for measuring PDC
cutter wear will ensure a standard approach is taken in each instance. Thus, a dull
grade ultimately will "mean the same thing" to everyone, as originally intended.
36
Chapter # 6
The above are some examples of grading for the fixed cutter bits.
Chapter # 6
CD (Cone Dragged)
Failure)
CI (Cone Interference)
CR (Cored)
BT (Broken Teeth)
BU (Balled
Up)
CC (Crocked Cone)
CT (Chipped Teeth)
ER (Erosion)
38
Chapter # 6
PN (Plugged Nozzle)
HC (Heat Checking)
RG (Rounded Gage)
JD (Junk Damage)
SD (Shirttail Damage)
LC (Lost Cone)
LN (Lost Nozzle)
TR (Tracking)
LT (Lost Teeth)
WT (Worn Teeth)
2.
3.
4.
BF (Bond Failure)
5.
39
Chapter # 6
BT (Broken Teeth)
In some formations BT is a normal wear characteristic of
tungsten carbide inserts bits and is not necessarily an
indicator of any problems in bit selection or operating
practices.
2.
3.
4.
BU (Balled Up)
A balled up bit will show tooth wear due to skidding,
caused by a cone, or cones, not turning due to formation
being packed between the cones. The bit will look as if
a bearing had locked up even though the bearings are
still good.
2.
Forcing the bit into formation cuttings with the pump not running.
3.
CC (Cracked Cone)
A crocked cone is the start of a broken or lost cone and
has many of the same possible causes.
40
3.
4.
5.
6.
Chapter # 6
Cone interference.
CD (Cone Dragged)
This dull characteristic indicates that one or more
of the cones did not turn during part of the bit run,
indicated by one or more flat wear spots.
cones.
2.
3.
4.
5.
CI (Cone Interference)
Cone interference often leads to cone grooving and
broken teeth and is sometimes mistaken for formation
damage. Broken teeth caused by cone interference are
not an indicator of improper bit selection.
2.
3.
CR (Cored)
A bit is cored when its centermost cutters are worn
and/or broken off. A bit can also be cored when the
41
Chapter # 6
2.
CT (Chipped Teeth)
On tungsten carbide insert bits, chipped insert often
become broken teeth. A tooth is considered chipped,
as opposed to broken, if a substantial part of the
tooth remains above the cone shell.
Some causes of chipped teeth are:
1.
2.
3.
ER (Erosion)
Fluid erosion leads to cutter reduction and/or loss
of cone shell material. The loss of cone shell
material on tungsten carbide insert bits can lead to
a loss of inserts due to the reduced support and
grip of the cone shell material.
Abrasive formation contacting the cone shell between the cutters, caused by
tracking, off-center wear, or excessive WOB.
2.
3.
4.
42
Chapter # 6
Low WOB and high RPM, often used in attempting to control deviation.
HC (Heat Checking)
This dulling characteristic happens when a cutter is
overheated due to dragging on the formation and is
then cooled by the drilling fluid over many cycles.
1.
2.
JD (Junk Damage)
Junk damage can be detected by marks on any part
of the bit. Junk damage can lead to broken teeth,
damaged shirttail, and shortened bit runs and
therefore can become a problem.
1.
Junk dropped in the hole from the surface (tong dies, tools, etc.).
2.
Junk from the drill string (reamer pins, stabilizer blades, etc.).
3.
Junk from a previous bit run (tungsten carbide inserts, ball bearings, etc.).
4.
43
Chapter # 6
LC (Lost Cone)
It is possible to lose one or more cones in many ways.
With few exceptions, the lost cone must be cleared
from the hole before drilling can resume.
1.
2.
3.
4.
LN (Lost Nozzle)
While LN is not a curing structure dulling
characteristic, it is an important "Other Dulling
Characteristic" that can help describe a bit condition.
A lost nozzle causes a pressure decrease which
requires that the bit be pulled out of the hole. A lost Figure Lost Nozzle, LN While LN
nozzle is also a source of junk in the hole.
2.
3.
LT (Lost Teeth)
This dulling characteristic leaves entire tungsten
carbide inserts in the hole which are far more
detrimental to the rest of the bit than are broken
inserts.
1.
2.
Chapter # 6
3.
4.
5.
penetration rate
2.
3.
PB (Pinched Bit)
Bits become pinched when they are mechanically
forced to a less than original gauge. Pinched bits can
lead to broken teeth, chipped teeth, cone interference,
dragged cones and many other cutting structure
dulling characteristics.
2.
3.
Chapter # 6
PN (Plugged Nozzle)
This dulling characteristic does not describe the
cutting structure but can be useful in providing
information about a bit run. A plugged nozzle can
lead to reduced hydraulics or force a trip out of the
hole due to excessive pump pressure.
2.
Solid material going up the drill string through the bit on a connection and
becoming lodged in a nozzle when circulation is resumed.
3.
Solid material pumped down the drill string and becoming lodged in a nozzle.
RG (Rounded Gage)
This dulling characteristic describes a bit that has
experienced gauge wear in a rounded manner, but will
still drill a full size hole. The gauge inserts may be less
than nominal bit diameter but the cone backfaces are
still at nominal diameter.
2.
SD (Shirttail Damage)
Shirttail damage may be different than junk damage
and is not a cutting structure dulling characteristic.
Shirttail wear can lead to seal failures.
Some causes of shirttail damage are:
Figure Shirttail Damage, SD
1.
2.
3.
A pinched bit causing the shirttails to be the outer most part of the bit.
4.
Chapter # 6
TR (Tracking)
2.
quickly.
WT (Worn Teeth)
This is a normal dulling characteristic of the tungsten
carbide insert bits as well as for the soft tooth bits.
When WT is noted for steel tooth bits, it is also often
appropriate to note self sharpening (SS) or flat crested
(FC) wear.
47
Chapter # 6
48
Chapter # 7
7.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with practical methods of calculating pressure losses in the various
parts of the circulating system and the selection of nozzle sizes. Several models exist
for the calculation of pressure losses in pipes and annulus. Each model is based on a
set of assumptions which cannot be completely fulfilled in any drilling situation. The
Bingham plastic, Power law and Herschel-Buckley models are the most widely used
in the oil industry.
Surface connections.
2.
3.
4.
Drill Bit.
Figure 7.1
49
Chapter # 7
Our objective is to calculate the pressure (energy) losses in every part of the
circulating system and then find the total system losses. This will then determine the
pumping requirements from the rig pumps and in turn the horse power requirements.
7.1
Where
= mud weight (lbm/gal)
Q = volume rate (gpm)
E = a constant depending on type of surface equipment used
PV = plastic viscosity (cp)
In practice, there are only four types of surface equipment; each type is characterized
by the dimensions of standpipe, Kelly, rotary hose and swivel. Table below
summaries the four types of surface equipment.
Table: Types of surface equipment
50
Chapter # 7
Dimensions of drillpipe (or drill collars), e.g. inside and outside diameter and
length;
Mud rheological properties, which include mud weight, plastic viscosity and
yield point; and
It should be noted that the actual behavior of drilling fluids downhole is not accurately
known and fluid properties measured at the surface usually assume different values at
the elevated temperature and pressure downhole.
51
Chapter # 7
when the
52
Chapter # 7
Figure7. 2
Laminar
Turbulent
Transitional
7.4.2Turbulent flow:
This flow occurs at high shear rates where the fluid particles move in a disorderly and
are pushed forward by current eddies. Friction between the fluid and the channel walls
53
Chapter # 7
is highest for this type of flow. This is a typical flow inside the drillpipe and
drillcollars. Unlike laminar flow, mud parameters (viscosity and yield point) are not
significant in calculating frictional pressure losses for mud in turbulent flow.
Water
Diesel
Glycerin
Clear brines
Non-Newtonian fluids have viscosities that depend on measured shear rates for a
given temperature and pressure. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids include:
In drilling operations, practically all drilling fluids are non-Newtonian. Even brines
which are used as completion fluids are not truly Newtonian fluids, as the dissolved
solids in them make them behave in a non-Newtonian manner.
54
Chapter # 7
Figure 7.3
YP PV
7.2
Where;
= measured shear stress in lb/100 ft
YP = yield point in lb/100 ft
PV = plastic viscosity in cp
= shear rate in sec1
55
Chapter # 7
Figure 7.4
YP = (2 300) 600
7.3
7.4
7.5
Figure 7.4a
Figures 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5 describe the Bingham Plastic model. The slope of a line
connecting any point on the straight line to the origin is described as the apparent
viscosity at that particular shear rate, Figure 9.4.
Figure 7.5
The Bingham Plastic model usually over predicts yield stresses (shear stresses at zero
shear rate) by 40 to 90 percent.
The following equation produces more realistic values of yield stress at low shear
rates:
56
Chapter # 7
K ( )n
Where
=
K=
Consistency Index
n=
600
)
300
300
551n
7.7
7.8
The constant n is called the POWER LAW INDEX and its value indicates the
degree of non-Newtonian behavior over a given shear rate range. If 'n' = 1, the
behavior of the fluids considered to be Newtonian. As 'n' decreases in value, the
behavior of the fluid is more non Newtonian and the viscosity will decrease with an
increase in shear rate. The constant n has no units.
Chapter # 7
0 K ( ) n
7.9
Where;
= measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2
6.
7.
Calculate pressure loses inside the drill-pipe first then inside drill-collars as
follows:
4.
Chapter # 7
6. Repeat step four for flow around drill-pipe in the open and cased hole sections.
7. Add the values from step 1 to 5, call these system losses
8. Determine the pressure drop available for the bit = pump pressure - system losses
9. Determine nozzle velocity, total flow area and nozzle sizes
The following equations are given for the Bingham Plastic and Power Law models.
The field units used here are:
OD = outside diameter (in), ID = inside diameter (in), L = length (ft), = density
(ppg)
V = velocity (ft/sec) or (ft/min), PV = viscosity (cp), YP = yield point (lab/100ft
Pipe Flow
Determine average velocity and critical velocity (V and Vc):
V=
24.5Q
D2
7.10
VC
97 PV 97 PV 2 8.2 D 2YP
D
7.11
7.12
L PV V L YP
90,000 D 2 225 D
7.13
59
Chapter # 7
Annular Flow
Determine average velocity and critical velocity (Vand Vc):
V=
24.5Q
Dh2 OD 2
7.14
VC
97 PV 97 PV 2 6.2 D 2YP
De
7.15
Where
De Dh OD
If V> Vc flow is turbulent; use
P
7.16
L PV V
L YP
2
60,000 D e 225 De
7.17
600
)
300
7.18
300
551n
7.19
Where
5.82 104 K
VC
1
)
2n
1.6 (3n 1) 1 n
D 4n
24.5Q
D2
7.20
7.21
7.22
Chapter # 7
KL 2.41V 2n+1
P
De 3n
300 De
7.23
Figure 7.6
In some situations where the rock is soft to medium in hardness, the main objective is
to provide maximum cleaning and not maximum jetting action. In this case a high
flow rate is required with bigger nozzles.
To determine the pressure drop across the bit, add the total pressure drops across the
system, i.e. P1+ P2 +P3 +P4+P5 to give a total value of Pc (described as the system
pressure loss). Then determine the pressure rating of the pump used. If this pump is
to be operated at, say, 80-90% of its rated value, then the pressure drop across the bit
is simply pump pressure minus Pc.
61
Chapter # 7
7.8.1 Procedure
A.
B.
7.24
C.
7.25
Pbit
D.
7.26
Q
Vn
incompressible
through
converging
2g 2g
7.27
Figure 7.7
Where
P1&P2 = pressure lb/sq. ft
= density lb/cu. ft
2g
7.28
22 2 g
7.29
7.30
Where C is the flow or nozzle coefficient for a particular design with these
substitutions the equation become
62
Chapter # 7
Q 2
2 gC 2 A22
7.31
q2
7430C 2 d 4
7.32
Where
d= nozzle or water-cut diameter, in
Eckal & Bielstein, have shown that C may be as high as 0.98 for properly designed jet
bit nozzles; however 0.95 is commonly used for field purposes. For ordinary watercuts which are merely flat drilled holes C= 0.80.
Q 2
2 gC 2 A22
7.33
Q12
2 gC 2 A12
7.34
Figure 7.8
7.35
7.36
7.37
Chapter # 7
7.38
Where
a
de
Figure 7.7 gives the relation between nozzle area and the pressure drop across bit at
different GPM.
Data:
Plastic velocity=12 cp
Yield point=12 lb/100 ft
Mud weight=8.8 lb/gal
Drill pipe ID=4.276 in
OD=5 in
Length=6,480 ft
Drill collars ID=2,875 in
OD=8 in
Length=620 ft (189 m)
Last casing was 13.375 in with an ID of 12.565 in. 13.375 in casing was set at 2,550
ft. The two pumps are to be operated at a maximum standpipe pressure of 2,200 psi.
Assume a surface equipment type of 4.
Solution
The solution to this example will be presented in Imperial units only.
64
Chapter # 7
From Table: Types of surface equipment, the value of the constant E for type 4 is 4.2
x 10; hence, Equation (1) becomes
P1 4.2 105 0.8 Q1.8 PV 0.2
P1 4.2 105 8.80.8 7001.8 120.2 52 psi
This graph the relation between circulation rate and pressure losses through surface
connections.
Figure 7.9
Pipe losses
Pressure losses inside drill-pipe 7.10 figure shows the relation between circulation
rate and pressure losses through drill pipe.
65
Chapter # 7
937.97 ft / min
2
D2
4.276
Figure 7.9
Critical velocity
VC
97 PV 97 PV 2 8.2 D 2YP
D
VC
Since V >Vc flow is turbulent and pressure drop inside drill pipe is calculated from:
P2
P2
670 psi
2074.9 ft / min
D2
(2.875)2
66
Chapter # 7
Figure 7.10
VC
Since V >Vc flow is turbulent and pressure loss inside drill collars P3 is determined
from
P3
7.11 figure shows the relation between circulation rate and pressure losses through
drill collar.
67
Chapter # 7
Figure 7.12
V=
2
c
Where the subscripts 'c' and' dp refer to casing and drill pipe respectively.
V=
24.5 700
129.1 ft / min
12.5652 52
VC
97 PV 97 PV 2 6.2 D 2YP
De
VC
Since V < Vc flow is laminar and the pressure loss around the drillpipe in the cased
hole is determined from:
P
L PV V
L YP
2
60,000 D e 225 De
Chapter # 7
2550 12 129.01
2550 12
21 psi
2
60,000 (12.56 5) 225 (12.56 5)
24.5 700
137 ft / min
12.252 52
VC 300.4 ft / min
Since V < Vc flow is laminar and the pressure loss around the drillpipe in the open
hole section is determined from:
Pb
3930 12 137
3930 12
35 psi
2
60,000 (12.25 5) 225 (12.25 5)
Where L = 6,480 - 2,550 = 3,930 ft, and L = length of drill-pipe in the open-hole
section). Hence, total pressure drop around drill-pipe is the sum of Pa and Pb. Thus,
P5 Pa Pb 21 35 56 psi
Pressure losses around drill collars
24.5 700
V=
199.3 ft / min
12.252 82
Vc 314 ft / min
Since V < Vc flow is laminar and the pressure loss around the drillpipe in the open
hole section is determined from:
P4
620 12 199.3
620 12
10 psi
2
60,000 (12.25 8) 225 (12.25 8)
Pbit
981
33.36
351.7 ft / sec
8.8
69
Chapter # 7
Q
700
0.32
0.6369in 2
Vn
351.7
4
16.64
3
Hence, select two nozzles of size 17 and one of size 16. The total area of these
32
nozzles is 0.6397 in2 which is slightly larger than the calculated area of 0.6369 in2
P1 E 0.8Q1.8 PV 0.2
300 PV YP 12 12 24
300
0.626
551n
70
Chapter # 7
Each criterion yields difference values of bit pressure drop and, in turn, different
nozzle sizes. Moreover, in most drilling operations the flow rate for each hole section
has already been fixed to provide optimum annular velocity and hole cleaning. This
leaves only one variable to optimize: the pressure drop across the bit, Pbit .
Chapter # 7
7.39
n
PS
n 1
Where
n = slope of Pc VS Q
Ps= maximum available surface pressure.
In the literature several values of n have been proposed, all of which fall in the range
1.8 - 1.86. Hence, when n = 1.86, Equation above gives Pbit= 0.65 Psi. In other words,
for bit optimum hydraulics, the pressure drop across the bit should be 65% of the total
available surface pressure.
The actual value of n can be determined in the field by running the mud pump at
several speeds and reading the resulting pressures. A graph of Pc (=Ps - Pbit) against Q
is then drawn. The slope of this graph is taken as the index n.
7.40
n
PS
n2
The bit impact force (IF) can be shown to be a function of Q and Pbit according to the
following equation.
IF
Q Pbit
7.41
58
Where
mudweight ( ppg )
4 TFA
3
Pbit
7.42
7.43
72
Chapter # 7
7.44
n
PC PS
P
n 1 S
7.45
n
PC
P
n 1 S
7.46
The value of n is equal to the slope of the Pc- Q graph. The optimum value of flow
rate, Qopt is obtained from the intersection of the Pc value and the Pc - Q graph.
For the next bit run, equation 7.7 and 7.8 is used to determine Pbit that will
produce maximum bit hydraulic horsepower. Nozzle sizes are then
selected by use of this value of Pbit.
For a particular rig and field the index n will not vary widely if the same drilling
parameters are used. For standardization purpose it is recommended that the above
test be run at three depths for each bit run. The average value of n for each bit run can
then be used for designing optimum hydraulics.
73
Chapter # 7
Drillpipe= 5/4.276
Pc = K Qn K =0.01,
n =1.86
n
PS
n 1
Pbit
1.86
3500 2276 psi
1.86 1
1225 0.01Q1.86 n
Q 554 gpm
Hence the optimized values are: Pc = 1224 psi, Q = 544 gpm and Pbit = 2276 psi
TFA (0.0096 Q )
(0.0096 544)
d n 32
Pbit
13
0.3947in 2
2276
4 TFA
4 0.3947
32
13.1
3
3
Q Pbit
58
544 13 2276
1613lb ft
58
74
Chapter # 7
7.47
BHHP
d2 / 4
7.48
75
Chapter # 8
Figure 8.1
8.1.1 Advantages
Impregnated bits are made of segments consisting of carbide matrix and crystalline
synthetic diamonds that are exposed approximately mm. They drill in a similar
fashion as natural diamond bit; the improvement is that as diamond becomes worn the
new diamonds are exposed. This gives them to drill the hardest, the most abrasive
formation at high RPM with a service life several time that of natural diamond. By
definition these are matrix bodies bits, the binding material however differ from that
used for other type of formation for which the bit is designed. It normally contains not
76
Chapter # 8
only cobalt and nickel but also copper and tungsten carbide. As the diamond particle
wear, new diamond particles are exposed.
8.1.1 (a) Enhanced Hydraulics
Impact-force directed where balling occurs with unique ported design. Enhanced ROP
with deep junk slots that optimize cuttings removal and limit hole swabbing during
trips.
8.1.1 (b) Matrix Flexibility
The matrix wears slightly faster than the diamond to ensure the most efficient cutting
structure. Each matrix formulation is matched to the lithology, achieving the optimal
rate of fresh, sharp diamonds for enhanced ROP.
8.1.2 Disadvantage
Due to the small depth of cutters, impregnated bits are well suited for very hard
formation; however, this small diamond exposure can be easily sealed off when
encountering soft rock. In the absence of abrasive sandstone to clean the segments,
the entire bit can be plugged off. The chart below shows the relation between the ROP
and WOB for this bit. The other chart also shows the same relation for the shale.
Figure 8.2
77
Chapter # 8
Figure 8.3
78
Chapter # 8
overloading.
A diamond impregnated stud was chosen because of its durability in harder formation.
The stud was kept separate from the PDC cutter to enable good heat dissipation from
the formation and stud interface. Sometimes hybrid consists of PDC cutters along
with thermally set polycrystalline cutters and diamond impregnated on the back side
for very hard and abrasive formation. PDC and TSP are used for soft to medium and
impregnated for hard and abrasive formations.
8.3 Design Optimization as Applied to Cutting Structure
In the foregoing only those basic fundamentals of rock-bit design which are common
to all types have been considered. Factors which govern basic cone or cutter
configuration and various design criteria apply regardless of whether the type under
consideration is for a soft or a hard formation. The design of a bit for use in a specific
category of formations obviously requires the application of additional design factors.
For example, journal angle and offset values, roiling characteristics of the cones, and
the effect of tooth depth on bearing-structure size, represent several of the factors
which must be considered in the cone-bit design.
8.3.1 Action of the cones
The action of the cones on the formation is of prime importance in regard to the
ability of a bit to drill with a desirable penetration rate. A soft-formation bit requires a
gouging-scraping action, whereas a hard-formation bit requires a chipping-crushing
action. Basically, these actions are governed by the degree to which the cones
approach that of a true roll. A maximum gouging-scraping action requires rolling
characteristics which vary the greatest from that of a true roll. A chipping-crushing
action requires that which more nearly approaches that of a true roll.
Factors in the design which produce these desirable characteristics are:
Degree of journal angle
Amount of offset
79
Chapter # 8
A combination of the smallest journal angle, largest offset angle, and greatest
variation in cone-profile angles will develop an action which varies the most from that
of a true roll. Conversely, a combination of the largest journal angle, no offset and
least variation in the cone profile will result in an action which closely approaches
that of a true roll.
8.3.2 For a hard formation
For the hard formation following factors may be considered
No offset; so that a hard-formation bit requires a chipping-crushing action. This
factor provides the necessary support.
Largest journal angle; so that these journals assist the excessive weight on bit. If
we keep journal angle small then this excessive load can break the journals.
Largest Bearing Structure; in the hard formation, generally the weight on bit is
kept very high to withstand these loads the bearing structure kept large.
Least Profile variation; tooth to tooth and tooth to groove spacing kept small
because in the hard formation, we have to increase number of cutters so that the
maximum impact is require and less wear and tear is observed. Due in part to
the abrasiveness of most of the hard formations and, in part, to the chipping
action of the bit, the teeth must be closely spaced to counteract rapid tooth.
Tooth angles must be kept large to withstand the heavy loads required to
overcome the compressive strength of the formation
Shallow Teeth; the teeth on a hard-formation bit are shallow, heavy, and closely
spaced. Due in part to the abrasiveness of most of the hard formations and, in
part, to the chipping action of the bit, the teeth must be closely spaced to
counteract rapid tooth wear and excessive lateral loading
Figure 8.4
80
Chapter # 8
81
Chapter # 8
8.6 Refining Bit Choice and Parameters Based On Previous Bit Run
A good bit choice, run correctly and pulled at the end of its economic life,
should show worn cutting structure and/or bearings. Severe dull bit features
(excessive gauge loss, broken cutters, cones locked, etc.) are warnings that
something went wrong, especially if the performance fell below expectations.
Try to ascertain what conditions may have caused the specific dull conditions
and evaluate what changes could be made to bit choice running procedures,
drilling parameters, BHA, mud, etc., to reduce the impact of these conditions.
For example, a common mistake is to assume that broken teeth equates to a
bit that is too soft; there are other more likely causes in most cases.
Downhole shock or vibration, hard nodules, or junk could all play a part.
Running too hard a bit for the formation is likely to compromise your overall
bit performance.
8.7 WOB (Weight on Bit):
When drilling, weight is applied to the cutters so that rock is penetrated. Up
to certain limits the more weight applied the faster the bit will drill. If too
much weight is applied, the cutters may become completely buried (known as
bit flounder) and weight will be taken by the cones or bit body. This will
reduce ROP and rapidly wear the cones. Increasing weight will also
accelerate wear on bearings and cutters.
Deviation is also affected by WOB. A rotary locked or build assembly will
have an increasing build tendency with greater weights; where a rotary
pendulum is in an established drop then increasing weight will tend to
increase drop, up to a point where further increasing the weight may produce
unpredictable results. In a vertical borehole with a flexible pendulum or build
BHA, increasing weight will deflect the well path from vertical. In a motorbent sub combination increased weight will increase side force at the bit, and
therefore accelerate the rate of direction change in the direction of tool face
azimuth, up to the point where motor stalls. When planning to change hole
direction, the BHA selected may dictate the approximate WOB to be used,
which may affect the bit Choice.
82
Chapter # 8
8.7.1 Weight-RPM:
Pan American's optimized drilling program is based on equations developed
by Galle & Woods and Billington & Blenkarn, which define how the
complex relationship between weight-on-bit and rpm affects the wear of a bit
it in a particular formation. To get some concept of optimization, it is
important to understand what these equations can provide in terms of data
output. Using these equations, the weight: rotary-speed relationship can be
categorized as follows:
8.7.2 Variable RPM-weight:
Because so few rigs are electric or completely versatile as far as range of rpm
and weight is concerned, little use can be made of a variable optimum rpm
and weight program. However, it is the most efficient method for drilling
with mill tooth bits.
8.7.3 Constant RPM- Variable Weight:
This method for drilling with mill tooth bits appears to be practical.
Generally, good drillers gradually apply more weight as bits become dull.
This method has not been widely accepted since it requires an automatic
driller and more supervision than other weight-rpm programs. However
where applicable, the constant rpm and variable weight method is
considerably more efficient than constant rpm and constant weight programs.
8.7.4 Constant RPM and Weight:
Because of the limitations indicated above, most computer programs have
been restricted to constant rpm and weight. Because so many limitations do
exist, it has been necessary to make programs as flexible as possible and to
cover as wide a range as the drilling engineer considers necessary. There are
three available approaches:
8.7.4 (a)Optimum RPM and Weight:
This is the rpm and weight that one might run if no limitations except the bit
could be considered. This is the rpm and weight for absolute minimum cost,
not considering any other factors such as condition of drill string, deviated
hole or development of torque.
83
Chapter # 8
84
Chapter # 8
ECD
Density)
(Equivalent Circulating
conditions
permit
pump
Figure 8.5
Chapter # 8
Rotary speeds that cause string vibrations (critical rotary speeds) must be avoided.
The driller should recognize this condition and modify RPM accordingly.
Two types of vibration can be related to drillstring rotary speed and the
calculated approximate speed of occurrence.
8.10.1 Longitudinal Drill-string Vibration:
Longitudinal Vcrit
78640
Lp
Vcrit 47000 D 2 d 2 / L2
D = pipe OD
d = pipe ID
L = joint length
(All measurements are in inches)
8.11 Minimizing Bit Whirl:
Bit whirl occurs where the friction at the gauge of the bit makes the center of
rotation locate itself at the edge of the bit (where the formation is in contact),
instead of the geometric center. Since the forces on the cutters are now in
different directions than the designed direction, cutter breakage can result.
Bit design seems to be the dominant factor. Good stabilization probably
decreases bit whirl and many bits are already advertised to be an "anti-whirl"
design. Whirl is often initiated when the bit just starts drilling, such as after
making a connection. Research has indicated that using the following
procedure after making a connection will minimize the chances of bit whirl
starting: While still off bottom, bring the mud pumps and the rotary table up
to speed. Slowly slack off until the bit starts to take weight. Increase the
WOB in small increments (say about 20% of planned total WOB) and allow
the rotary table to stabilize in between increments for 10-30 seconds (longer
for deeper ho 1 e).
86
Chapter # 8
Chapter # 8
grading, however, if grading are not done with care, it will mislead future
drillers. Record grading details and comments on the bit report. Make more
extensive comments and recommendati9ns in the end of section report for
inclusion in the final well report. The IADC 8 point grading should always
be used to grade bits. The first four digits refer to the cutting structure. The
last four digits refer to other characteristics.
88
Chapter # 9
9.0 Introduction
89
Chapter # 9
Chapter # 9
Sandstone. Water sensitive Clay contents, low matrix permeability, and a natural
fracture system all contribute to drilling and completion Problems. A comparison of
Conventional Drilling and Air Drilling is given the following table:
Bit
Drilling Method
Time Required
10-20 days
8-10
4 days
3-4
Used
Remarks
91
Chapter # 9
Bit
Bit
Bit
Jet
Depth
FT
ROP
Weight
RPM
No.
Size
Mfgr.
Type
Size
Out
formation
26.00
STC
MSDSHC
3X20
104.0
shale
104.00
1.30
0-10
90
700
26.00
STC
MSDSHC
3X20
169.0
shale
65.00
1.50
0-10
110
700
17.50
HW
GTX-C03
3X20
283.0
lime stone
114.00
5.70
25.00
90
400
17.50
VAREL
CR3GJMRS
OPEN
300.0
lime stone
17.00
2.10
28.00
85
100
5RR
17.50
HW
GTX-COR
OPEN
392.0
lime stone
92.00
3.68
28.00
95
100
17.50
VAREL
CR1GJMRS
OPEN
502.0
Shale
110.00
5.78
24.00
90
150
12.25
HUGHES
GX-09
3x16
792.0
Shale
290.00
5.70
14-16
110
560
LB
Pump
Press
6x14
8
12.25
HUGHES
HC606Z
2x16
800.0
Shale
7.00
8.00
4 to 6
120
900
12.25
HUGHES
GX-C20
OPEN
836.0
Shale
36.00
2.70
12 to 14
120
500
10RR
12.25
SMITH
FDS
OPEN
872.0
Shale
36.00
3.20
10 to 12
120
422
9RR
12.25
HUGHES
GX-C20
OPEN
974.0
Shale
102.00
3.10
10 to 12
120
500
6x14
8RR
12 1/4
HUGHES
HC606Z
2x16
120976.0
Shale
2.00
0.50
4 to 8
160
834
1207RR
12 1/4
HUGHES
GX-09
3x16
1013.0
Shale
55.00
2.07
6 to 8
130
1363
11011
12 1/4
VAREL
CH1GJM
4x 16
1151.0
Shale
120.00
2.94
12 to 14
120
1135
9012
8.5
SMITH
MFDGH
3x14
1199.0
sandstone
48.00
3.20
6 to 8
120
1000
12013
8.5
SECURITY
EBXS55
3x16
1275.0
sandstone
76.00
2.80
12to14
130
1040
11514
8.5
SMITH
XR+
3x14
1306.0
sandstone
31.00
3.20
6 to 8
3x12,
120
1200
115-
15
8.5
SMITH
M813VPX
3x14
1354.0
sandstone
48.00
4.80
4 to 6
120
1035
14RR
8.5
SMITH
XR+
3x14
1393.0
sandstone
39.00
1.25
10
75
216
13RR
8.5
SECURITY
EBXS55
3x16
1394.0
lime stone
1.00
0.50
10
65
216
16
8.5
REED
TD41A
3X18
1491.0
lime stone
89.00
3.37
10
65-85
325
17
8.5
SECURITY
EBXS55
OPEN
1579.0
lime stone
88.00
2.31
10
65-85
500
18
8.5
SECURITY
EBXS085
OPEN
1680.0
lime stone
101.00
2.50
10
65-85
485
12519
8.5
SMITH
F3
OPEN
1736.0
lime stone
56.00
1.10
12
65
500
20
8.5
REED
TD41A
3X18
2015.0
lime stone
279.00
2.75
12
65
800
21
8.5
SECURITY
FIX6632
6X18
2468.0
Shale
453.00
6.68
90
870
22
SMITH
XR+
OPEN
2491.0
lime stone
23.00
1.70
70
1558
75 to
23
REED
SL53
3 x 16
2593.0
lime stone
102.00
1.54
6 to 8
85
2010
75
24
SMITH
M813PX
4 x 12
2627.0
lime stone
34.00
3.00
4 to 6
to80
2130
75 to
25
HUGHES
HC406
4 x 12
2673.0
lime stone
46.00
1.44
4 to 12
100
2150
75 to
26
SMITH
XR10TPS
3 x 14
2751.0
lime stone
78.00
1.85
7 to 9
85
2433
75 to
27
REED
SL51HKP
3 x 16
2860.0
Shale
109.00
2.47
7 to 8
85
2130
28
SECURITY
XS20S
3 x 16
2956.0
sandstone
96.00
1.96
7 to 8
75 to
2246
92
Chapter # 9
85
75 to
24RR
SMITH
M813PX
4 x 12
3009.0
sandstone
53.00
1.73
4 to 9
100
2167
70 to
29
HUGHES
STX-20
3 x 14
3070.0
sandstone
61.00
1.39
8 to 10
75
2440
30
REED
SL51HP
3 x 14
3229.0
lime stone
159.00
2.65
70-75
2500
93
REFERENCES
1) Petroleum Engineering, Drilling and Well Completion; by Carl Gatlin.
PRENTICE-HALL, INC. 1960.
2) Well Engineering & Construction by Hussain Rabia.
3) Drilling Practices Manual by Preston L.Moore.
Second edition;PennWellBooks.
4) IADC Drilling Manual,eBook Version (V.11)
5) Advanced Oil Well Drilling Engineering Hand book & Computer programs; by
Mitchell
10th edition, 1st revision July 1995.
6) Smith Tools Bit Selection, Design, and Evaluation Manual by H.G.Bentson.
7) Drilling Optimization Service; End of Well Report; Presented To Norsk Hydro
8) www.bitbrokers.com
9) www.xeg.ca
10) www.HCCbits.com
11) www.lonestarbits.com