SPACE

1. THE EARTH HAS A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD THAT EXERTS A FORCE ON MASSES

1.1. DEFINE WEIGHT AS THE FORCE ON AN OBJECT DUE TO A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD
DEFINITIONS
Term

Definition

Mass
(kg)

The amount of matter contained within an object.

Weight
(N)

The force exerted upon an object while under acceleration due to gravity.

FORMUL AS

1.2. EXPL AIN THAT A CHANGE IN GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY IS REL ATED TO WORK
DONE
Work done is equal to the change in gravitational potential energy (final GPE initial GPE), where
gravitational potential energy within a uniform field is given as: GPE=mgh, and work done is given as
W=GPE. Therefore when you raise an object, its gravitational potential energy increases. The law of
conservation of energy states that: GPE initial Work = GPE final.
Therefore, if we increase GPE final, then work done is considered positive work done, since potential
energy is being added to the object. I.e. lifting an object off the ground. If we decrease GPE final, then
work done is considered negative work done, since potential energy has been taken away from the
object. I.e. Putting a ball on a table and then onto a ground. Hence, a change in the gravitational
potential energy of a mass is related to either positive or negative work being done.

1.3. DEFINE GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY

EXPL ANATION
If lowering an object into a gravitational field is considered negative work (since GPE is decreased),
then if we at any point lower an object into a gravitational field, it will result in a comparatively
negative (less than) GPE. If we decide to define the GPE at a distance towards infinity as 0 GPE, then
any work we do must bring the object back into the gravitational field. Hence, we will always lower an
objects GPE no matter what, if it was originally at an infinite distance.
Hence, we define GPE as work done from a point of infinite distance away as zero GPE, since this can
then be applied to any mass in the universe. I.e. a point of infinite distance away has no defined
position. This means this new formula for GPE can be applied to any mass.
FORMUL A

DIAGRAM

Note: The work done is used to decrease the potential energy of the mass, resulting in negative work
being done.

2. LAUNCHING ROCKETS INTO OUTER SPACE

2.1. IDENTIFY AND DERIVE THE EQUATIONS FOR MOTION

2.2. DESCRIBE GALILEOS ANAYLSIS OF PROJECTILE MOTION

Galileo analysed projectile motion as the sum of two acting components, the vertical and horizontal
components. Galileo realised that neglecting air resistance, the horizontal velocity component would
remain constant due to a lack of horizontal acceleration, whereas the gravitational pull from the planet
would provide vertical acceleration, causing the vertical velocity component to change over time. Note:
Refer to above equation of motion which mathematically represents projectile motion
2.3. EXPL AIN THE CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY AND HOW IT IS DERIVED
DERIVATION
Escape velocity is the velocity required to completely leave a gravitational field without further energy
input. This means that the kinetic energy of the object must exceed or be equal to its gravitational
potential energy. Hence, KE = GPE.

FORMUL A

2.4. OUTLINE NEWTONS CONCEPT OF ESCAPE VELOCITY

NEWTONS PROPOSAL
Newton proposed the idea of escape velocity through the idea of a cannon ball firing from the Earths
surface. Ignoring air resistance, if the projectile travelled at a low speed, it would form a parabolic
trajectory that will return to Earth. Increase the speed of the projectile, and it would increase the time
taken for the projectile to hit the ground. Increase the speed to a sufficient degree, and the projectile
will never hit the ground and form a circular orbit. Further increasing the speed will form an elliptical
orbit, and increasing to the escape velocity will form a parabolic trajectory (will never return).
Increasing above the escape velocity will form a hyperbolic trajectory.
TYPE OF ORBIT ACHIEVED
VELOCITIES REQUIRED FOR EACH TYPE OF ORBIT
Type of orbit

Velocity of projectile

Parabolic [returns to
Earth]

<V

orbit

Circular

=V

orbit

Elliptical

>V

orbit

Parabolic

=V

escape

Hyperbolic

>V

escape

and <V

escape

DIAGRAM

Note: C = Velocity of circular orbit, radius measured from perigee

2.5. IDENTIFY WHY THE TERM G-FORCE IS USED
DEFINITION

G-Force is the measure of the acceleration exerted upon object in terms of the Earths gravitational
acceleration, 9.8ms-2. I.e. An object undergoing 4Gs of acceleration will be experiencing an acceleration
of 9.8x4ms-2, which is equal to 39.2ms-2.
REASON FOR USAGE
G-Force is used as a measure of acceleration to explain forces acting upon an astronaut during launch,
since it provides a frame of reference to understand the magnitude of the forces. This is because at 1G,
we experience our normal weight force. By explaining the forces in terms of factors of Earths
gravitation acceleration, we can grasp the magnitude of those forces. I.e. 4Gs of acceleration will result
in astronaut experiencing 4 times their own normal weight force. (F weight = m * a)
Note: The term G-force is not explaining the forces acting upon the object, but in fact the reaction force
as a result of those forces. I.e. when you are freefalling, you still experience an acceleration of 9.8ms -2
due to gravity, however since the rocket falls with you, there is no surface to push against, hence the
reaction force is zero and you experience 0G.
However in a rocket launch, if the rocket is accelerating upwards at 9.8ms -2, this compounds with
Earths 9.8ms-2. Unlike freefalling, the rocket itself is accelerating upwards and pushing against the
astronaut allowing for reaction forces to occur. I.e. when the rocket is stationary, you experience 1G. As
the rocket accelerates up at 1G, this compounds with Earths gravitational acceleration, resulting in the
astronaut experiencing 2Gs.
2.6. DISCUSS THE EFFECT OF EARTHS ORBITAL MOTION AND ITS ROTATIONAL MOTION ON
THE LAUNCH OF A ROCKET
EARTHS ROTATION AND ORBITAL MOTION
EARTHS ROTATIONAL MOTION
Earth rotates around an axis, meaning that it possesses rotational motion. This rotational motion can be
exploited, by launching a rocket in the direction of this rotational motion. I.e. Initial launch velocity
combines with the Earths orbital velocity, thus assisting the launch into establishing orbit.

EARTHS ORBITAL MOTION

Earth orbits around the sun, meaning it has an orbital motion. When we launch rockets past Earths
escape velocity, so that we can reach other celestial objects in the solar system, we have to decide
whether to launch against or with Earths orbital motion, depending if we want to reach a lower or
higher orbit respectively, relative to the sun.

EFFECT ON INTERPLANETARY TRAVEL

EARTHS ROTATIONAL MOTION
Through the exploitation of Earths natural rotational motion, we can decrease the initial launch velocity
of the spacecraft if we launch in the direction of the Earths rotation. Since the Earth rotates around an
axis, the rotational motion is highest at the equator (the rotational frequency is the same at all
latitudes, however the distance travelled is highest at the Equator. Since t rotation = constant. V = D/t.
Therefore when the distance is a maximum, the velocity is a maximum).
Therefore, by launching from Earths equator and in the direction of the rotational motion, we can
decrease the initial launch velocity required, and therefore decreasing the amount of fuel required by
the spacecraft, thus reducing costs.
EARTHS ORBITAL MOTION
Likewise with Earths rotation motion, if we launch a spacecraft tangentially and in the same direction
to Earths orbital motion, we require less fuel to reach a higher orbit in the solar system. Similarly, by
launching tangentially and against Earths orbital motion, we require less fuel to reach a lower orbit in
the solar system.

2.7. ANALYSE THE CHANGING ACCELERATION OF A ROCKET DURING LAUNCH IN TERMS OF

THE:
L AW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
Law of conservation of momentum: Within a closed system, the initial momentum must be equal to
the final momentum.
In a rocket launch, this means that P rocket initial = P rocket final + P propellant.

Since the mass and velocity of exhaust gas is constant over time, then the momentum of the exhaust
gas is constant. Therefore, the magnitude of the momentum of the rocket is also constant. However
since the mass of the rocket decreases over time, the velocity of the rocket must increase as a result,
such that momentum is conserved.
Hence, as the velocity of the rocket increases as mass decreases, the acceleration must increase during
engine ignition since acceleration is equal to the change in velocity over time.
NEWTONS FIRST L AW
Newtons first law, F=ma, can also be used to explain the increasing acceleration upon an astronaut
during launch. Since the force produced by the engine is constant throughout the launch, then m*a is
also constant. Since the mass decreases during engine ignition, then acceleration of the rocket must
increase to compensate for the decreasing mass.
EFFECT ON FORCES EXERTED UPON AN ASTRONAUT
Since the acceleration of a rocket increases during engine ignition, this means that the forces upon an
astronaut must also increase, through F=ma (Newtons first law).

2.8. ANALYSE FORCES INVOVLED IN UNIFORM CIRCUL AR MOTION FOR OBJECTS ORBITING
THE EARTH
DERIVATION OF ORBITAL VELOCITY EQUATION
In order to maintain a circular orbit around Earth, a centripetal force must exist for this to occur. This
force is provided by the gravitational attraction between the two masses, meaning that the centripetal
force must be equal to this gravitational attractive force.

FORMUL A

2.9. COMPARE QUALITATIVELY LOW EARTH AND GEO -STATIONARY ORBITS

Low Earth Orbit

Geo-stationary orbit

Altitude (sea
level)

Low less than 2,000 km

High - 35,786 km

Orbital period

90 minutes

24 hours

Orbital speed

Fast

Slow

Applications

Space station, telescopes

Military surveillance, communications, weather

satellites

Inclination of
orbit

All inclinations

Equatorial

Disadvantages

Atmospheric drag, thus

requiring thrusters to
maintain orbit

Expensive to place into a high orbit, difficult to

conduct repairs

2.10. DERIVE KEPPLERS L AW OF PERIODS BY CONSIDERING THE ORBITAL VELOCITY,

CIRCUMFERENCE OF A CIRCUL AR ORBIT AND THE ORBITAL PERIOD
DERIVATION OF KEPPLERS L AW

FORMUL A

2.11. ACCOUNT FOR THE ORBITAL DECAY OF SATELLITES IN LOW EARTH ORBIT
Satellites in low Earth orbit will undergo frictional deceleration. This is because Earths atmosphere
extends beyond the 100km space boundary, meaning that satellites in low Earth orbit will collide with
air particles, resulting in frictional deceleration and therefore orbital decay over time. To counter this,
satellites in low Earth orbit have manoeuvring thrusters to maintain their initial orbital trajectory.
Other sources of orbital decay are:

Varying gravitational attraction due to non-uniform density of the Earths crust

Light and thermal energy can impart momentum to the spacecraft

2.12. DISCUSS ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH SAFE RE-ENTRY INTO THE EARTHS ATMOSPHERE
AND LANDING ON THE EARTHS SURFACE
Issue associated with
re-entry

Effect on spacecraft and astronauts

Thermal heating

G-forces

Atmospheric ionisation

Frictional heating between spacecraft and atmosphere produces high

temperatures that exceed 1700oC
Most metals and alloys would melt or fail at these temperatures
Spacecraft use ablative heatshields, which undergo mechanical wear
to release the heat energy from reheating
If the angle of re-entry is too high, the G-forces are exceed the
structural integrity of the spacecraft and astronauts on-board
If the angle of re-entry is too low, the deceleration from the
atmosphere will be insufficient and the spacecraft will bounce off the
atmosphere, since the inclined spacecraft will impart a lift force. (The
base of the spacecraft will act as a wing, by deflecting incoming air
particles and imparting a lift force on the aircraft)
High temperatures from frictional heating results in the air to become
ionised
Ionised air will for a blanket around the spacecraft and limit radio
communications

2.13. IDENTIFY THE OPTIMUM RE-ENTRY ANGLE FOR MANNED-SPACECRAFT

Optimum re-entry angle: 5.2o 7.2o

3. THE SOLAR SYSTEM IS HELD TOGETHER BY GRAVITY

3.1. DESCRIBE A GRAVITATIONAL FIELD IN THE REGION SURROUDING A MASSIVE OBJECT,
IN TERMS OF ITS EFFECTS ON OTHER MASSES IN IT

The gravitational field surrounding any mass, provides an attractive force to other masses, as well
as massless objects
The magnitude of the gravitational attraction is proportional to the inverse square of the distance
between the two bodies (F attraction 1/d2)

3.2. DEFINE NEWTONS L AW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

3.3. DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF NEWTONS L AW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION IN

UNDERSTANDING AND CALCUL ATING THE MOTION OF SATELLITES
DERIVATION OF THE ORBITAL VELOCITY OF A CIRCULAR ORBIT
The force of gravity serves as the centripetal force that maintains the orbital motion of an object. In a
circular orbit, this can be expressed as shown below.

FORMUL A FOR THE ORBITAL VELOCITY OF A CIRCULAR ORBIT

3.4. IDENTIFY THAT A SLINGSHOT EFFECT CAN BE PROVIDED BY PLANETS FOR SPACE
PROBES
A gravitational slingshot/gravity assist involves the use of a planets relative velocity and gravitational
field to alter the velocity and path of a satellite or spacecraft. It offers the benefit of conserving fuel,

time and cost, and is used to accelerate or decelerate an object.

4. CURRENT AND EMERGING UNDERSTANDING ABOUT TIME AND SPACE HAS BEEN
DEPENDENT UPON EARLIER MODELS OF THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
4.1. OUTLINE THE FEATURES OF THE AETHER MODEL FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT
Studies showed that waves appeared to require a medium to propagate through
Since light behaved light a wave, it was logical that there had to be a medium for light to travel
through
This medium was called the Aether
Fluid filling space
Transparent
Zero viscosity
Incompressible
Stationary absolute frame of reference
Massless
4.2. DESCRIBE AND EVALUATE THE MICHELSON-MORLEY ATTEMPT TO MEASURE THE
REL ATIVE VELOCITY OF THE EARTH THROUGH THE AETHER
AIM: TO DETERMINE EARTHS REL ATIVE VELOCITY WITH THE AETHER.
APPARATUS

DESCRIPTION

Designed to detect the motion of the Earth through the Aether

Coherent beam was split and sent into two directions where they were reflected back and
recombined
When recombined, it was expected there would be an interference pattern due to phase shifts from
the Aether wind affecting the speed of light as it opposed or was assisted by the relative motion of
the Earth through the Aether
As the apparatus was rotated, the interference pattern was expected to change, which could be
used to determine the relative motion of Earth through the Aether

RESULTS AND EVALUATION

RESULTS

No aether wind was detected

Results from the experiment provided evidence that the Aether was non-existent
Experiment was repeated at different locations on Earths orbit around the sun, however no
interference patterns were detected in any of these tests

EVALUATION

Failed at its aim (To determine Earths motion through the Aether)
Led to the questioning of the Aether model
Incorrect assumption that the Aether existed

4.3. DISCUSS THE ROLE OF THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENTS IN MAKING

DETERMINATIONS ABOUT COMPETING THEORIES
The Michelson-Morley experiments failed to determine the relative motion of the Earth through the
proposed Aether. This in turn led to the disproval of the Aether model for the transmission of light,
instead supporting Einsteins model of light. The two competing theories of the time, the Aether and
Einsteins relativity were unresolved. Einsteins theory stated that the speed of light was constant for all
frames of reference, which was supported through the results of the Michelson-Morley experiment.
Hence through the results gathered from the Michelson-Morley experiments, it was pivotal in the
support and proving of Einsteins theory of relativity.
4.4. OUTLINE THE NATURE OF INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
INERTIAL AND NON-INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
Inertial frames of references are non-accelerating environments, whereby an experiments conducted
within it cannot determine if it is stationary or moving at a constant velocity. I.e. Consider a two trains,
one moving at a constant velocity and the other stationary. Any experiments done in either train will
yield the same results, and as such they cannot be distinguished from each other.
NON-INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE
Non-inertial frames of references are accelerating environments whereby experiments can be
conducted to determine that it is accelerating. I.e. A spinning environment, such as a carousel will exert
a centripetal force on its participants. From the perspective of a stationary observer outside the
carousel, the participants are experiencing a centripetal force due to the restraints keeping them in
uniform circular motion. However from within the carousel, an unknown force is pulling the participants
towards the centre of the carousel. As such, the Newtonian laws are different in a non-inertial frame of
reference, and thus any conducted experiments will reveal the true nature of the non-inertial
environment.
4.5. DISCUSS THE PRINCIPLE OF REL ATIVITY
The Principle of relativity provides two postulates to consider. The first is that in all inertial frames of
reference, the laws of physics must remain constant. The second postulate is that in all inertial frames
of reference, the perceived speed of light must be constant from all observers. This has the effect of
making the speed of light constant, and turning distance, time and mass relative to velocity. I.e. In
order for the perceived speed of light to remain constant in all inertial frames of reference, distance,
time and mass must change to make this possible from all perspectives.
4.6. DESCRIBE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EINSTEINS ASSUMPTION OF THE CONSTANCY OF THE
SPEED OF LIGHT
Einsteins assumption of the constancy of the speed of light in all inertial reference frames results in
the ineffectiveness of Newtonian vector addition. I.e. Relative motion can exceed the speed of light
through vector addition. Thus, Einstein formulated the principle of relativity, which postulated that
distance, time and mass became relative to relative velocity, such that the perceived speed of light is a
constant in all inertial frames of reference.
4.7. IDENTIFY THAT IF C IS CONSTANT THEN SPACE AND TIME BECOME REL ATIVE
Einsteins assumption of the constancy of the speed of light has the implication of turning space and
time relative to motion. I.e. Time, distance and mass becomes relative to the relative velocity between

two inertial reference frames, and they change such that the perceived speed of light in all inertial
reference frames is a constancy.
4.8. DISCUSS THE CONCEPT THAT LENGTH STANDARDS ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF TIME IN
CONTRAST TO THE ORIGINAL METRE STANDARD
Originally the metre was based on the physical properties of various objects: 10 -7 x Circumference of
the Earth, or later the distance between two lines on a platinum-iridium bar. As of now, the metre is
defined as the distance light travels in

1
299792458

seconds. This has the effect of defining distance

in terms of time, contrasting that of the basis of the metre unit on the physical properties of various
objects. Hence time and space are related through the new definition of the metre unit.

4.9. EXPL AIN QUALITATIVELY AND QUANTITATIVELY THE CONSEQUENCE OF SPECIAL

REL ATIVITY IN REL ATION TO:
THE REL ATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY
DEFINITION
Simultaneity is the property of two events occurring at the same time in a frame of reference. The
relativity of simultaneity results in the observations between two inertial frames of reference to differ,
thereby events occur as they do relative to the observer.
THOUGHT EXPERIMENT
Relatively Stationary Observer

Relatively stationary observer sees the

light reach both ends of the train at the
same time
The distance travelled by the two beams
of lights is equal, and therefore the time
it takes them to reach each end is also
equal

Relatively Moving Observer

As the train moves, the distance between the

front and back of the train to the light source
increases and decreases respectively
This results in the light reaching the back first
before the front from the perspective of a
relatively moving observer

Conclusion
Hence, depending on the frame of reference, events cannot necessarily occur simultaneously and are
relative.
THE EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN MASS AND ENERGY
EQUATION

SIGNIFICANCE

E=mc2 suggests that any mass, whether it possesses no potential energy such as gravitational or
kinetic potential energy, will itself possess an enormous amount of energy through its mass. This
equation is used in nuclear processes, whereby mass is converted to energy. I.e. Nuclear fission and
fusion. Since c2 is an extremely large number, it infers that for every gram of mass it possesses 9x10 13
joules of energy.
LENGTH CONTRACTION, TIME DILATION, MASS DIL ATION

L0 = Length from
relatively stationary
observer
L v = Length from
relatively moving
observer
Length contracts as
relative motion
increases

t0 = Time from relatively

stationary observer
t v = Time from relatively
moving observer
Time dilates as relative
motion increases

m0 = Mass from relatively

stationary observer
m v = Mass from relatively
moving observer
Mass dilates as relative
motion increases

4.10. DISCUSS THE IMPLICATIONS OF MASS INCREASE, TIME DIL ATION AND LENGTH
CONTRACTION FOR SPACE TRAVEL

As relative velocity between the spacecraft and universe increases, the effects of time dilation,
length contraction and mass dilation begin to increase
As time dilates, the astronauts on board the spacecraft age slower in comparison to humans on
Earth
As length contracts, the distance between the spacecraft and its destination contracts
As mass dilates, the mass of the ship relative to an observer from Earth increases. A consequence
of this is that more energy is required to accelerate the object, since energy is being used to
increase its relative mass. Since mass dilates towards infinity as you approach the speed of light,
infinite energy is required to accelerate an object to the speed of light, which as of now is not
possible.