OUTLINE OF SEMINAR

ON
LIFE PROCESS AND GROWTH &
DEVELOPEMENT
Properties Of Living Beings Compared To Non - Living A. Movements
B. Grow
C. Need Food
D. Excret
E. Respiration
F. Reproduce

1. Introduction:- Various function are going inside our body and inside
body of living organism. These function are necessary to maintain the
living being. The maintenance function of living organism must go on even
when they are not doing anything particular. even when we are just sitting
in front of computer, even if we are just asleep, this maintenance job has
go on. The processes which together perform this maintenance job are life
process.

2. Definition of life process:- Life processes are processes undergoing

in living organism to sustain life. For example Respiration, Reproduction,
Excretion, Growth.

other definition ????????

3. Function of life process

Nutrition
Transport
Respiration
Excretion
Synthesis
Growth
Regulation
Reproduction

Nutrition:- When we walk or ride a bicycle, we are using up energy.

Even when we are not doing any apparent activity, energy is needed to
maintain a state of order in our body. We also need materials from outside
in orderto grow, develop, synthesise protein and other substances needed
in the body. This source of energy and materials is the food we eat.
The process by which an organism takes food and utilizes it is called
nutrition.
Need of nutrition: Organisms need energy to perform various activities.
The energy is supplied by the nutrients. Organisms need various raw
materials for growth and repair. These raw materials are provided by
nutrients.
Nutrients: Materials which provide nutrition to organisms are called
nutrients. Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are the main nutrients and are
called macronutrients. Minerals and vitamins are required in small
amounts and hence are called micronutrients.

How do living things get their food?

The general requirement for energy and materials is common in all
organisms, but it is fulfilled in different ways.
Autotrophs:- Some organisms use simple food material obtained from
inorganic sources in the form of carbon dioxide and water, called
Autotrophs. It include green
plants and some bacteria.
Heterotrophs:- Some organism are depends on directly or indirectly on
autotrophs, the called Heterotrophs. It include animals and fungi.

Autotrophic Nutrition
Carbon and energy requirements of the autotrophic organism are fulfilled
by photosynthesis. It is the process by which autotrophs take in
substances from the outside and convert them into stored forms of
energy. This material is taken in the form of carbon dioxide and water
which is converted into carbohydrates in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll. Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant.
The carbohydrates which are not used immediately are stored in the form
of starch, which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and
when required by the plant. A somewhat similar situation is seen in us
where some of the energy derived from the food we eat is stored in our
body in the form of glycogen.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS:6CO2 + 6H2O

-------------------> C6H1206 + 6O2

Carbon dioxide + Water ---------> Glucose + Oxygen

The following events occur during this process
(i) Absorption of light energy by
chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of light energy to chemical
energy and splitting of water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Reduction of carbon dioxide to
carbohydrates.

An experiment to show presence of starch in a plant leaf,

Take a potted plant with variegated leaves for example, money
plant
or crotons.
Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch
gets used up.
Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace
them
on a sheet of paper.
Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till the
alcohol begins to boil.
What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the
solution?
Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes.
Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of
the leaf done in the beginning .
What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various
areas
of the leaf?
Iodine after reacting with starch turns its colour to blue.

Heterotrophic Nutrition
Each organism is adapted to its environment. The form of nutrition
differs depending on the type and availability of food material as well
as how it is obtained by the organism. For example, whether the food
source is stationary (such as grass) or mobile (such as a deer), would
allow for differences in how the food is accessed and what is the nutritive
apparatus used by a cow and a lion. There is a range of strategies by
which the food is taken in and used by the organism. Some organisms
break-down the food material outside the body and then absorb it.
Examples are fungi like bread moulds, yeast and mushrooms. Others
take in whole material and break it down inside their bodies. What can
be taken in and broken down depends on the body design and
functioning. Some other organisms derive nutrition from plants or
animals without killing them. This parasitic nutritive strategy is used
by a wide variety of organisms like cuscuta (amar-bel), ticks, lice,
leeches and tape-worms.
Human Digestive System:- Human digestive system is complex and
elaborate system. the digestive system carries out following function.
a) Intake of food
b) Digestion of food
c) Assimilation of food
d) Expulsion of waste product

Respiration
The process by which a living being utilizes the food to get energy is
called respiration. Respiration is an oxidation reaction in which
carbohydrate is oxidized to produce energy. Mitochondrion is the site of
respiration and the energy released is stored in the form of ATP
(Adenosine triphosphate). ATP is stored in mitochondria and is released as
per need.

Steps of Respiration:
a. Breaking down glucose into pyruvate: This step happens in the
cytoplasm. Glucose molecule is broken down into pyruvic acid.
Glucose molecule is composed of 6 carbon atoms, while pyruvic
acid is composed of 3 carbon atoms.
b. Fate of Pyruvic Acid: Further breaking down of pyruvic acid takes
place in mitochondria and the molecules formed depend on the
type of respiration in a particular organism. Respiration is of two
types, viz. aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
Types of Respiration:
1. Aerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the
presence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is converted into carbon dioxide.

Energy is released and water molecule is also formed at the end of

this process.
2. Anaerobic Respiration: This type of respiration happens in the
absence of oxygen. Pyruvic acid is either converted into ethyl
alcohol or lactic acid. Ethyl alcohol is usually formed in case of
anaerobic respiration in microbes; like yeast or bacteria. Lactic acid
is formed in some microbes as well as in the muscle cells.
Glucose (6 carbon molecule) Pyruvate (3 carbon molecule) + Energy
Pyruvate (In yeast; lack of O2 ) Ethyl alcohol + Carbon dioxide + Energy
Pyruvate (In muscles; lack of O2 ) Lactic Acid + Energy
Pyruvate (In mitochondria; presence of O2 ) Carbon dioxide + Water +
Energy
The equations for above reactions can be written as follows:
C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
C6H12O6 C2H5OH + CO2
C6H12O6 CH3CHOHCOOH
Pain in Leg Muscles on Running: When someone runs too fast, he may
experience a throbbing pain the leg muscles. This happens because of
anaerobic respiration taking place in the muscles. During running, the
energy demand from the muscle cells increases. This is compensated by
anaerobic respiration and lactic acid is formed in the process. The
deposition of lactic acid causes the pain the leg muscles. The pain
subsides after taking rest for some time.
Exchange of Gases: For aerobic respiration; organisms need a
continuous supply of oxygen, and carbon dioxide produced during the
process needs to be removed from the body. Different organisms use
different methods for intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide.
Diffusion is the method which is utilized by unicellular and some simple
organisms for this purpose. In plants also, diffusion is utilized for exchange
of gases. In complex animals, respiratory system does the job of exchange
of gases. Gills are the respiratory organs for fishes. Fishes take in oxygen;
which is dissolved in water; through gills. Since availability of oxygen is
less in the aquatic environment so the breathing rate of aquatic organisms
is faster. Insects have a system of spiracles and tracheae which is used for
taking in oxygen.

Terrestrial organisms have developed lungs for exchange of gases.

Availability of oxygen is not a problem in the terrestrial environment so
breathing rate is slower compared to what it is in fishes.

Human Respiratory System:-The human respiratory system is

composed of a pair of lungs. These are attached to a system of tubes
which open on the outside through the nostrils. Following are the main
structures in the human respiratory system:
Nostrils: There two nostrils which converge to form a nasal passage. The
inner lining of the nostrils is lined by hairs and remains wet due to mucus
secretion. The mucus and the hairs help in filtering the dust particles out
from inhaled air. Further, air is warmed up when it enters the nasal
passage.
Pharynx: It is a tube like structure which continues after the nasal
passage.
Larynx: This part comes after the pharynx. This is also called the voice
box.
Trachea: This is composed of rings of cartilage. Cartilaginous rings
prevent the collapse of trachea in the absence of air.
Bronchi: A pair of bronchi comes out from the trachea; with one bronchus
going to each lung.
Bronchioles: A bronchus divides into branches and sub-branches; inside
the lung.
Alveoli: These are air-sacs at the end of bronchioles. Alveolus is
composed of a very thin membrane and is the place where blood
capillaries open. This is alveolus; where oxygen mixes with the blood and
carbon dioxide exits from the blood. The exchange of gases; in alveoli;
takes place due to pressure differential.

Breathing Mechanism: The breathing mechanism of lungs is controlled

by the diaphragm and the intercostalis muscles. Diaphragm is a
membrane which separates the thoracic chamber from the abdominal
cavity. When diaphragm moves down, the lungs expand and air is inhaled.
When diaphragm moves up, the lungs contract and air is exhaled.
Transportation in Animals
Circulatory System: The circulatory system is responsible for transport
of various substances in human beings. It is composed of the heart,
arteries, veins and blood capillaries. Blood plays the role of the carrier of
substances.
Heart: Heart is a muscular organ; which is composed of cardiac muscles.
It is so small that it can fit inside and adults fist. The heart is a pumping
organ which pumps the blood. The human heart is composed of four
chambers, viz. right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle and left ventricle.

Systole: Contraction of cardiac muscles is called systole.

Diastole: Relaxation of cardiac muscles is called diastole.

Fig: Human Heart

Arteries: These are thick-walled blood vessels which carry oxygenated
blood from the heart to different organs. Pulmonary arteries are
exceptions because they carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to
lungs; where oxygenation of blood takes place.
Veins: These are thin-walled blood vessels which carry deoxygenated
blood from different organs to the heart. Pulmonary veins are exceptions
because they carry oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart. Valves are
present in veins to prevent backflow of blood.
Capillaries: These are the blood vessels which have single-celled walls.
Blood: Blood is a connective tissue which plays the role of the carrier for
various substances in the body. Blood is composed of plasma, blood cells
and platelets.
Blood Plasma: Blood plasma is a pale coloured liquid which is mostly
composed of water. Blood plasma forms the matrix of blood.
Blood Cells: There are two types of blood cells, viz. Red Blood Cells
(RBCs) and White Blood Cells (WBCs).
Red Blood Corpuscles (RBCs): These are of red colour because of the
presence of haemoglobin which is a pigment. Haemoglobin readily
combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide. The transport of oxygen
happens through haemoglobin. Some part of carbon dioxide is also
transported through haemoglobin.
White Blood Corpuscles (WBCs): These are of pale white colour. They
play important role in the immunity.
Platelets: Platelets are responsible for blood coagulation. Blood
coagulation is a defense mechanism which prevents excess loss of blood;
in case of an injury.
Lymph: Lymph is similar to blood but RBCs are absent in lymph. Lymph is
formed from the fluid which leaks from blood capillaries and goes to the
intercellular spaces in the tissues. This fluid is collected through lymph
vessels and finally returns to the blood capillaries. Lymph also plays an
important role in the immune system.

Double Circulation: In the human heart, blood passes through the heart
twice in one cardiac cycle. This type of circulation is called double
circulation. One complete heart beat in which all the chambers of the
heart contract and relax once is called cardiac cycle. The heart beats
about 72 times per minute in a normal adult. In one cardiac cycle, the
heart pumps out 70 mL blood and thus about 4900 mL blood in a minute.
Double circulation ensures complete segregation of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood which is necessary for optimum energy production in
warm-blooded animals.
Circulation of Blood through the heart:
Systemic Vein Sinus Venosus Right Auricle Right Ventricle
Pulmonary Artery Lungs Pulmonary Vein Left Auricle Left
Ventricle Trunchus Arteriosus Systemic Circulation

Excretion
Removal of harmful waste from the body is called excretion. Many wastes
are produced during various metabolic activities. These need to be
removed in time because their accumulation in the body can be harmful
and even lethal for an organism.
Human Excretory System
The human excretory system is composed of a pair of kidneys. A tube;
called ureter; comes out of each kidney and goes to the urinary bladder.
Urine is collected in the urinary bladder, from where it is expelled out
through urethra as and when required.

Fig: Human Excretory System

Kidney: Kidney is a bean-shaped organ which lies near the vertebral

column in the abdominal cavity. The kidney is composed of many filtering
units; called nephrons. Nephron is called the functional unit of kidney.
Nephron: It is composed of a tangled mess of tubes and a filtering part;
called glomerulus. Glomerulus is a network of blood capillaries to which
renal artery is attached. The artery which takes blood to the glomerulus is
called afferent arteriole and the one receiving blood from the glomerulus
is called efferent arteriole. Glomerulus is enclosed in a capsule like
portion; called Bowmans capsule. The Bowmans capsule extends into a
fine tube which is highly coiled. Tubes from various nephrons converge
into collecting duct; which finally goes to the ureter.

Filtration in Glomerulus: Filtration happens because of very high

pressure inside the glomerulus. The lumen of efferent arteriole is smaller
than that of afferent arteriole. Due to this, the blood entering the
glomerulus experiences very high pressure and due to this, the waste
products are filtered out through the thin membrane of capillaries in the
glomerulus. The filtered blood is sent to the systemic circulation through
efferent arteriole and the filtrate goes to the Bowmans capsule. That is
how urine is formed inside the kidneys. Reabsorption of water and some
other filtrates takes place in the tubular part of the nephron. This
increases the concentration of urine. The human urine is mainly composed
of water and urea.
Transportation in Plants
Plants have specialized vascular tissues for transportation of substances.
There are two types of vascular tissues in plants, viz. xylem and phloem.

Xylem: Xylem is responsible for transportation of water and minerals. It is

composed of trachieds, xylem vessels, xylem parenchyma and xylem
fibre. Trachieds and xylem vessels are the conducting elements. The
xylem makes a continuous tube in plants which runs from roots to stem
and right up to the veins of leaves.
Phloem: Phloem is responsible for transportation of food. Phloem is
composed of sieve tubes, companion cells, phloem parenchyma and bast
fibres. Sieve tubes are the conducting elements in phloem.

Ascent of Sap
The upward movement of water and minerals from roots to different plant
parts is called ascent of sap. Many factors are at play in ascent of sap and
it takes place in many steps. They are explained as follows:

Fig: Ascent of Sap

Root Pressure: The walls of cells of root hairs are very thin. Water; from
soil; enters the root hairs because of osmosis. Root pressure is responsible
for movement of water up to the base of the stem.
Capillary Action: A very fine tube is called capillary. Water; or any liquid;
rises in the capillary because of physical forces and this phenomenon is
called capillary action. Water; in stem; rises up to some height because of
capillary action.
Adhesion-cohesion of Water Molecules: Water molecules make a
continuous column in the xylem because of forces of adhesion and
cohesion among the molecules.
Transpiration Pull: Loss of water vapour through stomata and lenticels;
in plants; is called transpiration. Transpiration through stomata creates
vacuum which creates a suction; called transpiration pull. The

transpiration pull sucks the water column from the xylem tubes and thus
water is able to rise to great heights in even the tallest plants.
Transport of Food: Transport of food in plants happens because of
utilization of energy. Thus, unlike the transport through xylem; it is a form
of active transport. Moreover, the flow of substances through phloem
takes place in both directions, i.e. it is a two-way traffic in phloem.

REPRODUCTION-Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilisation by sexual

intercourse. During this process, the male inserts his penis, which needs
to be erect, into the female's vagina, and then either partner initiates
rhythmic pelvic thrusts until the male ejaculates semen, which contains
sperm, into the vaginal canal.
the process by which living things produce new living things of the same
kind
there are 2 types
1) asexual reproduction--involves one parent and the offspring are identical
to the parent
2) sexual reproduction--involves two parents and the offspring is a
combination of both parents
Reproduction (or procreation) is the biological process by which new
individual organisms "offspring" are produced from their "parents". Reproduction
is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the
result of reproduction. There are two forms of reproduction: asexual andsexual.
In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of
another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to single-celled organisms.
The cloning of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual
reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself.
The evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle for biologists. The two-fold
cost of sex is that only 50% of organisms reproduce [1] and organisms only pass on
50% of their genes.[2]
Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual interaction of two specialized
organisms, called gametes, which contain half the number of chromosomes of
normal cells and are created bymeiosis, with typically a male fertilizing a female of

the same species to create a fertilized zygote. This produces offspringorganisms

whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms.
Contents
[hide]

1Asexual reproduction

2Sexual reproduction
o

2.1Allogamy

2.2Autogamy

2.3Mitosis and meiosis

3Same-sex reproduction

4Reproductive strategies
o

4.1Other types of reproductive strategies

5Asexual vs. sexual reproduction

6Life without reproduction

7Lottery principle

8See also

9Notes

10References

11Further reading

12External links
Asexual reproduction
Main article: Asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or

identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from
another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of

host cells to produce more viruses; Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydroidea)
and yeasts are able to reproduce bybudding. These organisms often do not possess
different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more
copies of themselves. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant
species Mycocepurus smithii is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.
Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually,
like hydra, yeast (See Mating of yeasts) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually.
For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproductionreproduction
without seeds or sporesbut can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may
exchange genetic information by conjugation.
Other ways of asexual reproduction
include parthenogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves
only mitosis. Parthenogenesis is the growth and development
of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in
some species, including lower plants (where it is
called apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, somebees and parasitic
wasps), and vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles,[3] fish, and, very
rarely, birds[4] and sharks[5]). It is sometimes also used to describe reproduction
modes in hermaphroditic species which can self-fertilize.
Sexual reproduction
Main article: Sexual reproduction
See also: Human reproduction

Hoverflies mating in midair flight

Sexual reproduction is a biological process that creates a new organism by

combining the genetic material of two organisms in a process that starts withmeiosis,
a specialized type of cell division. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of
the offspring's genetic makeup by creating haploid gametes. Most organisms form
two different types of gametes. In these anisogamousspecies, the two sexes are
referred to as male (producing sperm or microspores) and female (producing ova or
megaspores). In isogamous species, the gametes are similar or identical in form
(isogametes), but may have separable properties and then may be given other
different names (seeisogamy). For example, in the green alga, Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii, there are so-called "plus" and "minus" gametes. A few types of
organisms, such as ciliates,Paramecium aurelia, have more than two types of "sex",
called syngens.[6]
Most animals (including humans) and plants reproduce sexually. Sexually
reproducing organisms have different sets of genes for every trait (called alleles).
Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent, thereby ensuring that
offspring have a combination of the parents' genes. Diploid having two copies of
every gene within an organism, it is believed that "the masking of deleterious alleles
favors the evolution of a dominant diploid phase in organisms that alternate between
haploid and diploid phases" where recombination occurs freely.[7][8]
Bryophyte reproduces sexually but its commonly seen life forms are all haploid,
which produce gametes. The zygotes of the gametes develop into sporangium,
which produces haploid spores. The diploid stage is relatively short compared with
that of haploid stage, i.e. haploid dominance. The advantage of diploid, e.g.
heterosis, only takes place in diploid life stage. Bryophyte still maintains the sexual
reproduction during its evolution despite the fact that the haploid stage does not
benefit from heterosis at all. This may be an example that the sexual reproduction
has a bigger advantage by itself, since it allows gene shuffling
(hybrid or recombination between multiple loci) among different members of the
species, that permits natural selection of the fit over these new hybrids or
recombinants that are haploid forms.

Allogamy
Main article: Allogamy

Allogamy is the fertilization of an ovum from one individual with the spermatozoa of
another.

Autogamy
Main article: Self-pollination

Self-fertilization, also known as autogamy, occurs in hermaphroditic organisms

where the two gametes fused in fertilization come from the same individual. [citation
needed]

The term "autogamy" is also used for pollination (not necessarily leading to

successful fertilization) and describes self-pollination within the same flower,

distinguished from geitonogamy, transfer of pollen to a different flower on the
same flowering plant,[9] or within a single monoecious Gymnosperm plant. For
example, species Helonias bullata suffer from low genetic diversity due to selffertilization.[10]

Mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis and meiosis are types of cell division. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while
meiosis occurs in gametes.
Mitosis The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells.
The number of chromosomes in the offspring cells is the same as that of the parent
cell.
Meiosis The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This
results in cells with half the number ofchromosomes present in the parent cell.
A diploid cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (tetraploid to diploid to
haploid), in the process forming four haploid cells. This process occurs in two
phases, meiosis I and meiosis II.
Same-sex reproduction

In recent decades, developmental biologists have been researching and developing

techniques to facilitate same-sex reproduction.[11] The obvious approaches, subject to
a growing amount of activity, are female sperm and male eggs, with female sperm
closer to being a reality for humans, given that Japanese scientists have already
created female sperm for chickens. "However, the ratio of produced W chromosomebearing (W-bearing) spermatozoa fell substantially below expectations. It is therefore

concluded that most of the W-bearing PGC could not differentiate into spermatozoa
because of restricted spermatogenesis."[12] In 2004, by altering the function of a few
genes involved with imprinting, other Japanese scientists combined two mouse eggs
to produce daughter mice.[13]
Reproductive strategies
Further information: Modes of reproduction

There are a wide range of reproductive strategies employed by different species.

Some animals, such as the human andnorthern gannet, do not reach sexual
maturity for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others
reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive
to adulthood. For example, a rabbit(mature after 8 months) can produce 1030
offspring per year, and a fruit fly (mature after 1014 days) can produce up to 900
offspring per year. These two main strategies are known as K-selection (few
offspring) and r-selection (many offspring). Which strategy is favoured
by evolution depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can
devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring,
thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many
offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring; for these types of
animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough
individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as
honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called sperm storage thereby
increasing the duration of their fertility.

Other types of reproductive strategies

Main article: Semelparity and iteroparity

Polycyclic animals reproduce intermittently throughout their lives.

Semelparous organisms reproduce only once in their lifetime, such as annual

plants (including all grain crops), and certain species of salmon, spider, bamboo and
century plant. Often, they die shortly after reproduction. This is often associated with rstrategists.

Iteroparous organisms produce offspring in successive (e.g. annual or seasonal)

cycles, such as perennial plants. Iteroparous animals survive over multiple seasons (or
periodic condition changes). This is more associated with K-strategists.

Asexual vs. sexual reproduction

Illustration of the twofold cost of sexual reproduction. If each organism were to contribute to the
same number of offspring (two), (a) the population remains the same size each generation,
where the (b) asexual population doubles in size each generation.

Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number

exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all
members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce
sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large amount of variation in their
genes makes them less susceptible to disease.
Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually. Aphids, slime
molds, sea anemones, some species of starfish (by fragmentation), and many plants
are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is
employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant food supply,
adequate shelter, favorable climate, disease, optimum pH or a proper mix of other
lifestyle requirements. Populations of these organisms increase exponentially via
asexual reproductive strategies to take full advantage of the rich supply resources.
When food sources have been depleted, the climate becomes hostile, or individual
survival is jeopardized by some other adverse change in living conditions, these
organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction. Sexual reproduction ensures a
mixing of the gene pool of the species. The variations found in offspring of sexual
reproduction allow some individuals to be better suited for survival and provide a
mechanism for selective adaptation to occur. The meiosis stage of the sexual cycle
also allows especially effective repair of DNA damages (see Meiosis and Bernstein
et al.).[14] In addition, sexual reproduction usually results in the formation of a life

stage that is able to endure the conditions that threaten the offspring of an asexual
parent. Thus, seeds, spores, eggs, pupae, cysts or other "over-wintering" stages of
sexual reproduction ensure the survival during unfavorable times and the organism
can "wait out" adverse situations until a swing back to suitability occurs.
Life without reproduction

The existence of life without reproduction is the subject of some speculation. The
biological study of how the origin of lifeproduced reproducing organisms from nonreproducing elements is called abiogenesis. Whether or not there were several
independent abiogenetic events, biologists believe that the last universal ancestor to
all present life on Earth lived about 3.5 billion years ago.
Scientists have speculated about the possibility of creating life non-reproductively in
the laboratory. Several scientists have succeeded in producing simple viruses from
entirely non-living materials.[15] However, viruses are often regarded as not alive.
Being nothing more than a bit of RNA or DNA in a protein capsule, they have
no metabolism and can only replicate with the assistance of a hijacked cell's
metabolic machinery.
The production of a truly living organism (e.g. a simple bacterium) with no ancestors
would be a much more complex task, but may well be possible to some degree
according to current biological knowledge. A synthetic genome has been transferred
into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial
production of a new M. mycoides organism.[16]
There is some debate within the scientific community over whether this cell can be
considered completely synthetic[17] on the grounds that the chemically synthesized
genome was an almost 1:1 copy of a naturally occurring genome and, the recipient
cell was a naturally occurring bacterium. The Craig Venter Institute maintains the
term "synthetic bacterial cell" but they also clarify "...we do not consider this to be
"creating life from scratch" but rather we are creating new life out of already existing
life using synthetic DNA".[18] Venter plans to patent his experimental cells, stating that
"they are pretty clearly human inventions".[17] Its creators suggests that building
'synthetic life' would allow researchers to learn about life by building it, rather than by
tearing it apart. They also propose to stretch the boundaries between life and
machines until the two overlap to yield "truly programmable organisms".

[19]

Researchers involved stated that the creation of "true synthetic biochemical life" is

relatively close in reach with current technology and cheap compared to the effort
needed to place man on the Moon.[20]
Lottery principle

Sexual reproduction has many drawbacks, since it requires far more energy than
asexual reproduction and diverts the organisms from other pursuits, and there is
some argument about why so many species use it. George C.
Williams usedlottery tickets as an analogy in one explanation for the widespread use
of sexual reproduction.[21] He argued that asexual reproduction, which produces little
or no genetic variety in offspring, was like buying many tickets that all have the same
number, limiting the chance of "winning" - that is, producing surviving offspring.
Sexual reproduction, he argued, was like purchasing fewer tickets but with a greater
variety of numbers and therefore a greater chance of success. The point of this
analogy is that since asexual reproduction does not produce genetic variations, there
is little ability to quickly adapt to a changing environment. The lottery principle is less
accepted these days because of evidence that asexual reproduction is more
prevalent in unstable environments, the opposite of what it predicts

ovulation In humans, ovulation occurs about midway through the menstrual

cycle, after the follicular phase. The few days surrounding ovulation (from
approximately days 10 to 18 of a 28 day cycle), constitute the most fertile phase. [3][4][5]
[6]

The time from the beginning of the last menstrual period (LMP) until ovulation is,

on average, 14.6[7] days, but with substantial variation between females and between
cycles in any single female, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to
20.5[7] days.
The process of ovulation is controlled by the hypothalamus of the brain and through
the release of hormones secreted in theanterior lobe of the pituitary gland, luteinizing
hormone (LH) andfollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). In the pre-ovulatory phase of
the menstrual cycle, the ovarian follicle will undergo a series of transformations
called cumulus expansion, which is stimulated by FSH. After this is done, a hole
called the stigma will form in thefollicle, and the secondary oocyte will leave the
follicle through this hole. Ovulation is triggered by a spike in the amount of FSH and
LH released from the pituitary gland. During the luteal (post-ovulatory) phase, the
secondary oocyte will travel through thefallopian tubes toward the uterus.

If fertilized by a sperm, the fertilized secondary oocyte or ovum may implant there 6
12 days later.[8]

Follicular phase[edit]
See also: Folliculogenesis

The follicular phase (or proliferative phase) is the phase of the menstrual cycle
during which the ovarian follicles mature. The follicular phase lasts from the
beginning ofmenstruation to the start of ovulation.[9][10]
For ovulation to be successful, the ovum must be supported by the corona
radiataand cumulus oophorous granulosa cells. The latter undergo a period of
proliferation and mucification known as cumulus expansion. Mucification is the
secretion of ahyaluronic acid-rich cocktail that disperses and gathers the cumulus
cell network in a sticky matrix around the ovum. This network stays with the ovum
after ovulation and has been shown to be necessary for fertilization. [citation needed]
An increase in cumulus cell number causes a concomitant increase in antrum
fluidvolume that can swell the follicle to over 20 mm in diameter. It forms a
pronounced bulge at the surface of the ovary called the blister.[citation needed]

Ovulation[edit]
Estrogen levels peak towards the end of the follicular phase. This causes a surge in
levels of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). This lasts
from 24 to 36 hours, and results in the rupture of the ovarian follicles, causing the
oocyte to be released from the ovary via the oviduct. [11]
Through a signal transduction cascade initiated by LH, proteolytic enzymes are
secreted by the follicle that degrade the follicular tissue at the site of the blister,
forming a hole called the stigma. The cumulus-oocyte complex (COC) leaves the
ruptured follicle and moves out into the peritoneal cavity through the stigma, where it
is caught by the fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube (also called the oviduct).
After entering the oviduct, the ovum-cumulus complex is pushed along by cilia,
beginning its journey toward theuterus.[citation needed]
By this time, the oocyte has completed meiosis I, yielding two cells: the
larger secondary oocyte that contains all of the cytoplasmic material and a smaller,

inactive first polar body. Meiosis II follows at once but will be arrested in
the metaphaseand will so remain until fertilization. The spindle apparatus of the
second meiotic division appears at the time of ovulation. If no fertilization occurs, the
oocyte will degenerate between 12 and 24 hours after ovulation. [12]
The mucous membrane of the uterus, termed the functionalis, has reached its
maximum size, and so have the endometrialglands, although they are still nonsecretory.[citation needed]

Luteal phase[edit]
Main article: Luteal phase

The follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle
folds inward on itself, transforming into thecorpus luteum (pl. corpora lutea), a
steroidogenic cluster of cells that produces estrogen and progesterone. These
hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative
endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if
implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body
temperature by one-quarter to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree
Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of
the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar

tissue during menses.[citation needed]

Phases of Menstrual cycle

The day count for menstrual cycle begins on the first day of menstruation when
blood starts to come out of the vagina. In this section, the length of menstrual cycle
has been assumed to be 28 days (which is the average among women). The entire
duration of a Menstrual cycle can be divided into four main phases:
1.

Menstrual phase (From day 1 to 5)

2.

Follicular phase (From day 1 to 13)

3.

Ovulation phase (Day 14)

4.

Luteal phase (From day 15 to 28)

Menstrual phase (day 1-5)

Menstrual phase begins on the first day of menstruation and lasts till the 5th day of
the menstrual cycle. The following events occur during this phase:

The uterus sheds its inner lining of soft tissue and blood vessels which exits the body
from the vagina in the form of menstrual fluid.

Blood loss of 10 ml to 80 ml is considered normal.

You may experience abdominal cramps. These cramps are caused by the contraction
of the uterine and the abdominal muscles to expel the menstrual fluid.

Follicular phase (day 1-13)

This phase also begins on the first day of menstruation, but it lasts till the 13th day of
the menstrual cycle. The following events occur during this phase:

The pituitary gland secretes a hormone that stimulates the egg cells in the ovaries to
grow.

One of these egg cells begins to mature in a sac-like-structure called follicle. It takes
13 days for the egg cell to reach maturity.

While the egg cell matures, its follicle secretes a hormone that stimulates the uterus
to develop a lining of blood vessels and soft tissue called endometrium.

Ovulation phase (day 14)

On the 14th day of the cycle, the pituitary gland secretes a hormone that causes the
ovary to release the matured egg cell. The released egg cell is swept into the
fallopian tube by the cilia of the fimbriae. Fimbriae are finger like projections located
at the end of the fallopian tube close to the ovaries and cilia are slender hair like
projections on each Fimbria.

Luteal phase (day 15-28)

This phase begins on the 15th day and lasts till the end of the cycle. The following
events occur during this phase:

The egg cell released during the ovulation phase stays in the fallopian tube for 24
hours.

If a sperm cell does not impregnate the egg cell within that time, the egg cell
disintegrates.

The hormone that causes the uterus to retain its endometrium gets used up by the
end of the menstrual cycle. This causes the menstrual phase of the next cycle to begin.

References:

4. Growth & Development