1 RADON Dosimetry

Nuclear Track Detection, Vol. 1, No. 3/4, pp. 149-179. Pergamon Press, 1977.
Printed in Great Britain
R A D O N D O S I M E T R Y U S I N G PLASTIC N U C L E A R TRACK DETECTORS

A. L. FRANK and E. V. BENTON
Department of Physics, University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117, U.S.A.
(Received 31 August 1977)
A~traet--Although radon and its airborne daughter products are prevalent in our natural environment,
they constitute a significant hazard only when concentrated in some enclosure such as a mine, cave, cellar, or
house. This paper describes the nature of radon/daughter concentrations occurring in a variety of situations,
the resultant biological hazard, and present methods used-in the attempt to reduce man's exposure to harmful
radiation. Many attempts to perfect environmental and occupational dosimetry have been made. Area
monitoring methods are presently used, but can give only approximations of personal exposures. Several
personal dosimeters employing track-etch, TLD, and photographic film detectors have been developed and
are evaluated here on the basis of tests performed in working uranium-mine conditions. An improved passive
track-etch dosimeter for personal use is proposed which has a measurement range of about 30-400 WLH
with a 95 ~oconfidence interval of ~ 25 ~ for the accuracy of individual measurements in relatively stable mine
air. The cellulose nitrate plastic used in these measurements is only moderately sensitive (Ec-~ 3.5 MeV) and
performance can be improved by using a more sensitive detector. Some measurements of these dosimeters
adapted to environmental use are also presented.
J. INTaODUCTION
THE EXPOSURES of persons to radon gas and its
airborne daughter products is a problem which has
long been recognized in the uranium mining industry.
The association of high exposures to these 4Heparticle emitters with incidence of lung cancer is well
established (Holaday, 1969; Lorenz, 1944; Teleky,
1937; Wagoner et al., 1964). Extensive studies of this
relationship have been made (Archer et al., 1973;
Federal Radiation Council, 1967; Lundin et al., 1969;
National Academy of Engineering, 1968; Saccomanno
et al., 1964). It is now known that the daughter nuclei
are the agent for the major portion of the lung dose
deposition. When 222Rn decays in the air, this highly
reactive chain of particulate daughters is left in
suspension. When inhaled into a person's lungs, a large
percentage are collected from the air by the walls and
membranes of the respiratory system. The subsequent
4He-particle emissions result in concentrated doses to
the bronchial epithelium. In contrast only that small
fraction of the radon nuclei decaying within the lungs
contributes to absorbed dose, while the remainder is
freely exhaled. The important emissions are the 6.00
and 7.69MeV 4He particles from 218po and 214po.
The halflives of the daughters down to 214po are short
149
enough tfiat a collected or absorbed sample will be

mostly decayed out to this point of the chain within
four hours.
Recent studies with extensive miner exposure data
tend toward the conclusion that the incidence of lung
cancer is a linear function of accumulated exposure
(Ellett, 1977). A linear dose-effe.ct relationship means
that low exposures cannot be neglected. When spread
over a large population, even very low exposures can
lead to a significant number of deaths. The estimate
was made that there are about 200 deaths/yr per l0 s
population due to exposure to background radon
daughters. Concern for low-dose effects is supported
by animal studies where lung cancers have been found
after relatively low exposures (Little et al., 1975 ; Little
and O'Toole, 1974; Sanders, 1973; Yuile et al., 1967).
The possibilities for significant exposures to radon
daughters are extensive. Radon is everywhere present
in our natural environment to some degree. The source
of 222Rn is the 23su decay chain through 226Ra.
Uranium is present in all locations in soil and rock in
at least trace amounts. Some kinds of rock, such as
granites, shales, fluorspar, and sandstones can have
substantial uranium concentrations though not considered to be ores. As a noble gas, radon diffuses
readily through most soils and porous rock. There is a
150
A . L . FRANK and E. V. BENTON
continuous emanation from the ground. Ground

waterl such as wells, springs, etc. can also contain high
concentrations and can move the radon around.
Numerous measurements have been made of environmental radon, radium and uranium (Adams and
Lo.wder, 1964; Adams et al., 1974). A review of
environmental radon gives a probable average of
70 pCi/m a (0.07 pCi/1.) for surface concentrations over
the continents and about 5 pCi/m ~ over the oceans
(Harley, 1973). The average radon concentration in
ground water is estimated to be about 5000pCi/l.
These concentrations in themselves are not particularly hazardous. Th e maximum organ dose resulting
from them would be about 15 mrad/yr to the tracheobronchial region from the inhaled daughters. The
problem arises when the emanating radon is trapped in
some enclosure, be it mine, cave, cellar, house, or other,
where the concentrations can build up to many times
the ambient atmospheric levels.
The buildup in houses and other buildings is usually
less than for underground cavities but the resulting
exposure is suffered by the total population. Recent
studies and measurements have been made to examine
the problem (Auxier, 1976; Caruthers and Waltner,
1975; Parthasarathy, 1976; Steinh~iusler, 1975; T6th,
1972). The large variability of measured concentrations with meteorological parameters, particularly
atmospheric pressure, is shown (Steinh~iusler, 1975).
The variation of radon emanation from soil or other
solid surfaces as a function of atmospheric pressure is
well known (Clements and Wilkening, 1974; Jonassen,
1975). The importance of building materials which
may contain uranium, such as gypsum or granite, have
been found to be substantial (Auxier, 1976). One
investigator has concluded that living in unventilated
homes in Hungary would lead to absorbed doses of
about 800 mrad per year to the bronchial epithelium
and 120mrad per year to the lungs as a whole (T6th,
1972). He cites several other European studies which
substantiate his findings. The mean radon concentrations during his measurements were about 3.1 pCi/1.
In all studies made in multistory buildings, measurements have shown that the activities are highest in the
basement and first floor rooms. Concentrations drop
off substantially as floor level increases. The importance of ventilation is stressed by all investigators.
Activity concentrations in homes are much higher
during the cool winter months, when houses are
normally tightly, closed, than in the summer. This is
particularly true where air conditioning is used. The
need for new standards is cited (Caruthers and Waltner,

1975). Present standards limit exposures received in
excess of natural background. What constitutes natural
background under these conditions is unclear.
Some cases have been found where the radon/
daughter concentrations in homes and businesses have
been enhanced by man-made means. The use of uranium ore mill tailings as fill (Sick and Baird, 1972), and
the reclaiming of phosphate mining areas for housing
(Dumas, 1977) have been the major causes discovered
so far. The problem, in terms of activities found, has
been more severe in the buildings built on mill tailings.
The highest radon levels found in the structures
exceeded 200 pCi/l.
Underground cavities have a greater potential for
radon buildup than above-ground structures. Without
ventilation, it can be assumed that radon levels in
caverns would come into approximate equilibrium
with soil gas levels. These fall in the range of about 50-500 pCi/1, under ordinary conditions. The levels have
been measured in some natural caves and found to be
in this range, depending on the particular existing
ventilation patterns {Wilkening and Watkins, 1976;
Yarborough, 1977). Mines and the mining industry
contribute the highest levels of radon to be dealt with,
due to the presence of high concentrations of uranium
in the workings. Uranium mines have the greatest
potential for radon buildup but other types of mines
can also have quite high levels (Holaday, 1969; Federal
Radiation Council, 1967). Sweden, before the advent of
a uranium mining industry, found it necessary to
impose standards for radoh daughter exposures in
their mines (Snihs, 1973; Royal Swedish Board of
Industrial Safety, 1973). The high incidence of lung
cancer among veteran miners has been observed
throughout the world where the industry exists. The
magnitude of risk versus exposure among miners from
different countries has been found to vary considerably. This may be due to the difficulty in determining a miners true accumulated exposure, and a difference in methods for assigning this value. A recent
Czechoslovak study (gevc et al., 1976) suggests that the
risk may be greater than had been supposed from
corresponding U.S. studies (Archer et aI., 1973).
A recent development which may reveal more fully
the hazards associated with exposures to radon daughters has come through investigations of the causes of
a highel incidence of lung cancer and other diseases
among cigarette smokers. It has been found that
tobacco contains significant amounts of the long half-
151
RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

life radioisotopes, 2Xpb and 2Xpo (Martell, 1974;
Radford and Hunt, 1964; Singh and Nilekani, 1976).
These are the radon daughters, RaD and RaF and the
latter is a 4He-particle emitter. The daughter nuclei are
apparently collected from the air by the tobacco leaves
after the decay of atmospheric radon. The decaying
out of the short half-life daughters takes only a few
hours, leaving 2~Pb. It has also been found that these
nuclei are transferred to the lungs in cigarette smoke
(Kelly, 1965; Martell, 1974; Mogro-Campero and
Fleischer, 1977). It has been proposed, in a persuasive
exposition, that the buildup of these nuclei in the lungs
and their subsequent movement through the body by
the lymphatic system and blood vessels can account
for not only lung cancer but other cancers throughout
the body (Martell, 1975). Also, the atherosclerosis
plaques which lead to coronary occlusions may be
caused by the 4He-particle emissions from these nuclei.
daughter exposures presents a wide range of conditions and individual problems.
2. RADON DAUGHTER EXPOSURES

The important elements in the decay chain following
from radon are given in Table l, along with their half
lives, emissions and 4He-particle energies. The decay
chain can be separated between 214p0 and 21pb. The
daughters above decay out relatively quickly. Even
with rapid clearing of collected particles from the lungs,
a large part of the potential 4He-particle dose is
delivered to the bronchi. With effective clearing, only a
very small fraction of the final 210po emission will take
place there. In view of the cigarette problem, mentioned
above, the possible long-term buildup of even small
fractions of total 2tpb from inhaled air may not be
negligible. However, as the contribution of only a small
Table 1
Traditional
name
Radon
Radium A
Radium B
Radium C
Radium C'
Radium D
Radium E
Radium F
Radium G
Isotope
22ZRn
2~Spo
214pb
214Bi
214Po
21pb
21Bi
21Po
26pb
Half-life
Radiations
3.823 d
3.05 m
26.8 m
19.7 m
164/as
21 y
5.01 d
138.4d
stable
If this explanation of the effects of cigarette smoking

proves to be correct, then smoking may be considered
as a part of, and an addition to, the total inhalation of
radon daughters. The greatly increased incidence of
lung cancer in uranium miners who smoke, as compared to those who do not, is well known. The
introduction into the lungs by cigarette smoke"of
insoluble microparticles, onto which the daughter
nuclei can attach, also seems to be an important factor.
This prevents the daughters from being cleared from
the lungs by natural processes and allows those with
long half-lives to build up over extended periods. One
can conclude from these studies that a reduction in
current backgro.und exposures to radon daughters, as
well as prevention of increased exposures, is an area of
radiation protection which could have important
consequences to the general health of the population.
To the worker in this area, t h e control of radon
~t
ct
fl, ,/
fl, 7
ct
fl, ~;
fl
ct
Decay energies
(MeV)
5.49
6.00
7.69
5.30
and delayed percentage of total 4He-particle absorbed

dose derived from breathing, it is not considered in
determinations of a person's exposure to radon
daughters.
Exposures to radon daughters have been defined in
terms of Working Levels (WL), where a WL is any
combination of the short-lived radon daughters containing 1.3 105 MeV of potential 4He-particle energy
per liter of ambient air. Table 2 summarizes the energy
potentials of the daughters per unit activity. From this
data it can be seen that if C2, C3, and C4 are the activity
concentrations of RaA, RaB, and RaC in pCifl., then
WL=(134C2+659C3+485C4)/(1.3 x 105)
(1)
WL = 0.00103 C2 + 0.00507 C3 + 0.00373 C4
(2)
or
152
An hour of exposure to 1 WL is 1 Working Level Hour

(WLH). Occupational exposures are usually given in
Working Level Months (WLM) where
WLM =
WLH
(3)
170
The exposure standards were adopted in response to

collected epidemiological data for lung cancer in
uranium miners (Federal Radiation Council, 1967). In
view of the apparent linear relationship between
accumulated absorbed dose and incidence of lung
cancer, recommendations were made for a progressive
lowering of allowable miner exposures. Other recent
studies of gamma- and X-radiation-induced carcinomas also suggest a linear relationship (Holford,
1975; Stewart and Kneale, 1970). A maximum allowable exposure of 12 WLM per annum was adopted in
January, 1969 alad subsequently reduced to 4 WLM in
standards for the general population. A recommended

upper exposure limit of 0.01 WL above background
has been made for the population-at-large (Federal
Register, 1972). This is equivalent to radon daughters
in equilibrium with 1 pCi/1, of 2ZZRn. By comparing
this number with measured values given previously, it
is seen that naural radon levels, above ground and outof-doors, fall well below it. However, values well above
1 pCi/l, can be found elsewhere in the living environment. Whether these activities are to be considered as
above background is uncertain.
The decision to define exposure in terms of radiological content of the air rather than absorbed dose
to the lungs is one of considerable importance. The
physical conditions of the daughter nuclei can be quite
variable. This leads to variable rates of deposition of
nuclei in the respirafory system and also to variations
in areas of deposition. The complex problem of
Table 2. Potential energy characteristics of the radon daughters
Isotope
RaA (218po)
RaB (214pb)
RaC (214Bi)
RaC' (214Po)
'*He-particle
energy
(MeV)
Half life
(min)
2
(min-I)
Atoms per pCi
Potential energy per pCi

(MeV)
6.00
0
0
7.69
3.05
26.8
19.7
2.7 10-6
0.227
0.0259
0.0352
2.6 105
9.78
85.7
63.1
10-5
134
659
485
t0
January, 1971. The probable effects of cigarette smoking as an additional factor in the problem was also
recognized and smoking was prohibited in uranium
mines. Some foreign countries adopt different standards for controlling mine exposures. One method is
by measuring radon concentrations and assuming a
probable equilibrium ratio with the daughters. This
avoids the necessity of measuring the radon daughter
concentrations in mines, which can be a lengthy and
cumbersome procedure with present methods. In
Sweden, which utilizes this approach, the maximum
allowable exposure is close to that in the U.S. although
terminology and sampling methods may differ.
A'4 WLM accumulated yearly exposure implies an
average of about 0.3 WL for the miners underground
time. This is now established as the activity concentration at which remedial action must be taken in
operating mines to re.duce the levels. It was realized
that while these standards were tolerable for occupational exposures, they were unsuitable as exposure
daughter inhalation and dosimetry has been widely

studied. Respiratory system models have been used for
calculations of absorbed dose as a function of region of
the tracheobronchial tree and depth in tissue for
various assumed distributions of daughter activities,
aerosol sizes, and deposition rates (Altshuler et al.,
1964; Haque, 1966; Haque and Collinson, 1967;
Harley and Pasternack, 1972; Jacobi, 1964; Jacobi,
1972). Reviews of lung model theory (Task Group on
Lung Dynamics, 1966; Mercer, 1975) and of the
problems encountered in lung dosimetry (Parker,
1969) deal with many of the uncertainties involved in
this problem. Measurements of the retention of the
isotopes in the respiratory system have ranged from
nearly 100 ~o (Palmer et al., 1964) down to variations of
14-45 ~o (Hursh et al., 1969) and 17.9-50.7 ~o (George
and Breslin, 196/). Holteman et al. (1969) measures
WL depositions in the range of 30-65~o. The
uncombined fraction of daughter nuclei, those unattached to any aerosol particles, are deposited in a

quite different distribution in the respiratory tract than
the combined fraction, and at, effectively, 100 ~o. Some
recent measurements of uncombined fraction in mine
air have yielded values of 4.0-33.2 ~o (Raghavayya and
Jones, 1974) and 0.2-12~o (George and Hinchliffe,
1972). Since deposition is a function of aerosol size,
changes in dust particle sizes, as for instance from ore
blasting, can have a significant effect. Concentrations
of diesel smoke and the relative humidity are factors in
the problem. These conditions are investigated in an
extensive study of aerosol characteristics as applying to
attached radon daughters and mine environments
(Cooper et al., 1973). Obviously, the critical dose to the
bronchial epithelium is not a simple function of WL
exposure. The usefulness of WL for purposes of
radiological protection has been questioned for this
reason (Harley and Harley, 1974; Morken, i969).
Jacobi (1972) suggests that the critical absorbed dose
may vary by an order of magnitude for the same WL
exposure. However, the quantitative difficulties involved in lung dosimetry have weighed against this
approach as the standard method of defining
exposures.
3. CONTROL OF EXPOSURE
Of the various methods of controlling miner exposure compatible with current mining technology,
ventilation is the most effective. At present there is no
effective filtering mask which can be routinely worn by
a man while working, nor has the employment of
alternate supplies of air for breathing purposes been
seriously attempted. The transporting of fresh air from
the surface into the mining areas and the corresponding exhaust of contaminated air reduces WL to a
degree not achievable by any other method, l~rom the
standpoint of dosimetry, and aside from lowering the
WL in the mines, the main effect of ventilation is to
affect a decrease in the daughter concentrations relative to 222Rn. As radon gas emanates into the mine
passageways, it is carried along with the ambient air
and exhausted before ingrowth of the daughters c a n
approach equilibrium conditions. Also, turbulence of
the moving air tends to increase the rate of plate-out of
the daughters on the mine walls. The ventilation also
produces a mine atmosphere which may be more
variable from place-to-place, leading to rather abrupt
increases and decreases in WL as a miner moves about.
The unattached fractions of the daughters along with
aerosol concentrations and sizes will also be affected. A
153
survey of an operating mine by Rock et al. (1967)

demonstrates the range of ventilation and radiation
conditions which may be encountered. Other investigators have made extensive measurements in
regard to the ranges of isotope concentrations, equilibrium conditions. Working Levels, and atmospheric
constituents to be found in uranium mines (Breslin et
al., 1969; George et al., 1971).
Other methods are also employed to reduce WL in
the mines. One important control measure involves
the sealing off of unused portions of mines. Any section
of the mine where a great deal of rock surface has been
bared and/or fractured may be regarded as a source of
radon and daughters for the remainder. The sealing off
of such areas adds considerably to the effectiveness of
ventilation. In some cases, water removal from a mine
can be of value. Ground water can absorb, and
subsequently release to mine air, radon gas in sizable
quantities. Piping it through the tunnels and out is
sometimes necessary. The filtering of mine air to
remove the daughters has been tested (Shreve and
Cleveland, 1972). The WLs in the areas adjacent to the
filter exhaust were significantly reduced, initially, but
rapid ingrowth of the daughters makes the method
impractical as more than a supplement to effective
ventilation. The effect of filtration on the isotopic
concentrations is to produce reduced daughter-toradon activity ratios in the surrounding air and,
perhaps, increased fractions of unattached daughters.
The problems and techniques involved in mine exposure control are covered in detail by Rock et al.
(1970).
The reduction of radon and daughter concentrations in buildings or other enclosures is accomplished by the same basic principles as in mines.
Ventilation is the most effective method, and air
conditioned buildings and rooms typically have low
radon levels. The highest activity concentrations in
homes occur during the winter months when they are
kept tightly closed to conserve heat. Open windows
and air movement are effective in preventing buildup.
Heating systems employing 100 ~o recycled air allow a
buildup to take place and it is desirable to bring some
fresh air into the cycle. A dense concrete pad under a
building seals against radon emanation from the
ground and greatly reduces the potential for buildup.
Where the major source of the radon is localized and
identifiable as in the case of uranium mill tailings or
radium contamination, the removal of the source
material is often the most effective procedure. The use
154
of building materials containing significant amounts of

uranium can be a major source of radon. Certain
paints can be used to seal walls against this source
(Auxier, 1976). When a problem is discovered
requiring remedial action in an above ground structure, the remedy is usually easily defined. If uranium
mill tailings removal or a large scale sealing against
radon effluence is required, it may be an expensive
procedure to undertake. The Environmental
Protection Agency and the State agencies concerned
are active in this area.
4. EXPOSURE M E A S U R E M E N T S
At the present time all determinations of exposures
of persons to radon daughters are performed through
area monitoring methods. The radiation levels in those
areas where significant exposures are known to occur
are measured. The time spent in the areas by persons
are recorded and their total exposures are calculated
on this basis. Measurements can be made either by
continuous integration or intermittent sampling.
Continuous integrating samplers measure the true
area exposures more accurately than do intermittent
methods. However this does not necessarily allow
more accurate exposure determinations for persons
moving about through the areas. If variations are
taking place in daughter concentrations during the
exposure period, which is the usual condition, then the
average concentration must be assumed for all exposures. Also, the areas sampled are necessarily represented by samples taken at a single or a few locations.
Spatial variations in daughter concentrations within
even well-defined areas are often the case, depending
on local geometries and patterns of air movement
present. Area monitoring can provide only approximations of individual exposures. Intermittent samples
rather than continuous integrating measurements are
employed in mines. The airborne contaminants such
as dust, diesel smoke, etc. present in mine atmospheres
tend to build up in a device during long sampling
periods. This increases the probability of measurement
error. Portable air pumps are used to pull five-minute
samples through micropore filters which collect the
particulates from the sampled volume of ambient air.
The particle decay emissions from the daughters on the
filter are counted on a standardized time scale and
converted into WL exposure. Different counting times
and conversion techniques can be used. The Kusnetz
method is most commonly used (Kusnetz, 1956), and
has been discussed at some length (Breslin et al., 1969;
Gro6r, 1972; Loysen, 1969; Rock et al., 1970). Quicker

methods such as the Instant Working Level Meter
(Gro6r et al., 1973) and the Hill instrument (Hill, 1975)
are being tested. These method's are also employed in
environmental measurements but continuous integrating samplers are more often used (Grossman,
1977; Hazle, 1977). A review of instrumentation has
recently been made by Budnitz (1974).
A more straightforward method of measurement of
WL exposures would be by personal dosimeters. These
would be worn routinely during any exposure period.
At the present time, however, no such dosimeter has
been proven adequate in regard to accuracy and
reliability. Several attempts have been made to develop a system for occupational use. The limited
number of uranium miners in this country could be
serviced with rather bulky and/or expensive personal
dosimetry systems during their working hours. A more
general use under environmental conditions is impractical with current technology. The monitoring of
uranium miner WL exposures, and the keeping of
cumulative exposure records for each individual, is
made mandatory by Federal standards (Federal
Radiation Council, 1967). A personal dosimeter which
represented a significant improvement in accuracy
over present methods would be preferred, even though
it entailed some added expense.
5. PERSONAL DOSMETRY
Proposed personal dosimeters have been of the
continuous integrating type, since these properly
sample the person's exposure. They are therefore basically similar to integrating environmental monitors.
They may be classified as ~either active or passive.
Active dosimeters employ an air pump to collect filter
samples of particulate airborne matter. A sensitive
detector is placed in the immediate vicinity of the filter
to record 4He-particle emissions from the collected
daughter nuclei. Passive dosimeters do not rely on
collecting the daughters. Their sensitivity results from
contact with the ambient air and the recording of 4He
particles emitted by airborne radionuclei. Both types
of dosimeter experienced problems in measuring WL
exposures when worn by working miners, although
some of them were quite consistent in laboratory
environments. Active dosimeters are subject to
mechanical failures and 'loaded filter' effects. When the
filter becomes clogged with dust, diesel smoke or
moisture, the air flow resistance can increase and cause
a decrease in the air sampling rate of the pump. Dust

and grit in the workings commonly cause pump
damage. Battery drain also results in defective air
sampling. It is necessary that the dosimeter maintain a
constant, calibrated sampling rate over the miners'
working period if a true integrated WL exposure is to
be measured. Passive dosimeters have the advantage
of relative simplicity of design when compared to the
active type. Equipment size and costs are less.
Troubles with air pumps and filter sampling are
avoided. They have the disadvantages of sensitivity to
all airborne 4He-particle emitters including 222Rn' and
less absolute sensitivity. Which type is more susceptible to response fluctuations due to dust and other
airborne contaminants is yet to be determined.
The detector most often used in active dosimeters is
the thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD). The more
sensitive kinds such as CaF or CaSO4 (Hoy, 1971;
McDougall and Axt, 1973; Weissman et al., 1972;
Yamashita et al., 1971), can yield sensitivities of a
fraction ofa WLH at air sampling rates of0.11./m. They
provide a very wide useful range for the dosimeter.
Also readout is quick and convenient. Their sensitivity
to ~ and fl rays is corrected by a second, background
chip. Fading is offset by the proper pre-readout
annealing procedure. Track-etch detectors of cellulose
nitrate plastic have also been used as the sensitive
element in active dosimeters. The sensitivity is adequate, yielding a useful range down to 1 WLH. They
are free of fading and y-ray, fl-ray and light influences.
However, readout is less convenient, requiring wet lab
etching and track counting. Thick or thin plastic film
can be used for track counting either microscopically
or by spark counting (Johnson et al., 1970). The second
method is quicker but the plastic can be only a few #m
thick. These detectors are fragile and difficult to work
with. They are subject to response fluctuations due to
small variations in film thickness, bulk etch rate, and
4He-particle ranges. Also, detector saturation becomes
increasingly important at track densities above
3000/cm 2. This limits the useful range of a dosimeter.
Thick films are more durable and stable in response.
The readout time for detectors can be reduced to
practical limits by automated counting techniques
employing digitized television scanners or flying spot
scanners.
For passive dosimetry, track-etch detectors have the
more favorable characteristics. The TLDs are rather
insensitive to ambient 4He-particles in the presence of
155
fl-7 backgrounds. Also, when exposed to ambient air,

as passive dosimeters must be, they are sensitive to the
4He particles emitted by radon daughter nuclei which
plate out on or near their surfaces. This contribution
from plate-out is a function of several variables of the
ambient air and cannot be corrected for in dosimeter
response. Track-etch detectors of the kinds developed
to date are insensitiveto 4He particles of these energies.
Physically, thick plastics are more resistant to damage
than the other detectors. This is an important
consideration for an externally exposed detector worn
by a working miner. Photographic film has also been
tested in passive dosimeters. It has the disadvantages of
TLDs in addition to extreme light sensitivity, greater
fragility and humidity-dependent fading.
5.l Active personal dosimeters
Several active dosimeters have been developed and
tested on working uranium miners. A group at
Colorado State University developed the dosimeter
shown in Fig. 1 (McCurdy et al., 1969). By using
annular TLD chips, they were able to adapt a standard
commercially available filter holder for the dosimeter
body. In addition to providing a background correction for the 4He-particle detector, the second chip
gives a measurement of gamma-ray exposure. The
sampling head is connected to an air pump for measurements. The inherent sensitivity of the system is demonstrated in Fig. 2 with both LiF and CaF2:Dy
TLD chip measurements in a laboratory environment.
When tested on working miners, the measurements in
Fig. 3 were obtained (White, 1969). The scatter in the
measured values is typical" of miner dosimetry results
for most of the dosimeters tested to date. Similar
results were found for an active TLD dosimeter
developed at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (White, 1970). The most consistent miner
measurements with a dosimeter of this type which have
been published to date were made with a model
developed at Health and Safety Laboratory (White,
1971). The measurements are shown in Fig. 4. The
improvement can be attributed to a much improved
air pump. The pump is also more elaborate and
expensive than those used in the previous testing. The
recent marketing of a new portable air pump designed
to maintain constant air flow rates under adverse
conditions has resulted in an improved outlook for
active dosimetry.* This pump has been tested with the
*The B-200, a personal air sampling pump with constant flow control, Applied Technology Division,Dupont, Wilmington,
DE 19898, U.S.A.
156
A.L.
F R A N K a n d E. V. B E N T O N
Working
102
I0
i0 ~
level
I0 z
103
104
T L / M e V = 6 . 6 x 10-7(ncoulom bs/MeV)Z 1 . 7 " / . ~
. , f
I01
I0
/
/
~/T L / M V - ~
(ncou Iota b s /
r =0.99 meV)-* 4 " 2 /*
I
IOB
IOlos
Latent
I
I07
alpha energy,
I
I0 e
MeV
I
109
FIG. 2. The response of the University of Colorado WL dosimeter with LiF and
CaF2 : Dy TLD chips for measurements of radon daughters in a laboratory
environment (McCurdy et al., 1969).
3O
100(
o Mine A
Mine B
=056 (p<O OOi)
10
Io(
2~
O~
10g R=-0.1643 x 086.5.'3 log E,.,~0
8
r
3--
to
o IOO
Exposure~
iooo
WL- hr
FIG. 3. Response of the Colorado State University WL

dosimeter during uranium miner personal dosimetry testing
(White, 1969).
.:o:
1
3
.o85.ogE<,
I0
Exposure,
30
WL-hr
FIG. 4. Response of the Health and Safety Laboratory

(MOD) WL dosimeter during miner personal dosimetry
testing (White, 1971). The connected points are for pairs of
dosimeters on a single miner. Open points represent
dosimeter failures.
157
FIG. 1. Filter holder and thermoluminescent dosimeter assembly for the Colorado State University WL dosimeter.
Disassembled and assembled views (McCurdy et al., 1969).
158
A.L.
F R A N K and E. V. B E N T O N
F1(i. 5, ,Assembled and exploded views of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory WL dosimeter (Auxier et al., 1971 ).
159

Colorado State sampling head (Rock, 1977). When
worn by working uranium miners, promising results
were obtained. A drawback is the costliness of buying
and maintaining the dosimeters. This work is still in
progress.
It should be noted that TLD sampling heads of the
types mentioned above have been used on a regular
basis in active environmental monitoring. They are
connected to large floor units with bigger pumps
operating from external power. They are used routinely in the clean environments of railings houses to
monitor WLs for periods of 2 weeks (Grossman, 1977;
Hazle, 1977). At the air sampling rates used for this
purpose, the filters become clogged during longer
sampling periods.
IOOj
ment and inconstant air sampling. Another dosimeter

developed by Chapuis et al. (1972) has an air sampling
system similar to the previous model. It employs a strip
of thin (8ltm) red cellulose nitrate plastic on a
polyester backing to record the 4He particles. It also
contains collimators and selected energy degraders to
register separately the 6.00 and 7.69 MeV emissions
of RaA and RaC'. A schematic is shown in Fig. 7.
These refinements allow WL exposures to be calculated directly from the measured track densities.
Measurements in a controlled environment yielded
good accuracy and a linear response but on a working
uranium miner it would seem to be prone to the same
kind of response fluctuations seen in the Oak Ridge
instrument. Further work has been done with this
dosimeter (Duport et al., 1976) and some positive
results were reported. They have simplified readout by
measuring the total transmission of green light through
the etched holes in the thin red plastic.
Cop
Degrader 2
Collimator
Rotor
Motor
.c
--T--
Cellulose
nit"r~
log R=O.II + 0.13 I o g E
1., 0
Exposure,
Filter
gritted
filter
FIG. 7. Schematic of the principle of the WL dosimeter of

Chapuis et al. (1972).
r=OII
0~1
Degrader I
I0I
I00
WL-hr
FIG. 6. Resiaonseof the Oak RidgeNational Laboratory WL

dosimeter during uranium miner personal dosimetry (White,
1971).
An active dosimeter with a small integrated air
sampler and using track-etch detectors to measure
4He-particle tracks has also been tested on working
miners. It was developed at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory (Auxier et al., 1971). A photograph of the
instrument is shown in Fig. 5. A small battery-powered
motor spins a rotor blade to draw ambient air in
through a port at the head of the case. A ring mounted
strip of thin cellulose nitrate plastic is positioned near
the sampling filter to record 4He-particle emissions.
The etched through tracks in the plastic are spark
counted. When tested on uranium miners, the
measurements shown in Fig. 6 were obtained. The
scatter apparently resulted from plugging of the instru-
5.2 T h e U S F active track-etch W L dosimeter

An active track-etch dosimeter has been developed
at this laboratory which is designed to work with an
external air pump similar to the TLD dosimeters
mentioned previously (Frank and Benton, 1975a). A
photograph of assembled and disassembled models of
the dosimeter is shown in Fig. 8. When connected to a
pump, air is pulled in through six holes of 1.6mm
diameter which are equally spaced around the detector
circumference. The particulate matter in the air is
collected~ on a glass millipore filter having an active
sampling area 12.7 mm in diameter and a total area of
17.5 mm in diameter. An insert with a 12.7 diameter
central cavity fits into the dosimeter base atop the
filter. A polycarbonate degrader foil, cellulose nitrate
track-etch detector and a backplate fit into a 15.9 mm
diameter recess in the top of the insert. When the cap is
screwed down, the assembly is packed tightly together,
sealing the periphery of the filter. The active sampling
160
A. L. F R A N K and E. V. B E N T O N
diameter of the detector is 12.7 mm and it is separated

by 9.5 mm from the filter.
The polycarbonate foil serves the purpose of degrading the energies of 4He particles traveling from filter to
detector. The foil can be separated into two thicknesses
(1.8 and 4.8mg/cm2), each covering a half of the
cellulose nitrate detector. These thicknesses of polycarbonate, plus a 9.5 mm path through air, degrade 4He
particles emitted from the filter such that the responses
of RaA and RaC' are clearly separated. On the first half
of the detector, 6.00 MeV particles are reduced to 2.004.01 MeV while 7.69MeV particles are reduced to
4.9 MeV or greater. The latter range of energies fall
above the registration threshold of the plastic detector
for the etching conditions employed. On the secdnd
half of the detector, 6.00 MeV particles are stopped in
the degrader while 7.69 MeV particles are reduced to
0-3.25 MeV. It can be shown that the contribution to
WL of the 6.00 MeV 4He particle, and the measurement of its track densities, can be .dispensed with
without seriously affecting dosimeter response. The
radon gas present in the central cavity will make a
negligible contribution to track density in comparison
to the collected daughter nuclei on the filter, for the
radon-daughter equilibrium conditions found in
mines.
particles from the filter in tracks/cm2-disintegration, v

is the air sampling rate of the pump in 1./hr, and t is the
exposure time in hr.
The total potential 4He particle energy of the
daughter nuclei, in MeV/1., is given by
PE =6.00 C2/A 2 -t- 7.69(C2/22 + C3/1~ 3 At- C4/1~4) (6)
From Eqns (4) and (5)

C2/A 2 = N1/E1 vt
(7)
C2/22 ~- C3/,~ 3 + C4/1~4 = N 2 / E 2 v t
(8)
Substituting in Eqn (6)

PE = 6.00 N 1/EI vt + 7.69 N 2/E 2vt
(9)
A Working Level is defined as 1.3 l0 s MeV potential/l, of 4He particle emissions of daughter nuclei in
ambient air. Therefore
WL =PE/1.3 105
WL = (4.62 N I / E 1 + 5.92 N2/E 2)/lO s vt
(lO)
The exposure measured by a dosimeter is

5.3 U S F active track-etch dosimeter response
The measured track densities on the two halves of
the detector can be related to the ambient radionuclei
concentrations by
N1 =EavtCa/2z
(4)
N2 =E2vt(C2/)L2 + C3/1~ 3 2c-C4/,~4)
(5)
where N x , N z are the measured track densities in

tracks/cm 2, C2, C3, C4 are the airborne activity
concentrations of RaA, RaB and R a C - C ' in dpm/1., 22,
23, 24 are the decay constants of RaA, RaB, and RaC in
m i n - 1, El, E2 are the efficiency factors for production
of tracks by the emissions of 6.00 and 7.69 MeV 4He
WLH=(4.62NI/El+5.92N2/E2)/10Sv
(11)
WLM =(2.67NI/E 1+ 3.42NjE2)/lO 7 v
(12)
The above described method employs two track

density measurements and yields the WL exposure to
an exactness limited only by the accuracy of the
experimentally determined parameters. This method
can be simplified to yield a close approximation of the
WL exposure from one measurement. In Eqn (6), The
potential energy of 4He particle emissions present in
the daughter nuclei is given by the sum of two terms.
These two terms are the sums of the potential energies
inherent in the 6.00 and 7.69 MeV emissions. In order
to find the relative magnitudes of the two terms, some
Table 3. Percentages of total daughter potential energies due to 6.00 and 7.69 MeV
4He-particle emissions
RaA/Rn
0.98
0.53
0.27
RaB/Rn
0.73
0.27
0.09
RaC/Rn
0.49
0.0.16
0.04
6.00 MeV (~o)

6.75
9.51
13.78
7.69 MeV ('~"o)

93.25
90.49
86.22
RADON
DOSIMETRY
USING PLASTIC NTDs
FIG. 8. A photograph of assembled and disassembled models of the USF active track-etch dosimeter.
161
FIG. 12. Exploded view of the General Electric Track Etch monitor unit on a hard hat. The Track Etch film, supplied in a
sealed envelope, is mounted in the removable carrier that clamps into the holder attached to the underside of a hard hat brim.
163

knowledge of the relative daughter concentrations to
be encountered in mine environments is necessary.
The daily average radon-to-daughter activity ratios
measured by Breslin et al. (1969) can be used for this
purpose. The most frequent ratios found for RaA, RaB,
and RaC were 0.53:0.27:0.16. The extreme ratios
found were 0.98 : 0.73 : 0.49 and 0.27 : 0.09 : 0.04.
The percentages of total daughter potential energy
for the two terms have been calculated for the three
condition above. The values are given in Table 3. It can
be seen from the values that an assumption of 9.5 ~o as
the part of total potential energy due to the 6.00 MeV
emission of RaA would result in rather small errors in
WL exposures. Eqns (11) and (12) can be modified so
that
W L H = 6.54 N2110 s Ezv
(13)
W L M = 3.78 N 2 / 1 0 7 E2v
(14)
etry. The gains derived by using this method are (1) a

simplification in the use ofthe T E H dosimeter and (2) a
reduction in track counting time. These gains are both
significant time savers.
5.4 USF actire track-etch dosimeter measurements
T h r e e series o f m e a s u r e m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e with
t h e active W L d o s i m e t e r s . A n air s a m p l i n g rate of
0.11./min w a s m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t . T h e r e s u l t s are
,'7
~o
"-
-- Slope = 34.67.t0.45
/
(t.rocks/mm2 WLH ) /
/
/
The use of these equations would result in only + 3.0 to

- 4 . 7 ~o errors for the range of isotopic concentrations
found in the mine measurements. This would be
satisfactory from the standpoint of personnel dosimExposure no.
o I
~. 2
5-
,/""
95% confidence limits
III
/
/
I/
II
o 3
v 4
II~I
/
y=(36.9_+ 0.46) x
I~.I/
E
0
iv
zo
4o
60
eo
ioo
120
Exposure, WLH
FIG. 10. Measured track densities versus Working Level

Hours for exposures of the active personal dosimeter to a
uranium mine atmosphere. The plastic detectors were etched
2 hours. The air sampling rate was 0.1 l./min.
Z,/
I0
Colibroted exposure,
15
WLH

Hours for low-level exposure of the active personal dosimeters to simulated uranium mine air. The plastic detectors
were etched 3 hours. The air sampling rate was 0.11./rain.
shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11. The measurements in Fig.

9 were of relatively low exposures made in a radon
chamber. Since the track densities were not great, the
detectors were etched for 3 hours in unstirred
6 . 2 5 N N a O H solution at 40 . Nearly all available
tracks are developed and counted for maximum
efficiency under these conditions. The counting was
done automatically with an image analyzing computer. In the experimental mine measurements of Fig.
10, higher exposures were present. Etching time was
A. L. F R A N K and E. V. BENTON
164
reduced to 2 hours to avoid track overlapping on the

detectors. Track overlapping reduces the efficiency of
automatic counting. A small decrease in average
response resulted. In the mine measurements of Fig.
11, the maximum exposure was higher still, and the
etching time of the detectors was reduced to l hour. A
considerable decrease in sensitivity resulted but
uniformity of response between exposures remained
good. The 9570 confidence interval for the first
measurements extended from - 8.6 % to + 9.3 % of the
mean slope. For the second and third measurements,
the interval was from - 1 3 % to + 15.5/jo. These
accuracies are sufficiently good for personal dosimetry. These dosimeters have not been tested while
being worn by working miners. A comparison with the
TLD dosimeters is therefore not possible. The necessity of a reliable air pump is a characteristic they
share.
/
/
/
_
y=1275OSlx /
//
/
-
//
7
/
"
t O0
Exposure,
200
WLH

Hours for exposures of the active personal dosimeters to a
uranium mine atmosphere. The plastic detectors were etched
1 hour. The air sampling rate was 0.1 I./min.
5.5 Passive personal dosimeters
The expenses involved in active personal dosimetry
make passive dosimeters very attractive for large scale,
routine use. Some simple passive dosimeters, developed at General Electric Company, which were
composed of strips of cellulose nitrate plastic recessed
in a plexiglass slot for protection, shown in Fig. 12,

have been tested in mine atmospheres. Initial testing at
static positions in uranium mines, away from the
working areas, yielded promising results. Rock et al.
(1969) found the linear relationship of exposure to
track density shown in Fig. 13. However, when the
experiment was repeated with uranium miners wearing the detectors in badges under their hard-hat brims,
large variations in response were found (White, 1969).
These measurements are shown in Fig. 14. Miner
dosimetry testing of these units was also carried out
independently by Rock (1968) with similar scatter in
the measurements. He found that cumulative WL
exposures, as measured by the track-etch dosimeters,
varied from several times too low to several times too
high, as compared to the exposure calculated from
frequent Kusnetz measurements made in the immediate vicinity of the miners. There was an overall
shift to high values. The agreement between dosimeters on miners working together in the same area
was likewise poor. These deviations in response are
believed to have been caused by the deposition of dust
and other solid matter on the surfaces of the detectors
and by fluctuations in the state of equilibrium between
radon and its daughters. Overestimates of exposures
could result from lower daughter-to-radon activity
ratios in the mines than were present during the
dosimeter calibrations. This is due to a greater portion
of the counted tracks having been created by 222Rn
emissions, which do not enter into the determination
of WL exposure. This does not explain differences
between dosimeters exposed to the same atmospheres.
Contaminants on or near the surface of the detector
would appear to be the cause of these variations.
Uranium ore dust emits 4He particles which can
contribute tracks to the detector. Inert rflatter can
block out response. Either can affect plated-out
daughter activity by degrading energetic 4He particles so that they are registered by the detector.
Developmental work on track-etch personal dosimetry is being done by others. Domanski et al. (1975) are
developing a cellulose triacetate dosimeter for Polish
mines. They intend to assume a standard radon and
daughter equilibrium condition throughout a mine.
Under controlled conditions the dosimeters performed
accurately as expected. Also, they report that a light
covering of dust on the recording surface did not affect
response. Miner dosimetry had not been attempted
. and a specific geometry for measurements of personal
exposures was not given. Similar detectors are being

iO00
I00
environment, this detector would have a problem with

variable plate-out of the radon daughters in addition
to the other troubles encountered in the use of film.
--
I0--
I0
Averuge
I00
exposure,
I000
WL-hr
FIG. 13. Leastsquares fit of observed alpha track densitiesto

mine atmosphere exposures (Rock et al., 1969).
IOOC
o MineA
t~ Mine B
r =o.38(p=o01)
z~ ~ l ?
~ ~ =
.J
/
~==~I
"/
o 4o
,c<-
o~~8o~~
\
I~"
IC
Iog R= 1.5642 + 0 4 2 2 9 log E
I0
ExPOsure,
IO0
165
I000
WL-hr
FIG. 14. Response of the General Electric Track Etch

monitor during miner personal dosimetry testing (White,
1969).
tested elsewhere for dosimetric and allied purposes
(Khan et al., 1976; Chaudhry et al., 1976). The use of a
similar detection method in uranium ore exploration
and measurements of radon migration underground
has also been reported (Fleischer and MogroCampero, 1977; Ward et al., 1977).
A simple passive detector for radon and daughters
has been developed which uses polaroid film
(Bedrosian, 1969). Accurate measurements were made
in a stable laboratory chamber. However, in a field
5.6 The U S F passive track-etch dosimeter

The development of a passive personal dosimeter for
use in uranium mines (Frank and Benton, 1975a) has
been undertaken with two major objectives. First, the
detector is to be redesigned to reduce the buildup, of
dust and other contaminants from the air onto and
around the sensitive face of the cellulose nitrate plastic.
Second, a measurement is to be made of the equilibrium conditions between222Rn and its daughters. This
added information is to be used to correct dosimeter
measurements for the fractions of tracks due to radon,
thus making response more nearly correspond to WL
exposure.
The radon and daughter contributions to 4Heparticle track densities are determined from simultaneous measurements with paired detectors. An external detector, which is similar to the track-etch
dosimeters mentioned earlier, is used to measure the
total airborne 4He-particle activity. The 222Rn activity
is measured with an internal, or radon diffusion
chamber, detector. A calibration of the relative sensitivities of the two detectors allows the radon component
of the total activity to be subtracted out. Thiscorrects
for the largest fraction of equilibrium dependence in
the track-etch dosimeters. A similar radon diffusion
chamber was reported on earlier (Frank and Benton,
1973).
Other types of radon diffusion detectors employing
film have been developed. In one, the light from 4Heparticle interactions with a zinc sulfide phosphor
was detected (Costa-Ribeiro et al., 1969). In
another, track densities on the film were counted
(Geiger, 1967). The first was tested by White (1969).
Only a few of the exposed detectors were reported back
to him. The remainder revealed a limited range for the
instrument and a great deal of scatter in the measurements. The second detector was tested by LeClare
(1967) in a laboratory environment and by Snelling
and Siek (1968) in mines. Sensitivity of the detector
was comparable to that of the track-etch diffusion
chamber but scatter in the measurements was much
higher than track counting statistics could account for.
When a detector is mounted externally to record
4He particles emitted by nuclei in the ambient air there
is no way to prevent contact with other airborne
particles such as smoke, dust, grit, etc. It is important
166
that these contaminants do not collect around the

sensitive surface in any large quantity. However, to
prevent physical damage, the plastic surface should be
recessed below a shield. In the passive track-etch
dosimeter the shielding is minimized by using a narrow
strip of plastic. It is protected by a thin metal rim. This
leaves little surface around the detector to accumulate
contaminants. A few personal dosimeter prototypes
were built where the external detector is protected
from build-up of contaminants on its surface by a
moving belt of 3.5 #m thick polycarbonate plastic.
The track-etch detector most suitable for 4Heparticle measurements in a passive device is cellulose
nitrate plastic. Although other detectors such as
cellulose triacetate can be used, there is a considerable
loss in sensitivity. Plastic can be made with different
grades of cellulose nitrate and with different kinds and
amounts of plasticizer (Benton, 1968). The solvent
used to dissolve the constituents and the methods used
to produce sheet from the mixture are also important
considerations. The critical energy for 4He particles,
Ec, which is the maximum energy along a particle's
trajectory through the material at which a track will
begin to etch out, can change significantly between
different kinds and batches of CN plastic. Quality
control must be maintained to ensure reliable calibrations. The critical energies of most CN plastics lie
between 2.5 and 5 MeV when etched in 6.25N NaOH
solution at 40 . Etching at higher temperatures will
reduce the value of Ec while etching at lower temperatures will increase it. Other factors are also present.
Several studies of etching in cellulose nitrate plastics
have recently been made (Blanford et al., 1970; Gruhn
et al., 1974; Khan, 1973; Reitz et al., 197.7; Hildebrand
et al., 1977). The registration characteristics of 4He
particles in the plastic have also been studied (CostaRibeiro and Lobfio, 1974; Khan and Durrani, 1972;
Qaqish and Besant, 1976). In using this track detector,
each batch of plastic should be calibrated independently for sensitivity. Etching methods should be
standardized and maintained constant in all related
work.
An assembled and disassembled dosimeter are
shown in Fig. 15. The internal, or radon diffusion
chamber, detector is fixed at one end of a 19.1 mm
diameter by 25.4 mm long cylindrical cavity. It goes
under the degrader foil in the solid cap. The opposite
end is covered by a permeable filter offering little
resistance to radon gas but impervious to the daughter
nuclei. When taken into an environment containing
radon, the interior volume quickly comes to equilibrium with external concentrations. A degrader foil of
0.96 mg/cm 2 polycarbonate, placed over the detector,
increases sensitivity by reducing 4He-particle energies
into the registration range of the plastic. The external
detector is mounted on the outside of the diffusion
chamber. It is clamped under the dove-tailed metal
rim.
A dosimeter was also designed with a belt of
polycarbonate foil which moves continuously across
the surface of an external plastic detector during
exposures. It was designed to cope with the problem of
contamination of the track-etch detector surface.
Figure 16 is a photograph of the dosimeter with the top
and track-etch detector holder removed. In the sealed
base of the detector is a DC motor which is supplied
with 3 V from a miner's lamp battery. The motor drive
is geared down to power the belt output spool at the
bottom of the case. The belt, which is 3.5/~m
(0.42mg/cm 2) thick polycarbonate film of 31.Tmm
width, is pulled from the input spool at the top. The
track-etch detector is mounted on the slide holder
sitting above. The thin belt has a negligible effect on the
response of the detector to 4He particles.
5.7 U S F passive track-etch dosimeter response
Let M~ and M2 be track densities measured on the
track-etch detectors taken from the external and
diffusion chamber detectors, respectively. Then the
exposures are given by
M1
ET=a 1 --
R1
ER =a2
M2
(15)
(16)
R2
where E r and E R are the total and the 222Rn exposures
in pCi-hr/1., R t , R 2 are the responses of the two
detectors in sea level air of 20 in tracks/cm 2 per pCihr/l. ax, a2 are factors to correct for response variations
due to changes in air density from the standardized
condition. The response of the external track-etch
detector is inversely proportional to air density. Lovett
(1969) shows that the track density is given by
J=PRc
(17)
for an unobstructed strip of plastic, where P is the

specific activity of a 4He-particle emission in the air, Rc
is the range in air of a 4He particle whose energy equals
RADON DOSIMETRY
USING PLASTIC NTDs
FIG. 15. A photograph of an assembled and disassembled passive personal dosimeter.
167
168
A.L.
F R A N K and E. V. B E N T O N
FIG. 16. A photograph of the moving belt detector with the top plate and track-etch-detector holder removed.

the maximum registration energy, Ec, of the track
recorder. This equation holds for all 4He-particle
emitters of energy E > Ec. Where long etches remove a
surface layer of the plastic, and tracks which did not
initially satisfy the registration criteria begin etching
out, the track densities are increased. Where counting
criteria reject some tracks on the basis of size or angle
of incidence of the 4He particle, further complication
results. I f J is understood to be counted track density,
then Rc is the range difference in air between 4He
particles of the minimum effective registration energy,
Emin, and the maximum effective registration energy,
Emax. In either case the linear measure of Rc is inversely
proportional to air density. For cellulose nitrate
plastic and the etching conditions employed here, Ernax
varies between 3.5 and 4.25 MeV, depending on track
counting criteria. The value of al is then
( 2 7 3 + T'] (760"]
al = \ ~ - f \
~-f
(18)
For a mine exposure, sufficient accuracy for al could
169
be obtained from an average temperature and elevation. The response of external track-etch detectors
under a variety of conditions has been investigated by
Lovett (1976).
A calculational study of the diffusion chamber
shows that response is relatively independent of air
densities for this detector. Figure 17 lists the plotted
values of the diffusion chamber response as a function
of polycarbonate degrader thickness and the ambient
air density. In making the calculation it was assumed
that the daughter nuclei plated out on the walls of the
cavity before decaying and that their distribution over
the wall surfaces was uniform. The calculated values
are for the center point of the track-etch detector. The
minimum and maximum 4He-particle registration
energies used were 0.4 and 4.25 MeV. The calculation
was made by numerical integration at 1 degree angular
intervals about the point of registration. It can be seen
that for the degrader thickness actually used in the
diffusion chambers, which is 0.96 mg/cm 2, the response
varies little for air densities from 0.6 to 1.4 mg/cm ~.
The Standard Atmosphere {Handbook of Chemistry
Mnvirnllrn ranic~m'l'inn ~rnw
= ~. 9 ~ rtA=~/
g:
c~
"6
I
~E
-2
f.O
Polycabonate
degrader
2.0
mass t h i c k n e s s ,
5.0
rng/cm 2
FIG. 17. Calculated values of radon diffusion chamber response as a

function of air density and degrader mass thickness.
170
and Physics, 1957) lists the variations in air density

from sea level to 4023m elevation to be 1.2250.819 mg/cm 3. All uranium mines will therefore have
air densities well within the limits stated above, even
during extremes of temperature-pressure variation.
The value Of a 2 can be set equal to unity.
F r o m Eqns (15) and (16), the combined daughter
4He-particle exposure is
ED=E,r - E R
(19)
The value Eo contains no information on the relative

abundances of RaA and R a C - C ' and is independent of
RaB concentrations. Therefore WL exposures cannot
be calculated directly from Eo. However, it can be seen
that the ratio Eo/ER is a partial measure of the average
radiological equilibrium occurring during the exposure. By combining this ratio with data derived from
studies of operational uranium mine environments, a
method can be developed for finding an average
radiological equilibrium.
In a paper by Domanski et al. (1975) a variable, A, is
defined as
should cover the range of equilibrium conditions

encountered by the miner as he moves about the mine.
A series of such measurements have been reported by
Breslin et al. (1969). They measured the 222Rn and
individual daughter concentrations at 54 locations in
several mines of diversified environments. The
daughter-to-222Rn activity ratios were represented by
a series of frequency distributions of the daily averages
at these locations.
The values they reported contain significant probable errors. In order to conveniently use the data, the
experimental points were fitted by analytic functions.
The corresponding sets of daughter ratios were fitted
by functions of a single variable, S. The fitting was
weighted toward those values having the smaller
probable errors. If the activity concentrations of
222Rn, RaA, RaB, and R a C ~ ' are denoted by C1, C2,
C3and C4 then the fitted functions are
Cz/CI = S
C3/C1 = - 1.736
S3+ 3.399 S 2 -- 1.079 S +0.158

(22)
C4/C1 =0.259 S 2 +0.327 S - 0 . 0 7 8
~ ( n u m b e r of 222Rn
concentration units) dz
(20)
A-
(2l)
~ (number of potential
a-energy concentration units) dr
where 222Rn concentration units are given in

(I 00 pCi/l.), potential c~-energy concentration units are
given in (1.3 l05 MeV/1.) or WL, z is the time over
which A is determined. Thus, A is a measure of the
radioactive equilibrium in terms of 222Rn concentration and WL. For full equilibrium, A = 1. Breslin et
al. (1969) call the inverse of this variable the Working
Level Ratio. The value increases with relative disequilibrium. Domanski et al. (1975) attempt to determine a mean value of A for each uranium mine
where monitoring is to take place. By characterizing
an entire mine with a single value of A, one track etch
measurement of ZZ2Rn plus daughters would be
sufficient to yield an accumulated W L M exposure for
the miner in question. The simultaneous measurement
of E~ and ED allows A to be treated as a variable. That
is, A is determined as a function of Eo/E R.
In order to determine A versus Eo/ER, a representative series of area monitoring measurements in
mine atmospheres is needed. These measurements
(23)
The functions and corresponding measured values are

shown in Fig. 18. The functions can only be considered
valid for 0.335 < S < 0.977, which covers the range of
the measurements.
IO--
/o
o RaA/~Rn
a RaBlz~Rn
o 8 --
Breslin e t a /
o RaC/
Rn
~ FiiCed funC
_~
~ 06-
~ 04-~ 02-- s/////J/s' /

02
04
06
08
I0
FIG. 18. The measured radon-daughter ratios in uranium

mine atmospheres of Breslin et al. (1969) and the fitted
functions.
RADON DOSIME~FRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

Both A and Eo/Eg can be calculated from the three
functions. First
ED/ER = (C2 + C4)/CI
Table 4. Tabulated values of A vs Eo/E a
(24)
From Eqns (21) and (23)

Eo/E R = S +0.259 $2+ 0.327 S -0.078
=0.259 S2 + 1.327 S-0.078
171
(25)
Eo/E R
0.335
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.977
8.749
6.366
4.255
3.097
2.406
1.970
1.648
1.531
0.396
0.494
0.650
0.811
0.978
1.149
1.326
1.466
Thecorresponding A is, from Eqn (20)

ER/IO0
A
Es[(0.00103 C2/C t ) + (0.00507 C3/C~ )

+ (0.00373 C4/C, )]
(26)
Substituting from Eqns (21), (22) and (23)
A = 1/[0.103 S + ( -0.880 S 3 + 1.723 S2
- 0.547 S + 0.080)
+ (0.097 S z +0.122 S - 0.029)]
"6
_g
A = 1/(-0.880 S 3 + 1.820 S z
- 0.322 S + 0.051 )
(27)
In Table 4, corresponding values of A and Eo/E R have

been calculated between the relevant, limits of S. The
data is plotted in Fig. 19. This relationship can be used
to extract A from the measured ratio of Eo/E R. The
relationship can be fitted by an analytical expression
for this purpose. The fifth order polynomial,
A=37.316-135.682(E)
+225.143(EE~)2-194.909(EE~) 3
+ 8 5 4 4 0 ( E ) --14.958\ER/
(28)
fits the data very closely. Working Level exposures can

be calculated from the values of A and E R. They are
W L H = Ea
100A
WLM =
ER
1.70 x 104A
._.q
(29)
(30)
t~
02
04
0.6
Exposure
0.8
rotio,
I0
L2
1,4
16
E o / E~
FIG. 19. A plot of the radiological equilibrium ratio as a

function of daughter-to-radon 4He particle exposure ratio for
standard uranium mine atmospheres.
5.8 U SF passive track-etch dosimeter measurements
The passive personal dosimeters have been exposed
in an experimental mine under conditions of relative
stability of the radiological equilibrium and in simulated mine air where equilibrium conditions were
varied. Several exposures of multiple dosimeter arrays
were made. The plastics were etched in 6.25N NaOH
solution at 40 . The track densities were counted
automatically with an image analyzing computer. The
results of t'he experimental mitre measurements are
shown in Figs 20 and 21. The total and daughter track
densities have been plotted against WL exposure as
measured by the Modified Tsivoglou method
(Thomas, 1972). Under stable equilibrium conditions
the various sets of data are well fitted by straight lines.
The 95 ~ confidence intervals average about + 15 and
+25?/o for deviations of measurements about the
A. L. F R A N K
172
and E. V. B E N T O N
/
/o
,/
//;/
Total tTOCk density
513-To'hol
y =(0.1532:1:0.0023) x
95% confidence interval_...____/

-o
/
/~
.,s
////,~,.."
"~'~'/
I0
~v
: (0 089e 0 0023)x
I ~"
RoA + RoC' flock density
y = (0.07716-+ 0 O0t61 x
confidence interval
957.
I00
150
Exposure,
WLH
confidence
I00
50
20(3
FIG. 20. Measured 4He-particle track densities as a function

of Working Level Hours for exposures of the passive personal
dosimeters to a uranium mine atmosphere. The field area for
track counting was 0.881 mm 2.
7 -
I
J
--
VVLH
FIG. 21. Measured 4He-particle track densities as a function

of Working Level Hours for exposures of the passive personal
dosimeters to a uranium mine atmosphere. The field area for
track counting was 0.837 m m 2.
E x t e r n o l "track etch detect"ors

colibrofed radon-doughier folios
.'
0.85:0.57:0.41
5--
j1
tl I~r~
d
o
4
Ij j
s s ,~ f d /
sjjl
~. i s
.'..2." ,~....."
ss
.,~,s
/ ssJ
J s ,p s ~"
/J_s
50
150
I00
Calibrated
intervol
200
222Rn; R a A : RoB : RaC

6
Io
o
@'/
<~
RaA + RoC' "fm,ck densii'y
Exposure,
l l J ii""
.'"
~g5%
//i / I
/
j
/ iii
///
%/
//
s
,ss
2O
/
/
j p 4 -SS
9 5 % confidence interval ~ .
"hock density
y =(0 1328 0 0016) x
exposure,
200
WLH
FIG. 22. The total 22zP~-plas-daughtcr track densities as measured by the external track-etch detectors
are plotted versus the calibrated exposure in W L H for four separate exposures to simulated mine air.
R A D O N D O S I M E T R Y USING PLASTIC NTDs

mean slopes for the total and daughter track densities,
respectively. Moving belt dosimeters were also exposed. Their measurements were not statistically different from the simple external detectors. This has
proven true on all measurements made to date. The
scatter in the measurements is adequately explained by
statistical variations in the number of tracks counted.
Figure 22 is a plot of the total track densities versus
W L H where the exposures were made in a large
chamber wfiich was adjusted to different equilibrium
conditions. The radon-daughter equilibrium ratios are
given for each of the exposures. It can be seen that the
four groups of points are shifted from proportionality
with WLH in accordance with their respective equilibrium ratios. The greatest mean slope corresponds to
the highest percentage of radon in the air and the
others rank accordingly. This follows from the fact
that radon does not contribute to WL exposure.
Figure 23 is a plot of the trackdensity due to the
--
222Rn : RoA : Ra8 : ReC

o I 068:0 18:006
u I 0 7 9 : 0 . 3 0 : 0 13
I 0 8 5 : 0 5 7 : 0 41
/
/
950
confidence limit's
50
Calibrot"ed
component of activity has several times greater weight,

per unit activity, in the calculation of WL than does
RaA. The 95 % confidence:interval for measurements
of daughter track densities extended f r o m : - 3 8 to
+ 62 % of the mean slope. This is greater than counting
statistics would account for. The quality control for
uniform sensitivity of the track-etch detectors was not
adequate. However, the effectiveness of the internal
detector in reducing the effects of disequilibrium on
dosimeter response is well demonstrated. Different
etching times and track sizing criteria have been used
in the three sets of measurements to achieve greater
accuracy during automatic counting. The dosimeter
response differences seen are mainly due to these
reasons rather than to shifts in sensitivity of the tracketch detectors. The method of calculating WL exposures derived in Eqn (29) was not applied to these
measurements. This method is sensitive to statistical
fluctuations. The efficiencies of the internal and external detectors was recently measured as 0.0217 and
0.0383 tracks/cm 2 per pCi-hr/l, of airborne *Heparticle activity. An increase in the internal detector
sensitivity is an important goal for future work.
6. P A S S I V E TRACK-ETCH
ENVIRONMENTAL
DOSIMETRY
y =(15.99-t 0 . 6 0 I x /
/ ' /
173
IO0
exposure,
150
WLH
FIG. 23. Radon daughter track density versus Working

Level exposure where the contribution of 222Rn has been
subtracted from the external detector measurements shown
in Fig. 22. The radon detectors for the highest exposure were
lost.
daughters, RaA + RaC', only. The 222Rn component
has been subtracted out. The radon detectors for the
173 WLH exposures were lost in an accident. The
spread in the means of the different exposures is
reduced from 90 to 6 %. The shift between the 99.5 and
104WLH exposures reflects the fact that the RaC'
A passive dosimeter has been developed at USF for

environmental monitoring. It is basically similar to the
personal dos{meter. The configurations of the external
and internal detectors in the dosimeter are shown in
Fig. 24. The top of the chamber is composed of porous
filter paper offering little resistance to the diffusion of
radon gas. The thickness of the filter is sufficiently
great to absorb 4He particles emitted by daughters
plated on the outside surface. The inner dimension of
the chamber allows 4He particles emitted by RaA
nuclei which plate out on the walls to register in the
plastic.
Several of these dosimeters were exposed for 9 to 12
months in houses constructed on uranium tailings fill
in Grand Junction, Corolado (Frank and Benton,
1975b). The detectors were clear cellulose nitrate
plastic of 250#m thickness. After the exposures, the
plastics were etched for 18 hours in 6.25N NaOH
solution at 40 . The bulk etch was 7.8 #m. The upper
energy cutoff for track counting was about 4.25 MeV
for *He particles. The surfaces of the external detectors
were examined on arrival and found relatively clean.
They were qualitatively graded as to cleanliness.
174
A. L. F R A N K a n d E. V. B E N T O N
Externa I
detector
too
>7
"=
~:
20 -
/# /
External detectors
illlllll////lI I
/
.I
.,-
I"
i/
""
, o_
g
~-
I IIV #/ / ~ 68%
l / /l 7<
confidence limits
95%
confidence
limits
~- iff~////
0.5
i,,Z,,.,s,,"
"7/
0
I00
2)00
300
400
500
Active dosimeter colibmfion,
600
700
WLH
FIG. 25. The external detector track densities measured with

the passive environmental monitor versus WLH for exposures in houses built on uranium mill tailings. The dark
points represent 9 month exposures, the open points 12
month exposures.
/////
y =6.52 0.21 x . ~
60
FIG. 24. A cross section of the passive environmental

Working Leve! dosimeter, approximately to scale.
120 --
d for
100
200
300
400
500
WL-hr
FIG. 26. Measurements of track density versus WLexposure
in houses built on uranium mill tailings which were made with

a different cellulose nitrate plastic than the measurements of
Fig. 25 (Countess, 1975).
The track densities were counted automatically by
means of an image-analyzing c o m p u t e r linked to an
optical microscope. Over 1000 tracks were counted on
all detectors. Background samples were also counted.
The track densities accumulated on the external
detectors during the exposures are s h o w n in Fig. 25.
They have been plotted against the W o r k i n g Level
exposures measured during the period by active T L D
dosimeters placed in their vicinities. The solid points
represent those dosimeters removed after 9 m o n t h s
while the remainder were exposed for 12 months.
Similar dosimeter exposures were made during this
period by others. A series of these measurements is
shown in Fig. 26 (Countess, 1975). The statistical
analyses of the data were carried out differently but it
can be seen that a great deal of scatter was present in
each set of measurements. The scatter is not explained
by p o o r counting statistics or errors in the active
dosimeter calibrations. In b o t h sets of measurements,
there were pairs of dosimeters exposed together. The
good agreement between pairs seems to rule out
response fluctuations in the dosimeters. We found no
correlation between deviations from the mean and
detector 'cleanliness'. There were n o measurements
made of the r a d o n - d a u g h t e r equilibrium conditions
during the exposures. Large differences between
locations could cause the scatter in the track-etch
detector measurements. However, the results of the
radon diffusinn-chamber measurements do not con-
R A D O N D O S I M E T R Y U SI N G PLASTIC NTDs
2
0/F
Internol detect"ocs
/' /
Z / /
II, / , "/
/
/ i//
o.=
,s
//
_/
68*/*
conrioence limrrs
~95"/.
confidence limi~
",~X'~,"_/"
I/1~/'1
I//," /
I
i00
300
400
500
600
Active dosimeter calibration,
700
800
WLH
FIG. 27. The passive environmental monitor radon diffusion:

chamber track densities versus WLH measured in houses
built on uranium mill talings. The dark and open points are 9
and 12 month exposures, respectively.
14
//
/( ;,,"
y
~" 0,=
205x/.
/ ~
confidence limrts
I , , = /" /-" .~Z

. , "- - .; .i
o~
'~'
~'"1I00
200
to + 54 % of the median. The measurements of 222Rn

activity were therefore equally as good a measure of
WL exposure as were the measurements of the sum of
222Rn, RaA, and RaC' activities. The internal and
external detector track densities were translated into
pCi-hr/1, of activity exposure by correcting with the
calibrated responses. The 222Rn activity was then
subtracted from the total to yield the sum of RaA and
RaC' activities. The result is plotted in Fig. 28. The
95 % confidence interval extends from - 4 9 to + 94 %
of the meadian. The radon subtraction should correct
for the major part of the equilibrium dependence in the
measurements. The increased scatter indicates that the
dominant source of error lies in some other factor. The
measurements do not suggest what this factor may be.
7. B A C K G R O U N D S
200
175
~00
400
Act"ive dosimet"er calibration,
500
600
700
WLH
FIG. 28. The corrected RaA+RaC' track densities versus

WLH for passive environmental monitor measurements in
houses built on uranium mill tailings. The dark and open
circles are 9 and 12 month exposures, respectively.
firm this possibility. The track densities from the
internal detectors are shown in Fig. 27, plotted against
WL exposure. The 95 ~o confidence intervals of both
the internal and external detectors extended from - 35
The track backgrounds detected on the plastic

track-etch detectors are dependent on the etching
procedure, track-counting criteria, and age of the
plastic. In the USF active dosimeters, where sensitivities of about 30 tracks per mm2-WLH are achieved,
the background is not an important factor. It is
equivalent to a fraction of a WLH. In the USF passive
dosimeters, where RaA + RaC' sensitivity is about 0.1
tracks/mm2-WLH, the reduction of backgrounds is
very important. Newly made plastic has been found to
have about 0.5 tracks per mm 2 with low-density
counting techniques as used for the passive personal
dosimeters. Because this background is present in both
internal and external detectors, it is equivalent to about
12 WLH. The fluctuations in backgrounds counted on
different samples of the same detector sheet were found
to be generally within the expected statistical spread.
8. DISCUSSION
The area of significant exposures of 222Rn and its
airborne daughter rruclei has been reviewed.
Environmental and occupational exposures and the
usual means of reducing them have been discussed. The
present methods of measurement of Working Level
exposures has been outlined and existing limitations in
ability to determine the magnitudes of individual
exposures has been pointed out. There is a need for a
reliable personal dosimeter for occupational use. The
accuracy of the instrument should be at least + 30 %
with 95 % confidence for individual measurements. A
summary of personal dosimetry techniques and the
results of their testing, up to the present, has been given.
No instrument has yet proven adequate under the
176
conditions of uranium miner usage. Both active and

passive types have been tested. Track-etch detectors
can be used in either type to register the tracks of
emitted 4He particles, but they compare more favorably
with other detectors i n passive dosimetry. Cellulose
nitrate plastic has the greatest sensitivity available
among nuclear track detectors in current use.
Maximization of sensitivity is very important for
passive dosimeters. The major problems with previous
passive track-etch dosimeters seems to have been
buildup of contaminants on and around the track
recording surface and variations in radon-daughter
equilibrium conditions.
The U S F passive personal dosimeter was designed
to circumvent these problems. The plastic surface is
protected by a thin metal rim with little area for
collecting contaminants. It employs two simultaneous
measurements to determine RaA + RaC' activity in the
air. The external cellulose nitrate track-etch detector is
used to measure total '*He-particle activity. A radon
diffusion chamber, also employing cellulose nitrate,
measures the 222Rn component of the activity. This
allows a separation of radon and its daughters. A small
model of the dosimeter, suitable for wearing on the
body, has been developed and tested. The 95%
confidence intervals for WL exposure measurements
averaged about _+25% for these dosimeters in relatively stable experimental mine air. The range of the
passive personal dosimeter extends up to about
400 WLH with etching times presently in use but could
be extended further. With present detector sensitivities, statistical and background variations become
very important below 3 0 W L H . Improvements in
detector sensitivity will reduce this limitation.
A larger model of the passive dosimeter, for environmental measurements, has been tested in
uranium-mill tailings houses for exposure periods up
to a year. Some apparent difference in dosimeter
sampling at different locations introduced unexpected
scatter into the measurements during exposure periods
up to one year. The 95% confidence intervals for
measurements of total and RaA + RaC' track densities
extended from - 3 5 to +54'0 and - 4 9 to +94"/o,
respectively. The accuracy of the total track densities is
in approximate agreement with track-etch detector
measurements made by others under similar circumstances. These error limits are well above counting
statistics and are not explained by radon-daughter
equilibrium variations.
Work with track-etch detectors for passive WL

dosimetry is continuing at the University of San
Francisco. The passive personal dosimeters will be
tested on working miners in the next year. Personal
track-etch dosimetry is also reported being investigated in Poland (Domanski et al., 1975) and in
Pakistan (Chaudhry et al., 1976; Khan et al., 1976).
Environmental monitoring with these detectors is also
of interest in Pakistan and in the US at the Colorado
Department o f H e a h h (Langner, 1977) and Health and
Safety Laboratory (Countess, 1975).
An active track-etch personal dosimeter has been
shown to yield consistent measurements when coupled
to a stable air sampling pump and used in relatively
clean environments. This is in line with active dosimeters developed at several other institutions. It is
during the rigors of actual working-mine testing that
the previous active dosimeters failed. An active personal T L D dosimeter with advanced air pump construction is undergoing testing at the present time at
the U.S. Mine Enforcement and Safety Office in
Denver (Rock, 1977).
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USING PLASTIC NTDs
177
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R A D O N D O S I M E T R Y USING PLASTIC NTDs

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1 RADON Dosimetry

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1 RADON Dosimetry

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Nuclear Track Detection, Vol. 1, No. 3/4, pp. 149-179. Pergamon Press, 1977.

Printed in Great Britain

R A D O N D O S I M E T R Y U S I N G PLASTIC N U C L E A R TRACK DETECTORS

enough tfiat a collected or absorbed sample will be

A . L . FRANK and E. V. BENTON

continuous emanation from the ground. Ground

need for new standards is cited (Caruthers and Waltner,

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

daughter exposures presents a wide range of conditions and individual problems.

2. RADON DAUGHTER EXPOSURES

If this explanation of the effects of cigarette smoking

and delayed percentage of total 4He-particle absorbed

WL = 0.00103 C2 + 0.00507 C3 + 0.00373 C4

A. L. FRANK and E. V. BENTON

An hour of exposure to 1 WL is 1 Working Level Hour

The exposure standards were adopted in response to

standards for the general population. A recommended

Table 2. Potential energy characteristics of the radon daughters

Atoms per pCi

Potential energy per pCi

daughter inhalation and dosimetry has been widely

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

survey of an operating mine by Rock et al. (1967)

A. L. FRANK and E. V. BENTON

of building materials containing significant amounts of

Gro6r, 1972; Loysen, 1969; Rock et al., 1970). Quicker

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

fl-7 backgrounds. Also, when exposed to ambient air,

T L / M e V = 6 . 6 x 10-7(ncoulom bs/MeV)Z 1 . 7 " / . ~

FIG. 3. Response of the Colorado State University WL

FIG. 4. Response of the Health and Safety Laboratory

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

ment and inconstant air sampling. Another dosimeter

log R=O.II + 0.13 I o g E

FIG. 7. Schematic of the principle of the WL dosimeter of

FIG. 6. Resiaonseof the Oak RidgeNational Laboratory WL

5.2 T h e U S F active track-etch W L dosimeter

diameter of the detector is 12.7 mm and it is separated

particles from the filter in tracks/cm2-disintegration, v

From Eqns (4) and (5)

C2/22 ~- C3/,~ 3 + C4/1~4 = N 2 / E 2 v t

Substituting in Eqn (6)

The exposure measured by a dosimeter is

N2 =E2vt(C2/)L2 + C3/1~ 3 2c-C4/,~4)

where N x , N z are the measured track densities in

WLM =(2.67NI/E 1+ 3.42NjE2)/lO 7 v

The above described method employs two track

6.00 MeV (~o)

7.69 MeV ('~"o)

USING PLASTIC NTDs

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

etry. The gains derived by using this method are (1) a

The use of these equations would result in only + 3.0 to

95% confidence limits

FIG. 10. Measured track densities versus Working Level

FIG. 9. Measured track densities versus Working Level

shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11. The measurements in Fig.

reduced to 2 hours to avoid track overlapping on the

FIG. 11. Measured track densities versus Working Level

in a plexiglass slot for protection, shown in Fig. 12,

RADON DOSIMETRY USING PLASTIC NTDs

environment, this detector would have a problem with

FIG. 13. Leastsquares fit of observed alpha track densitiesto