Doppler shift flow meters[edit]

Another method in ultrasonic flow metering is the use of the Doppler

shift that results from the reflection of an ultrasonic beam off
sonically reflective materials, such as solid particles or entrained air
bubbles in a flowing fluid, or the turbulence of the fluid itself, if the liquid is
clean.
Doppler flowmeters are used for slurries, liquids with bubbles, gases with
sound-reflecting particles.
This type of flow meter can also be used to measure the rate of blood flow,
by passing an ultrasonic beam through the tissues, bouncing it off a
reflective plate, then reversing the direction of the beam and repeating the
measurement, the volume of blood flow can be estimated. The frequency of
the transmitted beam is affected by the movement of blood in the vessel and
by comparing the frequency of the upstream beam versus downstream the
flow of blood through the vessel can be measured. The difference between
the two frequencies is a measure of true volume flow. A wide-beam sensor
can also be used to measure flow independent of the cross-sectional area of
the blood vessel.

DFX Doppler Ultrasonic Flow Meters

The DFX ultrasonic Doppler flow meter measures flows of liquids
containing suspended particles or aerated liquids. The suspended
particles must reflect ultrasonic energy. The DFX flow meter
operates by transmitting ultrasonic waves into the flow stream and

measuring the frequency shift of the reflected wave. The meters

clamp-on design allows quick and low-cost installation, and
eliminates worries of fluid compatibility and pressure head loss.
With no moving parts, there is no mechanical wear, so repair kits or
replacement parts are not needed.

Cement slurry, a mixture of cement, water, and assorted dry

and liquid additives used in the petroleum and other
industries[2][3]

Soil/cement slurry, also called Controlled Low-Strength

Material (CLSM), flowable fill, controlled density fill, flowable
mortar, plastic soil-cement, K-Krete, and other names [4]

A mixture of thickening agent, oxidizers, and water used to

form a gel explosive[citation needed]

A mixture of pyroclastic material, rocky debris, and water

produced in a volcanic eruption and known as a

How Ultrasonic Flowmeters Work

Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to determine the velocity of a fluid
flowing in a pipe. At no flow conditions, the frequencies of an ultrasonic wave
transmitted into a pipe and its reflections from the fluid are the same. Under
flowing conditions, the frequency of the reflected wave is different due to the
Doppler effect. When the fluid moves faster, the frequency shift increases
linearly. The transmitter processes signals from the transmitted wave and its
reflections to determine the flow rate.
Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters send and receive ultrasonic waves between
transducers in both the upstream and downstream directions in the pipe. At no
flow conditions, it takes the same time to travel upstream and downstream
between the transducers. Under flowing conditions, the upstream wave will travel
slower and take more time than the (faster) downstream wave. When the fluid
moves faster, the difference between the upstream and downstream times
increases. The transmitter processes upstream and downstream times to
determine the flow rate. They represent about 12% of all flowmeters sold.
Plusses and Minuses
This technology can be very accurate and is used for custody transfer (meaning
accounting accurately for an expensive fluid) of natural gas and petroleum
liquids. High turndown (can read low as a percentage of the full scale or top
reading), handles high pressures, is repeatable (consistent), handles extreme
temperatures, can be used clamped to the outside of a pipe without penetration,
is low maintenance, highly reliable and self diagnosing. Disadvantages can

include high cost, sensitivity to stray process vibrations, problems with pipe
diameter change due to buildup and clamp-on units have lower accuracy.
Ultrasonic flowmeters do not obstruct flow so they can be applied to sanitary,
corrosive and abrasive liquids. Some ultrasonic flowmeters use clamp-on
transducers that can be mounted external to the pipe and do not have any wetted
parts. Temporary flow measurements can be made using portable ultrasonic
flowmeters with clamp-on transducers. Clamp-on transducers are especially
useful when piping cannot be disturbed, such as in power and nuclear industry
applications. In addition, clamp-on transducers can be used to measure flow
without regard to materials of construction, corrosion, and abrasion issues.
However attractive, the use of clamp-on transducers introduces additional
ultrasonic interfaces that can affect the reliability and performance of these
flowmeters. In particular, if not properly applied and maintained, attenuation of
the ultrasonic signal can occur at the interfaces between the clamp-on
transducers and the outside pipe walls, and between the inside pipe walls and
the fluid.
Ultrasonic flowmeters are available in sizes to 72 inches and larger.
How to Use Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Ultrasonic flowmeters are commonly applied to measure the velocity of liquids
that allow ultrasonic waves to pass, such as water, molten sulfur, cryogenic
liquids, and chemicals. Transit time designs are also available to measure gas
and vapor flow. Be careful because fluids that do not pass ultrasonic energy,
such as many types of slurry, limit the penetration of ultrasonic waves into the
fluid. In Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters, opaque fluids can limit ultrasonic wave
penetration too near the pipe wall, which can degrade accuracy and/or cause the
flowmeter to fail to measure. Transit time ultrasonic flowmeters can fail to operate
when an opaque fluid weakens the ultrasonic wave to such an extent that the
wave does not reach the receiver.
Industries Where Used
The industries in order of higher to lower are oil and gas, water and wastewater,
power, chemical, food and beverage, pharmaceutical, metals and mining, and
pulp and paper.
Application Cautions for Ultrasonic Flowmeters
For transit time ultrasonic flowmeters, be sure that the fluid can adequately
conduct ultrasonic waves, because the flowmeter will not measure when the
ultrasonic waves cannot penetrate the flow stream between the transducers.
Similarly, ultrasonic waves must be able to penetrate the fluid for Doppler
flowmeters to operate accurately. When the fluid is relatively opaque and does
not penetrate the fluid, Doppler flowmeters tend to measure the velocity of the
fluid at or near the pipe wall, which can cause significant measurement error
and/or cause the flowmeter to fail.
For Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters, be sure that the fluid adequately reflects
ultrasonic waves, because the flowmeter will not operate without a reflected
ultrasonic signal. Depending upon design, reflections can occur due to small
bubbles of gas in the flow stream or the presence of eddies in the flow stream. If

not already present in the flowing stream, generating these sources of reflection
can be difficult in practice. Fortunately, some combination of bubbles of gas
and/or eddies are present in most applications.
The velocity of the solid particles in slurry can be different than its liquid carrier
fluid. Be careful applying ultrasonic technology when the solid particles can
become concentrated in one part of the flowing stream, such as in a horizontal
pipe flowing at a relatively low velocity. Be careful when applying Doppler
ultrasonic flowmeters in slurry applications because the solid particles can
produce strong signals that can cause the Doppler flowmeter to measure the
velocity of the solids and not the velocity of the liquid.
Avoid fluids that can coat wetted transducers or coat the pipe wall in front of nonwetted transducers because the flowmeter will not measure when the ultrasonic
waves cannot enter the flow stream. Be sure to maintain reliable clamp-on
transducer connections to the pipe wall because the flowmeter will not measure
when the ultrasonic waves are not able to reach the fluid.
Be sure to understand the process and apply these flowmeters properly. For
example, a periodic cleaning process upstream may cause the flowmeter to stop
working because the dirt may not allow ultrasonic energy to pass through the
fluid. Further, if the dirt coats wetted transducers, the flowmeter may fail to
operate until it is cleaned.

Open Channel
Measures flow by measuring the height of the fluid as it passes over an
obstruction in an open channel. Open channels may include flumes, a
specially shaped open channel flow section with an area or slope that is
different from that of the channel and weirs, a dam built across an area that
the liquid flows over. Each type and structure will have an associated
equation for determining the flow rate.

Ultrasonic
The most commonly used technique of measuring the rate of flow in an open
channel is that of hydraulic structures. Flow in an open channel is measured
by inserting a hydraulic structure into the channel, which changes the level
of the liquid in or near the structure.
By selecting the shape and dimensions of the hydraulic structure, the rate of
flow through or over the restriction will be related to the liquid level in a
known manner. Therefore, the flow rate through an open channel can be
derived from a single measurement of the liquid level.

Hydraulic structures used in measuring flow in open channels are known as

primary measuring devices and are divided into two categories: flumes and

weirs.

Uniform and reliable flow measurement data.

Aids in meeting water quality regulatory requirements.
Easy to install.
Requires minimal maintenance.
Non-contact system so is not affected by grease, suspended solids, silt,
corrosive chemicals or liquid temperature fluctuations.

Hydraulic structure
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A hydraulic structure is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water, which
disrupts the natural flow of water. They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the flow. An
example of a hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of the river in
order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body of water
where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.[1]
Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water. When used to measure the flow
of water, hydraulic structures are defined as a class of specially shaped, static devices over or
through which water is directed in such a way that under free-flow conditions at a specified location
(point of measurement) a known level to flow relationship exists. Hydraulic structures of this type
can generally be divided into two categories: flumes and weirs

Hydraulic Structures In general, a hydraulic structure is anything that can be used to divert, dam,
restrict, or otherwise manage the flow of open channel waters. For flow measurement purposed, a
hydraulic structure is a fixed geometry device that is placed into the flow so that all of the flow is
directed through or over the device. The device produces a characterized relationship between the
liquid level in (flumes) or upstream (weirs) of the device and the flow rate at a single, defined location
under free-flow conditions. Under submerged flow conditions, a second, downstream point of
measurement must also be used. The free-flow point of measurement is termed the Ha location,
while the secondary, downstream point of measurement used for submerged flow measurement is
termed the Hb location. As a hydraulic structure directly produces a characterized relationship

between level and flow, it is termed a primary device. When the liquid level generated by the
hydraulic structure is measured by an additional device, that device (or flow meter) is termed the
secondary device. Hydraulic structures can generally be divided into two categories: flumes and
weirs. Flumes are more adaptable in their sizing, configurations, and installation, while weirs, on
channels capable of developing a proper weir pools, tend to be less expensive. Of the two, weirs
show greater laboratory accuracy (+/-2-5%) than flumes (+/-2-6%), although in practice and under
field conditions, the total system accuracies tend to be similar at +/-10%. Modern mechanical (float)
and electronic flow meters (secondary devices) allow for the continuous measurement of hydraulic
structure flows. For applications where continuous measurement is not required or possible, head /
level / staff gauges can be used to aid the operator in determining the flow rate through the use of
published rating or discharge tables. - See more at:
http://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/article/methods-of-measuring-flows-in-open-

channels#sthash.syj0vseQ.dpuf

Area-Velocity Method Measurement of the mean flow velocity

(commonly by doppler or electromagnetic field) over a determined crosssectional area (the depth of which is determined by pressure transducer or
ultrasonic sensor) yields the stream flow rate. Recent tests performed by the
Bureau of Reclamation found that even in a controlled, laboratory
environment, measurement error of +/-10% are possible. Under field

conditions, this error can reasonably be assumed to greater than those

observed in laboratory conditions. - See more at:
http://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/article/methods-of-measuring-flows-inopen-channels#sthash.syj0vseQ.dpuf
VELOCITY/AREA METHOD
This depends on measuring the average velocity of flow and the crosssectional area of the channel and calculating the flow from:
Q(m3/s) = A(m2) x V(m/s)
The metric unit m3/s is referred to as the cumec. Because m3/s is a large
unit, smaller flows are measured in litres per second (l/s).
A simple way to estimate the velocity is to measure the time taken for a
floating object to travel a measured distance downstream. The velocity is not
the same at all places in the stream, being slower at the sides and bottom,
and faster on the surface, as shown in Figure 20. Taking 0.8 of the surface
velocity as measured by the float gives an approximate value for the
average velocity. Alternatively, the velocity can be measured below the
surface by attaching a submerged weight to a float. The float and weight
move down the stream together at the velocity of the stream at the depth
where the weight is suspended. At about half the stream depth, the velocity
is approximately the same as the average velocity for the whole stream.
Float methods are only suitable for straight streams or canals where the flow
is fairly even and regular.

Another method is to pour into the stream a quantity of strongly coloured

dye, and to measure the time for this to flow a measured distance
downstream. The dye should be added quickly with a sharp cutoff, so that it
travels downstream in a cloud. The time is measured for the first and last of
the dye to reach the downstream measuring point and an average of the two
times is used to calculate the average velocity.

In turbulent streams the cloud of dye is dispersed quickly and cannot be

observed and measured, but other tracers can be used, either chemical or
radio-isotopes, in what is called the dilution method. A solution of the tracer
of known strength is added to the stream at a constant measured rate and
samples are taken at points downstream. The concentration of the sample
taken downstream can be compared with the concentration of the added
tracer and the dilution is a function of the rate of flow which can be
calculated.
More accurate determination of velocity can be obtained by using a current
meter. The two main types are illustrated in Figure 21. The conical cup type
revolves about a vertical axis, and the propeller type about a horizontal axis.
In each case the speed of revolution is proportional to the velocity, and the
number of revolutions in a given time is counted, either on a digital counter
or as clicks heard in earphones worn by an operator. In shallow streams small
current meters will be mounted on rods and held by wading operators (Plate
23). When measurements of floodflows are to be measured on big rivers, the
readings are taken either from a bridge, or an overhead cableway is installed
well above maximum flood level, and the current meter is lowered on cables
into the river with weights to hold it against the riverflow.
A current meter measures the velocity at a single point, and several
measurements are required to calculate the total flow. The procedure is to
measure and plot on graph paper the cross-section of the stream and to
imagine that it is divided into strips of equal width as shown in Figure 22. The
average velocity for each strip is estimated from the mean of the velocity
measured at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth in that strip. This velocity, times the
area of the strip, gives the flow for the strip and the total flow is the sum of
the strips. Table 2 shows how the calculations will be done for data shown in
Figure 22. In practice, more strips would be used than the number shown in
Figure 22 and Table 2. For shallow water a single reading is taken at 0.6 of
the depth instead of averaging the readings at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth.
Sometimes the information required on streamflow is the maximum flood
flow, and a rough estimate can be made using the velocity/area method. The
maximum depth of flow in a stream can sometimes be deduced from the
height of leaves and trash caught in vegetation on the bankside, or from the
highest signs of scour or sediment deposits on the bank. Alternatively some
device can be installed which is designed to leave a record of the maximum
level. To prevent false readings from turbulence in the stream, some kind of
stilling well is used - usually a pipe with holes on the downstream side. The

maximum depth of water can be recorded on a rod painted with a water

soluble paint, or from traces left at the highest level from something floated
on the water surface in the tube. Materials used have included ground cork,
chalk dust and ground charcoal. Knowing the maximum depth of flow, the
corresponding cross-section area of the channel can be measured, and the
velocity estimated by one of the methods described, bearing in mind that the
velocity at high flood will usually be faster than the normal flow.

Manning formula
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Manning formula is also known as the GaucklerManning formula, or GaucklerManning

Strickler formula in Europe. In the United States, in practice, it is very frequently called
simply Manning's Equation. The Manning formula is an empirical formula estimating the average
velocity of a liquid flowing in a conduit that does not completely enclose the liquid, i.e., open channel
flow. All flow in so-called open channels is driven by gravity. It was first presented by the French
engineer Philippe Gauckler in 1867,[1] and later re-developed by the Irish engineer Robert Manning in
1890.[2]
The GaucklerManning formula states:

where:

V is the cross-sectional average velocity (L/T; ft/s, m/s);

n is the GaucklerManning coefficient. Units for values of n are often left off, however it is
not dimensionless, having units of: (T/[L1/3]; s/[ft1/3]; s/[m1/3]).

Rh is the hydraulic radius (L; ft, m);

S is the slope of the hydraulic grade line or the linear hydraulic head loss (L/L), which is the
same as the channel bed slope when the water depth is constant. (S = hf/L).

k is a conversion factor between SI and English units. It can be left off, as long as you make
sure to note and correct the units in your "n" term. If you leave "n" in the traditional SI units,
k is just the dimensional analysis to convert to English. k=1 for SI units, and k=1.49 for
English units. (Note: (1 m)1/3/s = (3.2808399 ft) 1/3/s = 1.4859 ft1/3/s)

NOTE: Ks strickler = 1/n manning. The coefficient Ks strickler varies from 20 (rough stone and
rough surface) to 80 m1/3/s (smooth concrete and cast iron).
The discharge formula, Q = A V, can be used to manipulate GaucklerManning's equation by
substitution for V. Solving for Q then allows an estimate of the volumetric flow rate(discharge)
without knowing the limiting or actual flow velocity.
The GaucklerManning formula is used to estimate the average velocity of water flowing in an
open channel in locations where it is not practical to construct a weir or flume to measure flow
with greater accuracy. The friction coefficients across weirs and orifices are less subjective

than n along a natural (earthen, stone or vegetated) channel reach. Cross sectional area, as well
as n', will likely vary along a natural channel. Accordingly, more error is expected in estimating
the average velocity by assuming a Manning's n, than by direct sampling (i.e., with a current
flowmeter), or measuring it across weirs, flumes or orifices. Manning's equation is also
commonly used as part of a numerical step method, such as the Standard Step Method, for
delineating the free surface profile of water flowing in an open channel. [3]
The formula can be obtained by use of dimensional analysis. Recently this formula was derived
theoretically using the phenomenological theory of turbulence.[4]

Hydraulic radius[edit]
The hydraulic radius is a measure of a channel flow efficiency. Flow speed along the channel
depends on its cross-sectional shape (among other factors), and the hydraulic radius is a
characterisation of the channel that intends to capture such efficiency. Based on the
'constant shear stress at the boundary' assumption,[5] hydraulic radius is defined as the ratio of
the channel's cross-sectional area of the flow to its wetted perimeter (the portion of the crosssection's perimeter that is "wet"):

where:

Rh is the hydraulic radius (L);

A is the cross sectional area of flow (L2);

P is the wetted perimeter (L).

The greater the hydraulic radius, the greater the efficiency of the channel and the more
volume it can carry. For channels of a given width, the hydraulic radius is greater for the
deeper channels.
The hydraulic radius is not half the hydraulic diameter as the name may suggest. It is a
function of the shape of the pipe, channel, or river in which the water is flowing. In wide
rectangular channels, the hydraulic radius is approximated by the flow depth. The measure
of a channel's efficiency (its ability to move water and sediment) is used by water engineers
to assess the channel's capacity.

GaucklerManning coefficient[edit]
The GaucklerManning coefficient, often denoted as n, is an empirically derived coefficient,
which is dependent on many factors, including surface roughness and sinuosity. When field
inspection is not possible, the best method to determine n is to use photographs of river
channels where n has been determined using GaucklerManning's formula.
In natural streams, n values vary greatly along its reach, and will even vary in a given reach
of channel with different stages of flow. Most research shows that n will decrease with stage,
at least up to bank-full. Overbank n values for a given reach will vary greatly depending on
the time of year and the velocity of flow. Summer vegetation will typically have a significantly
higher n value due to leaves and seasonal vegetation. Research has shown, however,
that n values are lower for individual shrubs with leaves than for the shrubs without leaves.
[6]
This is due to the ability of the plant's leaves to streamline and flex as the flow passes
them thus lowering the resistance to flow. High velocity flows will cause some vegetation

(such as grasses and forbs) to lay flat, where a lower velocity of flow through the same
vegetation will not.[7]
In open channels, the DarcyWeisbach equation is valid using the hydraulic diameter as
equivalent pipe diameter. It is the only sound method to estimate the energy loss in manmade open channels. For various reasons (mainly historical reasons), empirical resistance
coefficients (e.g. Chzy, GaucklerManningStrickler) were and are still used. TheChzy
coefficient was introduced in 1768 while the GaucklerManning coefficient was first
developed in 1865, well before the classical pipe flow resistance experiments in the 1920
1930s. Historically both the Chzy and the GaucklerManning coefficients were expected to
be constant and functions of the roughness only. But it is now well recognised that these
coefficients are only constant for a range of flow rates. Most friction coefficients (except
perhaps the DarcyWeisbach friction factor) are estimated 100% empiricallyand they apply
only to fully rough turbulent water flows under steady flow conditions.
One of the most important applications of the Manning equation is its use in sewer design.
Sewers are often constructed as circular pipes. It has long been accepted that the value
of n varies with the flow depth in partially filled circular pipes.[8] A complete set of explicit
equations that can be used to calculate the depth of flow and other unknown variables when
applying the Manning equation to circular pipes is available. [9] These equations account for
the variation of n with the depth of flow in accordance with the curves presented by Camp.

Mannings Equation (Gauckler-Manning-Strickler Formula) Mannings

Equation, as it is commonly referred to in the United States, is an empirically
derived formula for estimating the average velocity of a liquid flowing in an
open channel. The formula utilizes the cross-sectional average velocity,
hydraulic radius, roughness coefficient, and the slope of the channel. The
equation is used to measure flow in locations where the construction of a
hydraulic structure (flume or weir) is impractical. Much of the difficulty in
using the equation is determining the proper Gauckley-Manning coefficient,
n, to apply. In natural channels, n values can vary greatly along a given
stretch. As a result, Mannings Equation should not be expected to provide
results better than +/- 25-30% under field conditions. In the United States,
this method is most commonly referred to as Mannings Equation, while in
Europe it is more often referred to as the Gauckler-Manning-Strickler
Formula. Mannings Equation can be used for continuous flow measurement
through the use of portable or permanent flow meters or it can be used for
spot flow measurements. - See more at:
http://www.openchannelflow.com/blog/article/methods-of-measuring-flows-inopen-channels#sthash.IMG5US8f.dpuf

Christian Doppler
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and

removed. (April 2010)

Christian Doppler

Born

29 November 1803
Salzburg, Austria

Died

17 March 1853 (aged 49)

Venice, Italy

Nationality

Austrian

Institutions

Prague Polytechnic
Academy of Mines and Forests
University of Vienna

Known for

Doppler effect

Christian Andreas Doppler (/dplr/; 29 November 1803 17 March 1853) was an

Austrian mathematician and physicist. He is celebrated for his principle known as the Doppler
effect that the observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the
observer. He used this concept to explain the color of binary stars.
Contents
[hide]

1Biography

2Full name

3See also

4References

5Further reading

6External links

Biography[edit]
This section requires expansion.
(May 2010)

Doppler was born and raised in Salzburg, Austria, the son of a stonemason. He could not work in his
father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school,
Doppler studied philosophy in Salzburg and mathematics and physics at the k. k. Polytechnisches
Institut (now Vienna University of Technology) where he began work as an assistant in 1829. In 1835
he began work at the Prague Polytechnic (now Czech Technical University), where he received an
appointment in 1841.

Doppler's birth house in Salzburg, just next door to where Mozart's family had lived. A Doppler research-and
memorial society is now housed there.[1]

House in Prague in which Christian lived from 1843 to 1847

Only a year later, at the age of 38, Doppler gave a lecture to the Royal Bohemian Society of
Sciences and subsequently published his most notable work, "ber das farbige Licht der
Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels" (On the coloured light of the binary stars
and some other stars of the heavens). There is a facsimile edition with an English translation by Alec
Eden.[2] In this work, Doppler postulated his principle (later coined the Doppler effect) that the
observed frequency of a wave depends on the relative speed of the source and the observer, and he
tried to use this concept for explaining the colour of binary stars. In Doppler's time inPrague as a
professor he published over 50 articles on mathematics, physics and astronomy. In 1847 he left
Prague for the professorship of mathematics, physics, and mechanics at the Academy of Mines and
Forests (its successor is the present day University of Miskolc) inSelmecbnya (then Kingdom of
Hungary, now Bansk tiavnica, Slovakia),[3][4] and in 1849 he moved to Vienna.[5]
Doppler's research was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of 1848. During the Hungarian
Revolution, he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics
at the University of Vienna in 1850. During his time there, Doppler, along withFranz Unger, played an
influential role in the development of young Gregor Mendel, known as the founding father
of genetics, who was a student at the University of Vienna from 1851 to 1853.
Doppler died on 17 March 1853 at age 49 from a pulmonary disease in Venice (at that time part of
the Austrian Empire). His tomb, found by Dr. Peter M. Schuster [6] is just inside the entrance of the
Venetian island cemetery of San Michele.[7]

Full name[edit]
Some confusion exists about Doppler's full name. Doppler referred to himself as Christian Doppler.
The records of his birth and baptism stated Christian Andreas Doppler. Forty years after Doppler's
death the misnomer Johann Christian Doppler was introduced by the astronomer Julius Scheiner.
Scheiner's mistake has since been copied by many.[2]