31

LUT / Laboratory of Intelligent Machines

Prof., D.Sc Heikki Handroos

CHAPTER 2: MODELLING OF VALVES

MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF

MECHATRONIC MACHINES
Ph.D course spring 2010
References:
Merrit, H.E., "Hydraulic Control Systems", John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey, 1967
McCloy, D., Martin, H.R., "The Control of Fluid Power"
Handroos, H., "Methods for Combining A Theoretical and Empirical Approach in Modelling
Pressure and Flow Control Valves for CAE-programs for Fluid Power Circuits"

32
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2. MODELLING OF VALVES ................................................................................................................................... 32
2.1 Turbulent orifice ................................................................................................................................................ 32
2.1.1 Volume flow as a function of pressure drop ............................................................................................... 32
2.1.2 Relation between discharge and local restrictor coefficients ...................................................................... 35
2.1.3 Modifying the simulation model to numerically efficient form .................................................................. 36
2.2 Dynamic continuity equation ............................................................................................................................. 37
2.3 Geometric cross-section areas of different valve types...................................................................................... 40
2.3.1 Sharp-edged spool valve ............................................................................................................................. 40
2.3.2 Conical poppet (cone at poppet).................................................................................................................. 41
2.3.3 Conical poppet (cone at seat) ...................................................................................................................... 41
2.3.4 Triangular groove at spool valve................................................................................................................. 42
2.3.5 Rectangular groove at spool valve .............................................................................................................. 42
2.3.6 Circular cross-section within spool valve ................................................................................................... 43
2.4 Pressure force acting in conical poppet valve .................................................................................................... 44
2.5 Damping forces acting in valves ........................................................................................................................ 45
2.5.1 Damping orifice .......................................................................................................................................... 45
2.5.2. Damping the spool movement by using separate damping piston ............................................................. 47
2.6 Effective spring constants of pressure and flow valves...................................................................................... 48
2.6.3 Influence of impulse flange on the hydraulic spring coefficient of valve ................................................... 50
2.7 Modelling the single-stage pressure relief valve ................................................................................................ 51
2.8 Modelling of single-stage pressure reducing valve ............................................................................................ 56
2.9 Modelling of two-way flow control valve.......................................................................................................... 61
2.10 Modelling of three-way flow control valve...................................................................................................... 66
2.11 Modelling of counter balance valve ................................................................................................................. 68
2.12 Modelling of directional flow control valve..................................................................................................... 71
2.13 Modelling of the overlap of valves .................................................................................................................. 74
2.14 Modelling of the pilot operation....................................................................................................................... 75
2.15 Modelling of pressure accumulator.................................................................................................................. 77
2.16 Semi-empirical modelling method ................................................................................................................... 79
2.16.1 Orifice equation......................................................................................................................................... 79
2.16.2 Modelling the proportional directional control valve................................................................................ 82
2.16.3 Modelling the pressure relief valve ........................................................................................................... 85
2.16.4 Simplification of semi-empirical model.................................................................................................... 92
2.16.5 Defining the parameters of semi-empirical model .................................................................................... 92

2. MODELLING OF VALVES
2.1 Turbulent orifice
2.1.1 Volume flow as a function of pressure drop
Because in fluid power systems orifices mostly work clearly in turbulent region the modelling of
this field is essentially important. In Fig. 32a) laminar and 32b) turbulent flow through the sharpedged orifice is represented

33

Figure 32 a) b): Sharp-edged orifice

In turbulent case fluid particles form the jet, of which smallest cross-section area is smaller than
of the orifice itself. This point (2 in Fig. 32) is called the vena contrata point. The ratio between
cross-section of vena contrata and orifice diameter is called the contraction coefficient. In other
words Eq. (2.1):
A2 = Cc A0

(2.1)

In circular orifices the distance of vena contrata from the orifice is around the half of the orifice
diameter.
The pressure drop needed to accelerate fluid particles in jet from lower velocity to higher can be
calculated by using the Bernoullis equation as follows, Eq. (2.2)
2

w2 w1 =

( p1 p2 )

(2.2)

By applying the continuity equation in case of non-compressible fluid it can be written

A1 w1 = A2 w2 = A3 w3

(2.3)

By combining Eq. (2.2) and Eq. (2.3) is then derived

A 2
w2 = 1 2
A1

1 / 2

( p1 p2 )

(2.4)

Due to viscous friction the velocity of jet is slightly lower than velocity calculated by using Eq.
(2.4). To take this influence into account the empirical velocity coefficient Cv is used. Its value is
normally close to 0.98 which is used in calculations. Because the volume flow in vena contrata
point is

34

Q = A2 w2
Q=

then for the volume flow is derived Eq. (2.5):

Cv A2

A
1 2
A1

( p1 p2 )

(2.5)

Since it is easier to use the physical orifice diameter instead of vena contrata area then Eqs. (2.1)
and (2.5) can be combined to Eq. (2.6)
Q = C d A0

( p1 p2 )

(2.6)

where Cd is so-called discharge coefficient. Then

Cd =

Cv Cc
2

1 Cc ( A0 / A1 ) 2

(2.7)

Since C v 1 and A0 is normally much smaller than A1, the discharge coefficient can be assumed
to be equal to contraction coefficient.
In laminar area when the square root of Reynolds number is smaller than 10, the discharge
coefficient is a function of Reynolds number as follows.

Cd = R

(2.8)

where is laminar flow coefficient depending on the orifice geometry.

Wuest has been able to determine the dependency of discharge coefficient on Reynolds number
in case of sharp-edged orifices according to the Fig. 33. From Fig. 33 can be seen that the value
of discharge coefficient is close to 0.6.

35

Figure 33: Measured dependency of discharge coefficient on square root of Reynolds number

2.1.2 Relation between discharge and local restrictor coefficients

The relation between discharge coefficient and coefficient for local restrictor can also be derived
as follows. In the orifice shown in Fig. 34

Fig. 34: Orifice in pipeline

The pressure loss at the local restrictor is according to Eq. (2.9)

p =

w 2
2

(2.9)

From the continuity equation for the flow velocity is derived

w=

Q
Av

By substituting Eq. (2.10) to Eq. (2.9)

(2.10)

36

p =

Q2
2
2
Av
2pAv
1
2 p
2
Q =
Q =
Av
2

(2.11)

By marking

Cd =

Q = Cd Av

2p

(2.12)

2.1.3 Modifying the simulation model to numerically efficient form

If Eq. (2.12) is used for describing the flow in two directions and if the sign of pressure drop
changes from positive to negative the pressure drop must then be replaced by its absolute value
and also the sign must be taken into account according sign of pressure drop.
To avoid numerical problems it is worth to take the change in discharge coefficient into account.
If only the constant value for Cd then the partial derivative of pressure drop regarding to volume
flow would become infinite while the pressure drop is zero. the discharge coefficient could be
approximated as a funktion of square root of Reynolds number, as represented in Fig. 33. But,
since the accurate description of the laminar area is not essential, it is then worth of using simple
smoothening function in calculations at small values for pressure drop.
Turbulent orifice flow can be approximated by Eq. (2.13)
Q = step(p )Cd Av

2 p

(2.13)

Fig. 35: Smoothening function Step

37

Smoothening function Step (recommended value p = 1*104 Pa is in form, Eq. (2.14)

: p p 0
1

STEP = 1 + a2 (3 2 ) : p 0 < p < p 0

+ 1
: p p 0

where

(2.14)

a = 1 ( 1) = 2
= (p (p0) /(p0 (p0)
= (p + p0)/(2p0)

2.2 Dynamic continuity equation

In dynamic continuity equation the so-called compressional volume flow is taken into account.
By studying the mass flows in flow path according to Fig. 36.

Fig. 36: Mass flows in flow path

& = Q
& = V
m

m& 1 m& 0 =

(2.15)

d
( V )
dt

1Q1 0 Q0 =

(2.16)
d
( V )
dt

(2.17)

By assuming that the density of fluid is evenly distributed

Q1 Q0 =

dV V d
+
dt dt

(2.18)

By substituting the effective bulk modulus

Be = V

and

dp
dV

(2.19)

38
dV
d
=
V

Q1 Q0 =

(2.20)
dV
dt
{

physical
volume
exp ansion

V
Be

dp
dt
{

(2.21)

compressed
volume
flow

dp Be
dV
=

Q1 Q0
dt
V
dt

(2.22)

If there are several flow paths into and out of control volume the Kirchhoffs law is valid (shown
in Fig. 37)

Fig. 36: Flows into and out the volume

In general form

p=

Be
V

m

n
Qin Qin V
i
j

j =1

i =1

(2.23)

increases

= constant
Q

Fig. 37: Pressure generation as a function of time

39
Pressures acting in volumes can then be solved from Eq. (2.23) by integrating the derivatives of
pressures during the simulation run. For every volume between different components in fluid
power circuit this equation is written. The pressure acting in volume can also be solved using
alternative method, i.e. by integrating the volume compressed by volume flows.
T

i =1

j =1

Vc = ( Qini Qout j V& )dt

(2.24)

In this case the pressure can be solved from Eq. (2.19)

V
p = Be c + p0
V

(2.25)

where
T

V = V&dt + V0

(2.26)

In Eqs. (2.25) and (2.26) the pressure p0 and volume V0 are the initial values. Alternatively, also
the mass flow can be integrated. By multiplying Eq. (2.24) partly by density then for the
compressed mass is derived.
T

i =1

j =1

mc = ( m& ini m& out j m& )dt

(2.27)

In this case the pressure can be solved from Eq. (2.19)

p = Be

mc
+ p0
m

(2.28)

where
T

m = m& dt + m0
0

In Eqs. (2.28) and (2.29) there are pressure p0 and mass of fluid m0 at initial state.

(2.29)

40

2.3 Geometric cross-section areas of different valve types

So, the volume flow of turbulent orifice, Fig. 38, is then according to Eq. (2.13)

Fig. 38: Orifice in pipeline

Q = step(p )Cd Av

2 p

(2.13)

Different valve types have different cross-sectional flow areas. The most typical ones are
represented in following.
2.3.1 Sharp-edged spool valve

Fig. 39: Sharp-edged spool valve

Av = dx

(2.30)

41

2.3.2 Conical poppet (cone at poppet)

Fig. 40: Conical poppet valve

x

Av = x sin d + sin 2
2

Av dx sin

(2.31)

2.3.3 Conical poppet (cone at seat)

Fig. 41: Conical poppet valve

Av = x sin d + sin 2
1442244
3
<< d

Av dx sin

(2.32)

42
2.3.4 Triangular groove at spool valve

Fig. 42: Valve spool with triangular grooves

Av = n tan x 2

(2.33)

where n is the number of grooves

2.3.5 Rectangular groove at spool valve

Fig. 43: Valve spool with rectangular grooves

Av = n b x
where n is the number of grooves

(2.34)

43

2.3.6 Circular cross-section within spool valve

Fig. 44: Circular cross-section within valve spool

AV sin 2
=
Atot
2
x
cos = 1 2
d

(2.35)

Approximated using series development

AV
x
1,7
Atot
d

1, 5

(error of 5,3 %)

(2.36)

44

2.4 Pressure force acting in conical poppet valve

Fig. 45: Pressure force acting in conical poppet valve

Case 1:

Operating point at x = 0

Fig. 45: Valve closed: x = 0

Fp 2 = p2

(D 2 d 2 )
4
d 2
F p1 = p1
4

(2.37)
(2.38)

45

Case 2:

Operating point at x > 0

Fig. 46: Valve opened: x > 0

Fp 2 = p 2 ( D 2 d 2 ) + Adiff
4

Fp1 = p1 d 2 Adiff
4

(2.39)
(2.40)

Adiff = dx sin cos

(2.41)

Adiff is the area which moves to under the influence of pressure p1 from under the influence of
pressure p2 while valve is opening. Naturally this is only an approximation since the pressure
distributes uneven at the orifice. In simplified analysis it is assumed that when the normal of
spool surface is drawn from the sharp edge of the seat then above that line there reigns pressure
p2 and below it reigns pressure p1

2.5 Damping forces acting in valves

2.5.1 Damping orifice

Resisting of filling or drain of the volume displaced by spool movement by using the damping
orifice shown in Fig. 47.

46

Fig. 47: Damping orifice connected to spool chamber

the damping force is

Fd = p d Ad

(2.42)

Volume flow through the damping orifice is

Qd = C d A0

2 pd p2

step ( p d p 2 ) = Ad x&

(2.43)

If step function is ignored then the absolute value of pressure drop can be solved as follows

Ad x&
pd p2 =

C A 2
d 0

(2.44)

From Eq. (2.44) the damping pressure can be solved as a function square of pressure p2 and spool
velocity. The sign of velocity and the laminar area of flow can now be taken into account by
using step function.
pd =

2
Ad x& 2 step ( x& )
+ p2
2
2 2
Cd A0

By combining Eqs. (2.42) and (2.45) it is then derived

(2.45)

47
3
Ad x& 2 step ( x& )
Fd =
+ p 2 Ad
2
2 2
C d A0

(2.46)

2.5.2. Damping the spool movement by using separate damping piston

Fig. 48: Damping piston connected to poppet

Damping force is
Fd = p d

d 2
4

= p d Ad

(2.47)

Volume flow (eccentric circular gap) by the piston

dh 3
Qd =
12l

e
1 + 1,5 ( p1 p d ) = Ad x&
h

p1 p d =

Ad x&
Ad x&12l
p d = p1 +
2
2

dh 3
e
e
3
dh 1 + 1,5
1 + 1,5
12l
h
h

(2.48)

(2.49)

48
by combining Eqs. (2.47) and (2.49)
12 Ad l
Fd = p1 Ad +
x&
2

dh 3 1 + 1,5
h

(2.50)

2.6 Effective spring constants of pressure and flow valves

1. Pressure relief valve of conical poppet type
0

Fig. 49: Conical poppet type of pressure relief valve

Effective spring constant

ke = km + kh

(2.51)

where
k m = mechanical spring constant
k h = hydraulic spring constant
(includes all terms affecting to force balance proportional to valve opening)
Study of pressure and flow forces of valve represented in Fig. 50

49

Fig. 50: Pressure and flow forces acting in poppet type valve

Flow reaction force acting downwards is

Fr = Qw cos

(2.52)

Pressure force acting upwards is

d 2
F p = p1
dx sin cos

(2.53)

From Eq. (2.52)

Fr = 2C d dx sin cos p1

(2.54)

By combining Eqs. (2.51), (2.53) and (2.54) for the force balance equation is derived
p1

d 2
4

p1

dx sin cos p1 2C d dx sin cos p1 k m ( x + x0 ) = 0

d 2
4

(2.55)
(dx sin cos p1 + 2Cddx sin cos p1 ) k m ( x + x0 ) = 0

(2.56)
From Eq. (2.56)
p1

d 2
4

k h x k m ( x + x0 ) = 0 , where k h = (2Cd + 1)d sin cos p1

Effective spring constant ke = km + kh = km + kh( p1 )

50
2.6.3 Influence of impulse flange on the hydraulic spring coefficient of valve

Hydraulic forces affecting to hydraulic spring constant kh

Fig. 51: Poppet type valve with impulse flange

1. Pressure force

(D 2 d 2 )
Fp = p
+ dx sin cos
4

(2.57)

2. Flow reaction force

Fr = 2Cddx sin cos p

(2.58)

3. Impulse force
Fi = 2Cddx sin cos p , where = (0...1)

(2.59)

By combining terms proportional to valve opening

k h = pd sin cos p 2C d d sin cos + p 2C d d sin cos
= d sin cos p(2C d + 2C d 1)

(2.60)

51

2.7 Modelling the single-stage pressure relief valve

Statics and dynamics of pressure relief valve can be measured in system represented in Fig. 52.
The pressure of test system can be integrated from Eq. (2.61)

Fig. 52: Fluid power system for testing pressure relief valve

p1 =

Be
(Q p Qe Q1 )
V

Studying the spool type pressure relief valve represented in Fig. 53.

Fig. 53: Spool type pressure relief valve

(2.61)

52

Formulation of force and continuity equations according to following sequence

1. Force equation, in which forces are according to Fig. 54

Fig. 54: Forces acting in spool type pressure relief valve

Fj : spring force
Fr : flow reaction force
Fpd : pressure and damping forces
Fa : inertial force
Fa + Fj + Fr = Fpd

(2.62)

F j = k j x + k j x0

(2.63)

, where

, where
kj : mechanical spring constant
x0 : pre-compression of spring
Fr = 2C d Dx cos p1

(2.64)

, where
: flow angle
Cd : discharge coefficient
F pd = p 2
Fa = m&x&

D 2
4

(2.65)
(2.66)

53
2. Continuity equations
Main orifice flow

Q1 = C d Dx

2 p1

(2.67)

damping orifice flow

2 p1 p 2

Q2 = C d Ad

step( p1 p 2 ) =

D 2
4

x&

(2.68)

By solving the pressure p2 from Eq. (2.68) and substituting it to Eq. (2.65)
D 2 x&
p 2 =
4C d Ad

F pd

step ( x& ) + p1
2

D 2

D 2 x&
p1
=
4
4C d Ad

(2.69)

step ( x& )

(2.70)

For the force balance equation is derived

m&x& + k j x + k j x0 + 2C d Dx cos p1
= p1

D 2
4

3 D 6 x& 2
2

128C d Ad

(2.71)

step( x& )

Force originated from acceleration ( m&x& ) is normally negligible in comparison with pressure,
flow and spring forces

m&x& 0
From Eq. (2.71)

3D6
2

C d Ad 128

x& 2 step ( x& ) + k j x + 2C d Dx cos p1 = p1

D 2
4

k j x0

(2.72)

54

=> x& =

p1

D 2
4

k j x0 k j x 2C d Dx cos p1

3D6
2

step( f )

C d Ad 128

(2.73)
, where f is the part inside the absolute value of Eq. (2.73)
Model of the complete valve
x& = (2.73)

Q1 = (2.67)

In order to simulate the dynamics of complete valve then the valve model must be added by
model of compressible volumes attached to the valve, Eq. (2.61).
It is then derived

D 2

k j x k j x0 2C d Dx cos p1
128C d 2 Ad 2 p1

x& = step ( f ) f , where f =

3 6
D

2 p1

Q1 = C d Dx

B
p& 1 = e Q p Qe Q1
V

(2.74)

Eq. (2.74) can be solved in SIMULINK software by integrating (boundaries x 0 and p1 0)

By above-mentioned means e.g. the step response can be solved by substituting step function
presented in Fig. 55 for the volume flow (Qp-Qe).

55

Fig. 55: Flow step input to the valve

Typical dynamic response is illustrated in Fig. 56

Fig. 56: Dynamic response of the test system

Statics p1 = f(Q1) illustrated in Fig. 57 is most easily attained by providing smooth and slow
control so, that vibration is not excited when solving the dynamic model.

56

Fig. 57: Static response of the test system

After the static solution is attained the pressure p1 as a function of volume flow Q1 is plotted. The
plotted graph, Fig. 58, then illustrates the behaviour of valve in steady state

Fig. 58: p1 ( Q1 ) of pressure relief valve, three different pressure settings

2.8 Modelling of single-stage pressure reducing valve

The steady-state and dynamic behaviour of the single-stage pressure reducing valve can be
analysed by using test system shown in Fig. 59. By assuming the subsystem composing of the
pump, pressure relief valve and accumulator as an ideal constant pressure source, i.e. (p1 =
constant), the derivative of secondary pressure in volume between pressure reducing valve and
orifices can be written as follows

57

p1 constant

Fig. 59: Test system for the single-stage pressure reducing valve

B
p& 2 = e (Q1 Qe1 Qe 2 )
V

(2.75)

, where the orifice flows are

Qe1 = k1 p2

k1 = Cd Ad

Qe2 = k 2 p2
, where

k1, k2
Ad

semi-empirical coefficients of orifice

the cross-sectional area of throttle

In Fig. 60 the principle of a simple single-stage pressure reducing valve is represented.

(2.76)

58

Fig. 60: The principle of the single-stage pressure reducing valve

Fig. 61 shows the forces acting in the spool. By assuming the inertial force of the spool
negligible, then the force equation becomes as Eq. (2.77).

Fig. 61: The forces acting in the spool of the single-stage pressure reducing valve

Fj Fr Fpd = 0
, where the spring force is

(2.77)

59
Fj = k j ( x 0 x )

(2.78)

For the preload compression of the spring the position x0 is selected when x=0
The flow force is
Fr = 2C d Dx cos ( p1 p 2 )

(2.79)

Combined pressure and damping force is

Fpd = p3

D 2

(2.80)

For the main and damping orifices the flows are

Q1 = C d Dx

Qd = C d Ao

2 p1 p 2

2 p3 p 2

step( p1 p 2 )

step( p3 p 2 ) =

(2.81)
D 2
4

(2.82)

x&

By solving Eq.(2.83) for p3 we get

D 2 x&
p3 =
4C d Ad

step(x& ) + p 2
2

(2.83)

By substituting Eq. (2.83) into Eq. (2.80) and then their product into force equation, Eq. (2.77),
then the force balance equation can be derived as follows

D 2 D 2 x&

k d (x0 x ) 2C d Dx cos ( p1 p 2 )
step(x& ) + p 2 = 0

4 4C d A0 2

(2.84)

Let us solve x& from Eq. (2.84)

3 D 6 x& 2

64Cd 2 Ao 2 2

x& =

, where

step(x& ) +

f step( f )

D 2
4

p 2 = kj (xo x ) 2CdDx cos ( p1 p 2 )

(2.85)

(2.86)

60

D 2
128Cd Ao k j ( x 0 x ) 2C d Dx cos ( p1 p 2 )
p 2
4

f =
3
6
D
2

For the entire model of the test system the equations (2.86),(2.81) and the continuity equation
(2.75) can be used

2 p1 p2

step ( p1 p 2 )
Q1 = C d Dx

Be

(Q1 Qe1 Qe2 )

p& 2 =

V
x& =

step (f )

(2.87)
The static and dynamic responses of valve are attained by giving reasonable input functions for
U1 ( = Qe2).

Fig. 62: Inputs and corresponding responses of the single-stage pressure reducing valve

61

2.9 Modelling of two-way flow control valve

The principle of two-way flow control valve is shown in Fig. 63. The test system is almost analog
to the system used in analyzing pressure reducing valve with same assumptions. The valve itself
composes of the main throttle and the pressure compensator, see Fig. 64.

ps constant

Fig. 63: Test system for two-way flow control valve

62

Fig. 64: Principle of two-way flow control valve

Fig. 65 shows forces acting in the pressure compensator of two-way flow control valve. The force
balance of pressure compensator becomes, Eq. (2.88)

Fig. 65: Forces acting in the pressure compensator of two-way flow control valve

Fpd + Fr Fp 2 Fj = 0

(2.88)

, where
F pd = p3

D 2
4

is combined primary pressure / damping force

(2.89)

63
Fr = 2C d Dx cos ( p s p1 )

(2.90)

is the flow force, and

Fp 2 = p2

D 2

(2.91)

is the secondary pressure force

F j = k j (x0 x )

(2.92)

is the spring force, where xo is the spring compression when x = 0

The turbulent flows for the main orifice is
2 p s p1

Q1 = C d Dx

2 p1 p 2

step( p s p1 ) = C d At

step( p1 p 2 )

(2.93)

and for the damping orifice

2 p3 p 2

Qd = C d A0

step( p3 p 2 ) =

D 2
4

x&

(2.94)

Because the volume between pressure compensator and main throttle is small, then the use of
compressible flow equation would lead into numerical problems in integration of pressure p1.
Instead of that we cancel pressure p1 out of the flow equation of main orifice, Eq. (2.93) as
follows
2

Let us mark k x = C d Dx

and

k t = C d At

And then promote both sides of Eq. (2.93) by square. By carrying out this we get
k x ( p s p1 ) = k t
2

( p1 p 2 ) k x 2 p s k x 2 p1 = k t 2 p1 k t 2 p 2
2

k x + k t p1 = k x p s + k t p 2 p1 =

kx
2

k x + kt

By substituting the result into Eq. (2.93), it is then derived

ps +

kt
2

k x + kt

p2

(2.95)

64
k x kt

Q1 =

k x + kt

p s p 2 step ( p s p 2 )

(2.96)

Eq. (2.94) for damping flow is attained by promoting both sides by square
2

C d A0

( p3 p1 ) =

D4 2
2D4 2
x& step (x& ) p 3 = p1 +
x& step ( x& )
2
2
16
32C d A0
2

(2.97)

By substituting Eq. (2.97) into Eq. (2.89), then for force equation is derived

D 2
4

p1 +

3D6
2

128C d A0

x& 2 step ( x& ) + 2C d Dx cos ( p s p1 )

D 2
4

p 2 k j ( x0 x ) = 0 (2.98)

The problem in using Eq. (2.98) is caused by the pressure p1 which can be solved from the Eq.
(2.93) for main orifice flow with respect to Q1 and p2

Q1
2

p1 = p 2 +

2C d At

(2.99)

By substituting Eq. (2.99) into Eq. (2.98), it is then attained while x& is solved

x& =

f step( f )

(2.100)

, where
2

Q1
D 2 Q1 2

)
(
128C d A0 k j x0 x
2C d Dx cos p s p 2
2
2
2
2

2
C
A
8C d At
d
t

f =
3
6
D
2

For the entire model of the test system the equations (2.96),(2.100) and the continuity equation
(2.75) can be used

p& 2 =

Be
(Q1 Qe1 Qe 2 )
V

(2.75)

, where
Qe1 = k1 p2
Qe 2 = k 2 p2

k1 = Cd Ad

65
Boundaries for the model are 0 x xmax
, miss

xmax is the maximum opening of the spool and

p2 0

By simulating the system of equations (2.96), (2.100) and (2.75), x and p2 can be solved by
integration.
As a result the static nominal chart is achieved when k1 is alternated smoothly while Qe2 is held
as zero by the directional control valve.
In Fig. 66 the response of the volume flow Q1 is plotted as a function of pressure drop ps p2
using different set values for the cross-sectional area of measuring throttle At

Fig. 66: The response of the volume flow Q1 as a function of pressure drop ps p2

The dynamic response shown in Fig. 67 is achieved by alternating Qe2 stepwise

Fig. 67: The dynamic response pressure p2

66

2.10 Modelling of three-way flow control valve

In Fig. 68 the principle of three-way flow control valve is represented. As a difference to the twoway flow control valve is that the pressure compensator tends to maintain the pressure drop of
main orifice constant by letting the unnecessary volume flow to the tank instead of throttling the
main orifice flow. Thus, there reigns a pressure in the primary side of main throttle, which higher
than in the secondary side almost solely by the set pressure drop. With this settlement energy
savings compared to the two-way flow control valve is achieved.

(x0 = pre-compression)

Fig. 68: Principle of three-way flow control valve

The equation of the pressure relief valve, Eq. (2.73), is applied for the pressure compensator.
x& =
f =

f step( f ) , where

( p1 p2 ) D
4

k j x0 k j x 2Cd Dx cos p1
3

D
128Cd 2 A0 2

(2.101)

67
It must be noted that unlike in the pressure relief valve there reigns also the force caused by the
pressure p2 acting in the spool. This is why the first term of pointer is different.
The turbulent flows for the main orifice is
Q1 = C d At

2 p1 p 2

step ( p1 p 2 )

(2.102)

And for the compensator

Qt = C d Dx

2 p1

(2.103)

To make the model suitable for simulation, the test system shown in Fig. 69 is selected. Its
dynamic equation is in form, Eq. (2.104), when the pump is assumed to be ideal volume flow
source.

p& 1 =

Be
(Q p Q1 Qe Qt )
V

(2.104)

Fig. 69: Test system for three-way flow control valve

68
For the entire model of the test system the equations (2.100)-(2.104) and the continuity equation
(2.75) can be used. Boundaries are x 0 and p1 0. By simulating the model, nominal charts are
attained as shown in Fig. 70.

Fig. 70: Nominal charts of three-way flow control valve

2.11 Modelling of counter balance valve

The counter balance valve connected to fluid power circuit is presented on the left in Fig. 71. It
works as the pressure relief valve for the volume flow entering from the payload direction while
area A1 (shown in Fig. 72) is pressurized i.e. valve is closed. While lowering the load, the pilot
pressure p3 opens the valve against the area A3 which normally is notably larger than area A1.

69

Fig. 71: Connection (left) and structure (right) of the counter balance valve

Pilot ratio of counter balance valve =

A3
1,2512
A1

Fig. 72: Ratio between poppet surface A1 and pilot piston A3 area in counter balance valve

In following the force balance and continuity equations of the valve are derived according to
symbols represented in Fig. 73.

70

Fig. 73: Symbols used in derivation of force balance and continuity equations

Force balance equation

Fpx + Fp1 + Ff = Fd + Fj

(2.105)

,where
Fpx : pilot pressure force = p 3

D x 2
4

p2

d 2 dx2

D2 d 2
+ dx sin cos p1
Fp1 : primary pressure force = p1
4

Ff : flow force = 2C d dx sin cos ( p1 p 2 )

Fd: combined damping and secondary pressure force = p4

D
4

p2

d 2 d x2
4

) dx sin cosp

Fj : spring force = k j ( x 0 + x )
Continuity equations
Qd : damping volume flow = C d A0
Q1 : main orifice flow = C d dx sin

2 p4 p2

step( p 4 p 2 ) =

2( p1 p 2 )

D 2
4

(2.106)
(2.107)

71

(2.106) p4 = p2 +

2 D 4

x
x
step

Cd 2 Ao 2 32

(2.108)

By substituting Eq. (2.108) to force balance equation (2.105), the combined damping and
secondary pressure force is then derived

D 2
d 2 d x2
2 D 2
x
Fd = p2 +
x
step

p
dx sin cosp2
2

2 2

4
4
C
A
32

0
d

(2.109)

After the modelling is proceeded as previously represented for other pressure valves.

2.12 Modelling of directional flow control valve

The most typical directional flow control valve is of type 4/3 spool valve shown in Fig.74, which
can control the actuator to two directions. Firstly, the valve which is assumed to be symmetric,
zero-overlapped and non-leaking. in addition, it is assumed that the mid-position is closed.

Fig. 74: Type 4/3 spool valve

Travel range of the valve spool can be x max x x max

While every throttling edge work as orifice, the type 4/3 valve can be described by four orifices
in Wheatstone bridge connection, shown in Fig. 75.

72

Fig. 75: Four orifices in Wheatstone bridge connection

After this the volume flows can be solved using equations for turbulent orifice flow in different
positions of the spool, see Fig. 76.

Fig. 76: Flow directions according to spool position

if x 0
QA = CdDx

2 pp pA

Qp = Q A
QB = CdDx
Q T = QB

step ( pp pA)

(2.110)
2 pB

73

if x < 0
QA = CdDx

2 pA

QT = QA
QB = CdDx

2 pp pB

step( pp pB )

Qp = QB

If valve is asymmetric, thus the model is same but with the difference that in equations of orifice
flows the diameters of throttling edges of spool are different, e.g.DA, DB etc.
If valve to be modelled is proportional directional valve, then for flow cross-section areas the
triangular grooves are typically used. Thus, in model, Eq. (2.110), Ax = Dx is replaced by
equation (2.33).
Ax = n tan x 2

, where

is the angle of grooves

n is the number of grooves per throttling edge

(2.33)

74

2.13 Modelling of the overlap of valves

Positive overlap

Fig. 77: Positive overlap of valve spool

if x xd

2 pp pA

step( pp pA)
QA = CdD(x xd )

if 0 x < xd
QA = 0
(2.111)

Negative overlap

Fig. 78: Negative overlap of valve spool

75
if xu x 0
QA = CdD(x + xu )

2 p p pA

step( pp pA) CdD(xu x )

if x > xu
QA = CdD(x + xu )

2 pp pA

step( pp pA)

if 0 > x > xu
QA = CdD(xu + x )

2 p p pA

step( pp pA) CdD(xu x )

if xu > x
QA = CdD(xu x )

2 pA

2 pA

2 pA

(2.112)

2.14 Modelling of the pilot operation

Proportional solenoid

Fig. 79: Diagram of valve spool connected with proportional solenoid

R: resistance of the coil

L: inductance of the coil
I: current of the coil
u: voltage of the coil
kj: total spring coefficient of centering springs
m: mass of the spool
In low values of displacement, the inductance is constant. Current of the coil is dependent of the
voltage. Dynamics of the current can be described by the differential equation of first order, Eq.
(2.113)
U
I + I& =
R

, where time constant = L/R

The force output of solenoid is directly proportional to current

(2.113)

76

(2.114)

F s = B pI

In undamped valve, for the force balance equation it is then derived

BpI = m&x& + kjx

(2.115)

In reality, the valve spool is damped by the friction force and possible damping orifices. By using
the equation for damping piston (cf. pressure valves), Eq. (2.115) is derived into form.
B p I = m&x& + k d x& + k j x

(2.116)

, where
12 Ad l
dh3
2

kd =

(laminar centered leakage gap)

By assuming the inertial force and the magnetizing delay of the coil to be negligible in Eqs.
(2.113) and (2.116), it is then derived
Bp

U
= k d x& + k j x
R

(2.117)

For the equation of spool position and voltage of the coil is then derived
Bp
Bp
U k j x Rk U x
j
x& = R
=
kd
kd
kj
(2.118) can be represented in form
x& =

, where

K vU x

v is time constant
Kv is the inner amplification of the valve

(2.118)

(2.119)

77

2.15 Modelling of pressure accumulator

Pressure accumulator is used in fluid power systems for several different purposes. The most
important purposes are to keep the pump flow stable (piston pumps), to provide additional
volume during the high demand on the system work cycle and to prevent pressure shocks caused
by unstable payload connected to actuator. The structure of pressure accumulator is represented
in Fig. 80.

Fig.80: The structure of pressure accumulator

The accumulator consists of cylindrical pressure vessel and the bladder which is mounted in the
vessel. Bladder is highly flexible and normally is made out of rubber. The rubber is filled with
nitrogen gas and the gas pressure set the preload of accumulator. The orifice in Fig. 80 describes
the connection of which the fluid is directed through coming from or going to the fluid power
circuit.
In modelling of pressure accumulator the component is divided into separate volumes as it
appears also in real component. During the inflow the volume of gas compresses as the volume
of oil increases and the gas pressure increases. During the outflow the high gas pressure forces
the gas volume to expand and causes the volume flow out the vessel. At the same time gas
pressure decreases and accumulator is again prepared for the next loading.
The volume flow into or out from the accumulator is calculated using Eq. (2.120).

Qaccu = C q Av

pin p gas step pin p gas

, where indices refer to Fig. 80

The volume of oil in accumulator is calculated through integration of Eq. (2.121).

(2.120).

78
T

V oil =

Q accu dt + V oil 0

(2.121)

, where T is simulation time and Voil0 the initial oil volume

The volume of gas is then the differential of maximum volume of pressure vessel Vmax and oil
volume Voil , Eq. (2.122).

V gas = Vmax Voil

(2.122)

The gas pressure is solved using energy balance equation, Eq. (2.123)

p gas V gas
= p gas 0V gas
0

(2.123)

It is then derived into form, Eq. (2.124) to solve the gas pressure pgas

p gas = p gas 0

Vgas
V

gas

(2.124)

, where exponent is dependent on the manner of change of state of the gas. For adiabatic change
= 1,4. Subindices 0 meaning the initial (preload) gas pressure and corresponding volume of oil
at the initial state.
By setting the boundary condition Vgas Vmax the dynamic response of pressure accumulator can
be simulated. Naturally, the equation for pressure build-up, Eq. (2.23), is needed to complete the
simulation model.

79

2.16 Semi-empirical modelling method

In modelling of fluid power systems the circuit is divided into components and volumes as shown
in Fig. 81.

Fig. 81: Fluid power circuit divided into components and volumes

Pressure are integrated with respect to time from equations according to theory of centralized
pressures, Eq. (2.23), see Ch. 2.2.

B
p= e
V

m

n
Qin Qin V
i
j

j =1

i =1

(2.23)

2.16.1 Orifice equation

The orifice flow through the circular sharp-edged orifice, shown in Fig. 82, is calculated using
Eq. (2.6).

80

Fig. 82: Circular sharp-edged orifice

Qt = Cq A

( p1 p2 )

(2.6)

It is then derived into form

Qt = Ct

( p1 p 2 )

(2.125)

, where Ct is semi-empirical volume flow coefficient

Ct = Cd A

(2.126)

In Fig. 83 it is shown that the first derivative volume flow with respect to pressure drop
approaches infinity as the pressure drop approaches zero.

Fig. 83: Q (dp) and its first derivative

Semi-empirical volume flow coefficient can be determined from the nominal graph of certain
flow orifice, shown in Fig. 84.

81

Fig. 84: Nominal graph of a certain flow orifice

Ct =

Qt

( p1 p2 )

Qt
p

30 / 60000
100 105

= 1.58 10 7

m3
s Pa

By taking into account that volume flow can go both directions through the valve, Eq. (2.125) is
derived into following form.

Qt = Ct step ( p1 p 2 ) p1 p 2 = 1.58 10 7 step ( p1 p 2 ) p1 p 2

(2.125)

82

2.16.2 Modelling the proportional directional control valve

Fig. 85: Proportional directional control valve

The position of valve spool is solved from the equation of first order, Eq. (2.127)

U U
U& = in

(2.127)

, where Uin is the reference value for input signal and

1
2f 45o

(2.128)

, while f-45 is the crossing frequency of -45 phase, shown in Bode diagram
Finally, for the volume flow is derived Eq. (2.129)

Q = C v U p

(2.129)

, where Cv is the volume flow coefficient, taken from valve nominal graphs
By these means a group of equations for volume flows through the valve is derived as follows

83
U>0

Q A = C v U sgn (p p p A ) p p p A
Q B = C v U sgn (p T p B ) p T p B
Q p = Q A
Q T = Q B
U=0

QA = QB = Qp = QT = 0
U<0

Q A = C v U sgn (p A p T ) p A p T
Q B = C v U sgn (p B p P ) p B p P
Q p = Q B
Q T = Q A

Example: Characteristic values according to Fig. 86 are given by manufacturer for certain
proportional directional control valve. The nominal flow QN of the valve (i.e. the maximum at
full valve opening) is 24 L/min at pressure drop of 35 bar. Define parameters Cv and )

By assuming that the solenoid current is proportional to the rated voltage I=KAU. The maximum
current is achieved when U=10V. It gives rated flow Q=24l/min through the valve with pressure
drop p=35bar.

84

Fig. 86: Nominal graph of one proportional directional control valve

From Fig. 86 the volume flow coefficient Cv is determined using Eq. (2.129)

Cv =

Q
U p

24 / 60000
10 35 10

= 2.138 10

m3
s V PA

The crossing frequency of -45 phase is taken from Bode diagram, see Fig. 87.

85

Fig. 87: Bode diagram of one proportional directional control valve

Time constant is calculated using Eq. (2.128)

1
2f

45o

1
= 7.96 10 4 s
2 200 Hz

By these means, solving Eqs. (2.127), (2.129) and (2.23) the dynamics of a 4/3-proportional
directional control valve can be simulated.

2.16.3 Modelling the pressure relief valve

Type 1
In Fig. 88 the pressure relief valve of type 1 is represented.

86

Fig. 88: Pressure relief valve of type 1

The main orifice flow Q1 is calculated using Eq. (2.67)

Q1 = Cd Dx sin

2 p1

= K p1

(2.67)

For the force balance equation is then derived similarly than shown in Eq. (2.71)

m &x& + km x = Fp + F f 1 F f 2 Fo
, where the pressure force

F p = p1 A1 + p1D1 x sin cos p 2 A2

The damping orifice flow is calculated using Eq. (2.130)

Q2 = k d

p 2 = A2 x&

(2.130)

87

The flow reaction force acting upwards is according to Eq. (2.52)

F f = Q1 w cos
, where term w is in form

w=

2 p1

The flow reaction force is according to Eq. (2.58)

F f 1 = 2 Cd p1 D1 x sin cos
The impulse force created by the impulse flange is then derived into form

F f 2 = p1 x
, where is a constant depending on the distance between orifice and flange. In an ideal case with
no losses the impulse force becomes equal to the reaction force but affects into the opposite
direction.
The semi-empirical model for main orifice flow is then Eq. (2.131)

Q1 = K p1
(2.131)
Volume flow coefficient is solved by integrating the Eq. (2.132)

( )

K&& + 2 C3C4 K& 2 sgn K& + C32 (C1 + C2 p1 )K = C32 p1 pref

, where
C1 =

km
A1C d D1 sin

A1C d D1 sin
C3 =

C2 =

A1C d D1 sin

C4 =

(2.132)

( 2C d + 1) cos
C d A1

A23
2 C d D1 sin

m k d2C3

88

Type 2
In Fig. 89 the pressure relief valve of type 2 is represented.

Fig. 89: Pressure relief valve of type 2

The main orifice flow Q1 is calculated using Eq. (2.67)

Q1 = Cd Dx sin

2 p1

= K p1

For the force balance equation is then derived similarly than shown in Eq. (2.71)

m &x& + k m x = F p F f 1 Fo
(2.71)
, where the pressure force

(2.67)

89

F p = p1 A1 p1D1 x sin cos p2 A2

The damping orifice flow is calculated using Eq. (2.130)

Q2 = k d

p 2 = A2 x&

The flow reaction force acting downwards is according to Eq. (2.52)

F f 1 = Q1 w cos

(2.52)

, where term w is in form

w = 2 p1

From Eq. (2.52) the flow reaction force is then derived into form of Eq. (2.54)

F f 1 = 2 Cd p1 D1 x sin cos

(2.54)

The semi-empirical model for main orifice flow is then Eq. (2.131)

Q1 = K p1
, where the volume flow coefficient is solved by integrating the Eq. (2.132)

K&& + 2 C3C4 K& 2 sgn(K& ) + C32 (C1 + C2 p1 )K = C32 ( p1 pref )

, where

C1 =

km
A1C d D1 sin

A1Cd D1 sin
C3 =

C2 =

C d A1

( 2C d + 1) cos

C4 =

A23
2 C d D1 sin

m k d2 C3

90
Type 3
In Fig. 90 the pressure relief valve of type 3 is represented.

Fig. 90: Pressure relief valve of type 3

The main orifice flow Q1 is calculated using Eq. (2.67)

Q1 = Cd Dx sin

2 p1

= K p1

For the force balance equation is then derived similarly than shown in Eq. (2.71

m &x& + k m x = Fp F f 1 + F f 2 Fo
, where

F p = p2 A
The damping leakage flow is calculated using Eq. (2.133)

Q2 = k c ( p1 p 2 ) = Ax&

(2.133)

91

The flow reaction force acting downwards is according to Eq. (2.52)

F f 1 = Q1 w cos
, where term w is in form

w=

2 p1

From Eq. (2.52) the flow reaction force is then derived into form of Eq. (2.54)

F f 1 = 2 Cd p1 D1 x sin cos
The impulse force created against the counter flange is then derived into form

F f 2 = p1 x
, where is a constant depending on the distance between valve orifice and flange. In an ideal
case without viscous friction the impulse flow becomes exactly similar to the reaction force but it
affects into the opposite direction.
The semi-empirical model for main orifice flow is then Eq. (2.131)

Q1 = K p1
, where the volume flow coefficient is solved by integrating the Eq. (2.132)

K&& + 2 C3C4 K& 2 sgn(K& ) + C32 (C1 + C2 p1 )K = C32 ( p1 pref )

C1 =

C2 =

km
ACd D sin

C3 =

Cd A

A C d D sin

cos

C4 =

A2
2 m k d C3

(2.132)

92

2.16.4 Simplification of semi-empirical model

Typically, the inertia of the spool is not affecting drastically to behaviour of the valve. Hence, the second derivative
of volume flow coefficient K can be assumed to be zero. In practice, it is also noted that the

damping term can be taken into account as a linear one without causing remarkable numerical
error. Thus, the semi-empirical model can be written in following form:

C dyna K& + (C1 + C 2 p1 )K = p1 p ref

(2.134)

Q1 = K p1
By setting the time derivatives as zero, the equation is then derived into following form

Q1 =

p1 pref
C1
p1

+ C 2 p1

(2.135)

2.16.5 Defining the parameters of semi-empirical model

Example: The measured static characteristic curves of a pressure relief valve are shown in Fig.
91. From these curves the semi-empirical parameters C1, C2 describing the steady-state of the
valve can be identified. Cdyna.describes the dynamic characteristics of the valve. It can be
identified from measured step response of the valve. Unfortunately, the dynamic characteristics
of the valve cannot be measured or simulated without flow source, compressible volume etc.
which include other parameters that must be known for a good approximation of Cdyna.

93

Fig. 91: Nominal graphs of one pressure relief valve

According to Eq. (2.135) for one pressure setting following equations are derived.

p10 p ref

Q10 =

C1
p10

Q11 =

+ C 2 p10

p11 p ref
C1
p11

+ C 2 p11

, where 1 representing the lower and 2 the upper reference end

1 p10 = 90 bar, Q10=10 l/min, pref0 = 80 bar
2 p11 = 105 bar, Q11=40 l/min, pref1=80 bar
Thus, in numerical form the static parameters are defined as follows

10
=
60000

90 10 5 80 10 5
C1
+ C 2 90 10 5
5
90 10

94

40
=
60000

105 105 80 105

C1
+ C 2 105 105
105 105

For the parameters is then attained: C1 = 5.3 1013 and C2 = 3.8 106