APUSH

Chapter 18 notes
Mr. Dunn

Chapter 18: The Age of the City

I. The Urbanization of America
A. The Lure of the City
Urban population increased sevenfold after the Civil War
In 1920, the census revealed that for the first time, a majority of Americans lived in urban areas
o NY grew from 1 million in 1860 to 3 million in 1900; Chicago from 100,00 to over a million
City attracted people because it offered conveniences, entertainments, and cultural experiences
Most of all, cities attracted people because they offered more and better paying jobs
B. Migrations
Among those leaving rural America for industrial cities were young rural women
Southern blacks were beginning a century-long exodus from the countryside to the city
Factory jobs for blacks were rare and professional opportunities almost nonexistent
Most important source of urban population growth in late 19th century was the arrival of immigrants
10 million between 1860 & 1890; 18 million more in the three decades after that
C. The Ethnic City
NY had more Irish than Dublin & more Germans than Hamburg; Chicago had more Poles than Warsaw
In some towns, a dozen different ethnic groups found themselves living in close proximity
Benefits of ethnic communities: newspapers and theaters in their native tongue, native foods, churches or
synagogues and fraternal organizations that linked their national pasts
Jews and Germans advanced more rapidly than the Irish
Immigrants who aroused strong racial prejudice found it very difficult to advance
Most notably African Americans, Asians, and Mexicans
The Irish in NY & Boston and Germans in Milwaukee gained advantage by exerting their political power
D. Assimilation
Majority of newcomers were between 15 and 45 years old
Second generation immigrants were more likely to try to assimilate completely into American culture
Assimilation put a strain on relationships between men and women in immigrant communities
Many immigrant women began working outside the home and developed friendships & interests outside
the family
Assimilation was not entirely a matter of choice: Public schools taught children in English & employers
insisted that workers speak English on the job
E. Exclusion
Arrival of so many new immigrants provoked fear and resentment among native-born Americans
Foreignness seen as source of all disorder and corruption in the urban world
These people are not American, but the very scum and offal of Europe. . .
Native laborers were incensed at immigrant workers for accepting lower wages
In 1887, Henry Bowers founded the American Protective Association
Immigration Restriction League was designed to separate the desirable from the undesirable
Immigration was providing a rapidly growing economy with a cheap and plentiful labor supply
II. The Urban Landscape
A. The Creation of Public Space
Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux teamed in the late 1850s to design Central Park in NY
Cities were also creating great public buildings: libraries, art galleries, museums and theaters
Wealthy residents of cities were the principle force behind creation of public buildings and parks
The 1893 Columbian Exposition in Chicago inspired the City Beautiful movement

 Aimed to impose order and symmetry on disordered life of cities

In Boston, a large marshy area was created into the neighborhood known as Back Bay
B. Housing the Well-to-do
Availability of cheap labor and accessibility of tools & materials reduced the cost of building
Richest urban residents lived in mansions and created lavish fashionable districts
o Fifth Ave. (NY), Back Bay/Beacon Hill (Boston), Lake Shore Dr.(Chicago) & Nob Hill (SF)
Chicago, in the 1870s, boasted nearly 100 residential suburbs connected to the city
Real estate developers promoted suburban communities
C. Housing Workers and the Poor
Most urban residents could not afford a house in the city or to move to the suburbs
In Manhattan, the average population density in 1894 was 143 people per acre higher rate than the most
crowded cities in Europe (Paris had 127 per acre and Berlin 101)
In NY, more than a million people lived in tenements
Tenements became miserable abodes w/ windowless rooms, no plumbing or heating, and perhaps privies
in the basement
Jacob Riis shocked middle-class Americans w/ his 1890 book, How the Other Half Lives
D. Urban Transportation
By 1890, Chicago had paved only about 600 of its more than 2,000 miles of streets
In 1870, NY opened its first elevated railway
Richmond, VA introduced the first electronic trolley line in the 1880s
In 1897, Boston opened the first American subway
Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling, was finished in the 1880s
E. The Skyscraper
By the 1850s, there had been successful experiments with machine powered passenger elevators
The Equitable Building in New York was completed in 1870
The Modern skyscraper was made possible by steel girder construction
Chicago architect Luis Sullivan introduced modern, functional elements to the genre: large windows, sheer
lines and limited ornamentation to emphasize the height of the building
III.Strains of Urban Life
A. Fire and Disease
Chicago and Boston suffered great fires in 1871
Encouraged construction of fireproof buildings & development of professional fire departments
Forced cities to rebuild at time when new technology and architectural innovations were available
B. Environmental Degradation
Improper disposal of human & industrial waste was a common feature of large cities
Air pollution from factories, stoves and furnaces was constant and at times severe
New sewage and drainage systems were created to protect drinking water from sewage disposal
Alice Hamilton documented ways in which improper disposal of such dangerous substances as lead,
chemical waste, and ceramic dust were creating widespread sickness
In 1912, the federal govt. created the Public Health Service led to creation of OSHA in 1970
C. Urban Poverty
The expansion of cities spawned widespread poverty
Middle-class people believed too much assistance would breed dependency
o Poverty was the fault of the poor result of laziness, alcoholism & other kinds of irresponsibility
Salvation Army concentrated more on religious revivalism than on the relief of the homeless & hungry
Street Arabs attracted more attention from reformers than any other group
D. Crime and Violence
US murder rate rose from 25 murders per million people in 1880 to over 100 by end of the century

Native-born Americans blamed immigrant groups, but natives were as likely to commit crimes as
immigrants
Rising crime rate encouraged many cities to develop larger and more professional police forces
Police forces themselves could spawn corruption and brutality because they were filled through political
patronage
Urban national guard groups built armories on the outskirts of neighborhoods in preparation for uprisings
E. The Machine and the Boss
The urban machine was one of Americas most distinctive political institutions
o Politicians who could mobilize that power stood to gain enormous influence & public office
Principal function of the political boss was to win votes for his organization
Above all, he rewarded his followers w/ patronage: jobs in city govt. or city agencies as the police,
building/operating new transit systems & opportunities to rise in the political organization
Most famous corrupt city boss was William M. Tweed, NY Citys Tammany Hall, in the 1860s & 1870s
Political organizations were responsible not just for corruption, but for modernizing city infrastructures,
expanding role of government, and creating stability in a political and social climate
Several factors made boss rule possible: power of immigrant voters, link between political organizations
and the wealthy & the structural weakness of city govts.
IV. The Rise of Mass Consumption
A. Patterns of Income and Consumption
Incomes in the industrial era were rising for almost everyone, although at highly uneven rates
The salaries of white collar workers rose on average by a third between 1890 and 1910
Industries with large female, African- American, or Mexican work forces saw very small increases
Important to the new mass market was development of affordable products & new merchandising
techniques
By the end of the century, virtually all Americans bought their clothing from stores
o As a result, people became more concerned w/ personal style
Another example of the rise of mass market was the way Americans bought & prepared food
o The changes meant improved diets & improved health
B. Chain Stores and Mail- Order Houses
Chain stores were able to sell manufactured goods at lower prices than local, independent stores
Rural people gradually gained access to the new consumer world through the great mail-order houses
Bulky catalogs from Ward & Sears changed the lives of many isolated people
C. Department Stores
Marshall Field in Chicago created first American department store; followed by Macys in NY
Brought together enormous array of products that had previously been sold in separate shops
Strove to create an atmosphere of wonder & excitement
Took advantage of economics of scale to sell merchandise at lower prices than individual shops
D. Women as Consumers
Consumer economy produced new employment opportunities for women as sales clerks and waitresses
National Consumers League formed to improve wages and working conditions for women workers
Mobilization of women behind consumer causes was an important political development
V. Leisure in the Consumer Society
Working hours in factories declined from 70 hours a week in 1860 to fewer than 60 in 1900
Lives of Americans were becoming compartmentalized w/ clear distinctions between work & leisure
A. Redefining Leisure
Industrial workers adopted, Eight hours for work, eight hours for rest, and eight hours for what we will
Leisure time was an important contribution to an individuals emotional & spiritual health
Economist Simon Patten articulated this new view of leisure; tied closely to rising interest in consumption

 New economies could create enough wealth to satisfy not just needs, but also desires
Principal goal should be an abundance of goods & the pursuit of pleasure
In earlier times, entertainment meant going out to amusement parks like Coney Island, as did thousands
in dance halls, vaudeville houses & concert halls,
NY enjoyed Central Park and moviegoers enjoyed lavish movie palaces
Saloons & sporting events tended to be male preserves
Shopping, tea rooms & luncheonettes were characteristic of female leisure
There were relatively few places where people of widely diverse backgrounds gather together
B. Spectator Sports
Baseball, by the end of century was on its way to becoming national pastime
Football, second most popular game, originated in colleges and universities
o Amos Alonzo Stagg formed the Western Conference, or Big Ten, in 1896
o In 1910, the NCAA revised the rules of the game to make it safer & more honest
Basketball was invented in 1891 at Springfield, MA by Dr. James Naismith
Spectator sports were closely associated with gambling
o Throwing of 1919 World Series in the infamous Black Sox Scandal
Womens colleges were beginning to introduce students to more strenuous sports - track, crew, swimming
and basketball
C. Music and Theater
Ethnic communities maintained theaters; immigrants listened to music of their homelands and heard
comedians make light of their experiences in the New World
One of the most distinctively American entertainment forms was the musical comedy
Vaudeville consisted of a variety of acts like musicians, comedians, magicians and jugglers
D. The Movies
Movies were the most important form of mass entertainment until radio and television
Early movies were usually plotless films designed mainly to show off the technology
D. W. Griffith carried motion pictures into a new era with silent epics
Some films contained notoriously racist messages indicating that audiences were overwhelmingly white
E. Working-Class Leisure
People w/ time but little money found life of the street an appealing source of camaraderie and energy
Saloons were often ethnically specific and became political centers
Anti-Saloon League attacked saloons to weaken political machines; saloons were places of crime,
violence, and prostitution
Boxing matches in small rings and saloons were organized by ethnic clubs
F. The Fourth of July
Was, for many decades, one of the few full days of leisure that many workers had
Ethnic groups organized their own Fourth of July events with picnics, games and parades
In southern cities, the Fourth of July was complicated, shaped by the memory of Civil War and continuing
racial divisions in southern society
Whites imposed tighter restrictions on how African Americans could celebrate
G. Private Pursuits
Americans amused themselves by reading; dime novels became popular after the Civil War
Music was a popular form of leisure; public performances attracted large crowds
Middle-class families placed high value in learning to play an instrument
Affluent families emphasized classical music, middle-class families favored traditional and sentimental
ballads, and ragtime extended into the home
H. Mass Communications
Between 1870 and 1910, circulation of daily newspapers increased nearly ninefold

Emergence of national press services made use of telegraph to supply news and features to papers
throughout county
Most powerful was William Randolph Hearst, by 1914 controlled nine newspapers and two magazines
Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer popularized yellow journalism deliberately sensationalized, lurid reporting
presented in bold graphics to reach a mass audience
Edward W. Bok, by targeting a mass female audience, built circulation to over 700,000
VI. High Culture in the Age of the City
A. The Literature of Urban America
A strong impulse in American literature was the effort to re-create urban social reality
Socialist write, Upton Sinclair, published The Jungle in 1906; designed to reveal depravity of capitalism
Exposed abuses in meatpacking industry; produced legislative action to deal w/ problem
Reading clubs made literature a social experience for women that has continued into the 21st century
B. Art in the Age of the City
By 1900, a number of American artists broke form Old World traditions and experimented with new styles
Members of Ashcan School produced work startling in naturalism & stark in portrayal of social realities
Among the first Americans to appreciate expressionism and abstractionism; they helped stage the
famous and controversial Armory Show
The work marked the beginning in America of artistic movement known as modernism
Modernists rejected the past and embraced new subjects and new forms; it gloried in the ordinary & coarse
and looked to the future & gloried in the new
C. The Impact of Darwinism
Single most profound intellectual development in late 19th century was theory of evolution
Darwinism argued that human species evolved from earlier forms of life through natural selection
Rise of Darwinism contributed to a deep schism between new, cosmopolitan culture of the city and more
traditional, provincial culture located in rural areas
According to pragmatists, modern society should rely for guidance not on inherited ideals and moral
principles but on the test of scientific inquiry
Darwinism promoted growth of anthropology & encouraged scholars to examine other cultures in new ways
D. Toward Universal Schooling
In 1860, there were 100 public high schools in the US; by 1900, there were 6,000 & by 1914 over 12,000
In 1879, Pratt organized Carlisle Indian Industrial School to kill the Indian and save the man
Colleges and universities benefited particularly from the Morrill Land Grant Act of the Civil War
Other universities benefited from millions of dollars contributed by business and financial tycoons
o Rockefeller and Carnegie gave generously to Ivy League schools & others
E. Education for Women
At the end of the Civil War, only three American colleges were coeducational
Proponents of womens colleges saw the institutions as places where female students would not be treated
as second-class citizens
Most faculty members & many administrators were women; women became the leaders of many reform
activities
Over 25% did not marry at all, but devoted themselves exclusively to careers
Growth of female higher education became a liberating experience for women

Chapter 34
The Age of Globalization
I. Resurgence of Partisanship
Bill Clinton took oath of office in January 1993.
Won the votes of under half the electorate.
Republican leadership in Congress opposed president with unanimity on many issues.
A. Launching the Clinton Presidency
Failed effort to end long time ban on gay men and women serving in military met with ferocious resistance
from armed forces and conservatives.
Banking and real estate ventures involving the president and his wife became known as the Whitewater
affair.
Won approval of North American free trade agreement which eliminated most trade barriers among U.S,
Canada, and Mexico.
Appointed tack force chared by wife, Hillary, which proposed sweeping reformed designed to guarantee
coverage to every American and hold down costs finical care.
Congress abandoned health-care reform effort.
United Stated was among nations to send peace keeping troops to Bosnia.
B. The Republican Resurgence
1994 election, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress.
Contract with America called for tax reductions, changes in federal spending, and other promises.
The gap between Democratic White House and Republican Congress on many major issues was relatively
small.
In November 1995 and January 1996, federal government shut down for several days because President
and Congress could not agree on budget.
C. The Election of 1996
Clinton versus Dole
Clinton could campaign as champion of peace, prosperity, and national well-being.
In spring and summer of 1996, Congress passed several important bills.
Raised minimum wage for first time in more that a decade.
Passed welfare reform bill.

Ended fifty-year federal guarantee of assistance to families with dependent children and
turned most of responsibility for funds to states.

It shifted bulk of benefits away from those without jobs and toward support for lowwage workers.

 Clinton received over 49 percent of popular vote and 379 electoral votes.
D. Clinton Triumphant and Embattled
Bill Clinton was first Democratic president to win two terms as president since Franklin Roosevelt.
Negotiated effectively with Republican leadership on plan for balanced budget.
Had been bedeviled by alleged scandals almost from first weeks in office.
Whitewater
Chares of corruption leveled against members of cabinet and staff.
Accusations of illegalities in financing 1996 campaign.
Civil suit for sexual harassment by former state employee in Arkansas, Paula Jones.
Paula Jones case led to charges that president had sexual relationship with White House intern, Monica
Lewinsky.
Clinton finally admitted that he and Lewinsky had and improper relationship.
E. Impeachment, Acquittal, and Resurgence
House Judiciary Committee and full House approved two counts of impeachment:
Lying to grand jury and obstructing justice.
Trial ended with acquittal of president.
Iraqi president Saddam Hussein now balked at agreements he signed at end of the Gulf war and refused to
permit international inspectors to examine military sites in country.
Clinton ordered a series of American bombing strikes at military targets in Iraq.
Conflict between Serbian government of Yugoslavia and Kosovo separatists erupted into a civil war in
1998.
May 1999, NATO forces began a major bombing campaign against Serbians led leader of Yugoslavia,
Slobodan Milosevic, to agree to a cease-fire.
F.
Election of 2000
George Bush versus Al Gore.
Gore won national popular cote by .05%. But on election night, both remained short of 270 electoral voted
needed because no one could determine who had won Florida.

Technology of voting soon became central to dispute.

In a number of Florida counties votes were cast by notoriously inaccurate punch-card ballots,
which were counted by machines.
Gore campaign moved quickly with demand for hand recounts of ballots in three critical counties.
Bush campaign struck back in court and through Republican Secretary of state, Katherine Harris.
Florida Supreme Court voted to require Harris to permit the hand recounts and to accept results
after the deadline.
Third and largest county called off recount, claiming they could not finish in time.
Harris certified Bush winner in Florida by more than 500 votes. Gore campaign contested results in court
and prevailed in Florida Supreme Court. United States Supreme Court late on December 12, overruled
Florida Supreme Courts order for recount, insisted that any revised recount order be completed by
December 12.
G. The Second Bush Presidency
George W. Bush assumed presidency in January 2001.
Widespread perception that he was ill prepared for office.
Principle campaign promise had been that he would use predicted budget surplus to finance a massive tax
reduction.
Won passage of largest tax cut in American history- $1.35trillion.
Presidents adviser, Karl Rove, encouraged administration to take increasingly conservative positions.
Appealed to gun lobby by refusing to support renewal of assault weapons ban.
Proposed constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage.

Bush administrations proposals for incorporating faith-based organizations into circle of institutions
were part of broad unsuccessful effort to mobilize Christians as part of republican coalition.
H. The Election of 2004
President Bush, who was unopposed within party, against John Kerry.
Bush won 51% of popular vote to Kerrys 48%.
Electoral vote was closer, 286 for Bush, 251 for Kerry.
President argued that social security system was facing bankruptcy and must be reformed.
Proposed the creation of private accounts by which individuals would be able to invest a portion of
their own contributions to social security.
Opponents argued that private accounts would worsen financial condition of social security system.
II. The Economic Boom
A. From Stagflation to Growth.
Many American corporations began making important changes in way they ran businesses.
Businesses invested heavily in new technology, to make themselves more efficient and productive.
Corporations began to consider mergers to provide themselves with more diversified bases for growth.
Many enterprises created more energy efficient plants and offices.
American businesses sought to reduce labor costs.
Took much harder line against unions.
Growth of digital technology made possible new products that became central to American economic life:
Computers, Internet, phones, digital music, video, cameras, personal digital assistants, and others.
Gross National Product rose from $2.7 trillion in 1980 to over $9.8 trillion in 2000.
1997 and 1998, annual growth rates reached 5% for first time since 1960s.
From 1994 to 2000, the economy recorded growth in every year.
B. Downturn
Alan Greenspan, chairman of Federal Reserve Board, warned of irrational exuberance with which
Americans were pursuing profits in stock market.
April 2001 was a sudden and disastrous collapse of booming new dot.com sector of company.
At first, bursting of tech bubble seemed to have few effects on larger economy. But by beginning of 2001,
the stock market began substantial decline which continued for almost a year.
Enron Corporation, energy-trading company, announced on December 2, 2001 that it was filing for
bankruptcy.
Enron collapse became major preoccupation of media because of allegedly illegal deceptions that it
revealed.
Charge that Enron had manipulated energy priced in California to create artificial crisis.
Crisis helped lead to successful recall of Democratic governor, Gray Davis, and replaced with
Arnold Schwarzenegger, Republican.
C. The Two-Tiered Economy
In 2000, median annual income of a person with less than high school education was $21,000. Number
rose to $27,000 for high school graduate. College graduates median salary was $43,000 and median salary
with advanced degree was $55,000.
Between 1980 and 2000, average family income of wealthiest 20 percent of population grew by 20 percent;
average family income of next 20 percent of population grew by more than 8 percent. Incomes remained
flat for remaining 60 percent and declined for bottom 20 percent.
Poverty in America had declined in years after WWII.
End of 1970s, percentage of people living in poverty had fallen to 12 percent.
1980s, poverty rate rose again, sometimes as high as 15 percent.
By 2003, it dropped down to under 13 percent.
D. Globalization
As late as 1970, international trade still played a relatively small role in American economy.

Exports rose from just under $43 billion in 1970 to over $789 billion in 2000.
Imports rose from just over $40 billion in 1970 to over $1.2 trillion in 2000.
The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
were boldest of long series of treaties designed to lower trade barriers stretching back to 1960s.
American workers lost jobs as American companies began off-shoring work.
III.
Science and Technology in the New Economy
New Economy that emerged was driven and helped to drive new scientific and technological
discoveries.
A. The Personal Computer
By the 1990s, most Americans were doing banking by computer.
Most retail transactions were conducted by computerized credit mechanisms.
Most businesses, schools, and other institutions were using computerized record keeping.
Among most significant innovations was development of microprocessor, first introduced in 1971 by Intel.
Microprocessor miniaturized central processing unit of computer, making it possible for a small
machine to perform calculations that in past only very large machines could do.
In 1977 Apple launched Apple II personal computer, the first such machine to be widely available to
public.
IBM entered personal computer market with first PC. IBM engaged small software development
company (Microsoft) to design operating system for new computer.
Known as MS-DOS (DOS for disc operating system)
Computer enthusiasts talked about imminent coming of paperless office.
B. The Internet
The internet is a vast geographically far-flung network of computers that allows people connected to
network to communicate with others all over world.
Began in 1963 in U.S. governments Advanced Research Projects Agency.
In 1963 J.C.R. Licklider, launched program to link together computers over large distances known as the
Arpanet, both size and uses of network expanded.
Store-and-forward packet switching made possible transmission of large quantities of data
between computers without wiring computers together.
Development of computer software that would allow individual computers to handle traffic over
network known as Interface Message Processor.
In 1989, Tim Burners-Lee, introduced the World Wide Web, through which individual users could publish
information.
C. Breakthroughs in Genetics
Scientists began to identify specific genes in humans and other living things that determined particular
traits, and to learn how to alter or reproduce them.
In 1989, federal government appropriated $3 billion to National Center for the Human Genome.
Project setout to identify all of more than 100,000 genes by 2005. (Completed in April 2003.)
In 1997 scientists in Scotland announced they had cloned sheep using a cell from adult ewe.
Many people grew uneasy about predictions that new science might give scientists ability to alter aspects
of life.
IV.
Changing Society
A. The Graying of America
After decades of steady growth, nations birth rate began to decline in 1970s and remained low through
1980s and 1990s.
Aging of the population was a cause of the increasing costliness of Social Security pensions, meant rapidly
increasing health costs for Medicare system and private hospitals and insurance companies.
In last 20 years of twentieth century, number of people aged 25 54 in native-born workforce in U.S. grew
by over 26 million.

B. New Patterns of Immigration and Ethnicity

In 2004, over 34 million Americans consisted of immigrants.
The Immigration Reform Act of 1965 eliminated quotas based on national origin; newcomers from regions
other than Latin America were admitted on first-come, first-served basis.
People from Latin America constituted more than a third of total number of legal immigrants to U.S. every
year after 1965.
By 2000, there were more than 10 million Asian Americans in U.S.
C. The Black Middle Class
Number of African Americans attending college rose by 350% in decade following passage of Civil Rights
Act.
African Americans made up 12% of college population in 1990s.
Nearly half of all employed blacks in U.S. had skilled white-collar jobs.
D. Poor and Working-Class African Americans
Underclass made up as much as a third of nations black population.
Fewer than half of young inner-city blacks finished high school; more than 60% were unemployed.
1991 in Los Angeles a bystander videotaped several Los Angeles police beating apparently helpless black
man, Rodney King.
Black residents of South Central Los Angeles precipitated largest racial disturbance of 20th century. More
than 50 people died.
E. Modern Plagues: Drugs and AIDS
Enormous demand for drugs and crack cocaine in late 1980s and early 1990s spawned multibilliondollar industry. In absence of significant funding for war on drugs programs, efforts appeared to be
having little effect.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
Gradually destroys bodys immune system and makes victims highly vulnerable to a number of
diseases to which they would otherwise have natural resistance.
In 2002 U.S. government agencies estimated that about 870,000 Americans were infected with HIV
virus and that 502,000 had already died from disease.
In mid 1990s AIDS researchers began discovering effective treatments for disease. The drugs
were not a cure for AIDS; people who stopped taking them experience a rapid return of disease.
V. A Contested Culture
A. Battles over Feminism and Abortion
For those who favored allowing women to choose to terminate unwanted pregnancies, Supreme Courts
decision in Roe vs. Wade seemed to settle question.
Catholic Church lent institutional authority to battle against legalized abortion.
Changing composition of Supreme Court in 1980s and early 1990s renewed right-to-life movements
hopes for reversal of Roe vs. Wade, in Webster vs. Reproductive Health Services. Courts stopped short of
overturning 1973 decision.
Pro-choice movement was defending not so much abortion itself as every womans right to choose
whether and when to bear a child.
B. The Changing Left and the Growth of Environmentalism
Environmental movement continued to expand in last decades of 20th century.
By end of the 1970s many scientists were warning that release of certain industrial pollutants into
atmosphere was depleting ozone layer of earths atmosphere.
Scientists warned of related danger of global warning, a rise in earths temperature as a result of
burning fossil fuels.
In 1997, representatives of major industrial nations met in Kyoto, Japan and agreed to broad treaty banning
certain emissions into atmosphere. But in March 2001, second Bush administration rejected treaty.
C. The Fragmentation of Mass Culture

Idea about advertising became powerful in 1970s known as targeting.

Instead of finding promotional techniques that appeal to everyone, advertisers sought to identify
product with particular segment of market and create advertisements designed to appeal to it.
As late as 1970s American audiences overwhelmingly watched programs on 3 major networks: NBC, CBS,
and ABC. In 1980s, that began to change.
VCRs, DVD players (which were estimated to be in 2/3 of all homes by 2004.)
Increasing availability of cable and satellite television
Many people turned from television and began to explore internet
VI.
The Perils of Globalization
Television viewers around world followed dawn of new century from Australia, through Asia, Africa,
Europe, and into Americas.
A. Opposing the New World Order
To many Americans on both left and right, nations increasingly interventionist foreign policy was deeply
troubling.
Critics on left charged that U.S. was using military action to advance economic interests in 1991
Gulf War and 2003 Iraq War.
Critics on right claimed that nation was allowing itself to be swayed by interests of other nations
and was ceding its sovereignty to international organizations.
Labor unions insisted that rapid expansion of free trade agreements led to export of jobs from
advanced nations to less developed ones.
In November 1999, when leaders of seven leading industrial nations gathered for annual meeting in
Seattle, Washington, tens of thousands of protesters clashed with police, smashed store windows, and all
but paralyzed city.
In July, 2001, at a meeting of same leaders in Genoa, Italy, an estimated 50,000 demonstrators clashed
violently with police.
Participants in meeting responded to demonstrations by pledging $1.2 billion to fight AIDS epidemic in
developing countries, and by deciding to hold future meetings in remote locations.
B. Defending Orthodoxy
The Iranian Revolution of 1979 was one of the first large and visible manifestations of a phenomenon that
would eventually reach across much of the Islamic world and threaten stability of globe.
Among some militant fundamentalists, battle to preserve orthodoxy came to be defined as battle against
West and U.S. in particular.
Continuing struggle between Palestinians and Israelis (defined in eyes of many Muslims by American
support for Israel) add further to their contempt.
Militants used isolated incidents of violence and mayhem, designed to disrupt societies and governments
and to create fear among peoples known as terrorism.
C. The Rise of Terrorism
Term terrorism was used first during French Revolution to describe actions of radical Jacobins against
French government.
United States experienced terrorism for many years, these included bombing of marine barracks in Beirut
in 1983, explosion that brought down American Airliner over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988, bombing of
American Embassies in 1988, assault on U.S. naval vessel Cole in 2000, and September 11, 2001.
D. The War on Terrorism
Attacks on World Trade Center and Pentagon, government intelligence indicated, had been planned and
orchestrated by Middle Eastern agents of Al Qaida.
Leader, Osama Bin Laden, quickly became one of most notorious figures in world.
U.S. began sustained campaign of bombing against regime and sent in small numbers of ground troops to
help a resistance organization overthrow the Afghan government.

American forces rounded up several hundred people suspected of connections to Tali Ban and Al Qaida in
aftermath of fighting and eventually moved these prisoners to facility at American base in Guantanamo,
Cuba.
Were among the first suspected terrorists to be handled with new and more draconian standards established
by federal government in dealing with terrorism after September 11, 2001.
E. The Iraq War
For over a year Bush administration slowly built public case for invading Iraq. Case rested on 2 claims.
Iraq was supporting terrorist groups that were hostile to U.S.
Iraq either had or was developing what came to be known as weapons of mass destruction.
Less central to arguments, was the charge that Hussein government was responsible for major
violations of human rights.
Except for last, none were true.
In March 2003 American and British troops invaded Iraq and quickly toppled Hussein regime.
Hussein eventually was captured in December 2003.
Of nearly 2000 American soldiers killed in Iraq as of September 2005, 1600 of them died after Mission
Accomplished speech.
Support for war in U.S. steadily declined in months after first claim of victory
Failure of invaders to find evidence of weapons of mass destruction was one blow to wars
credibility.
Another blow came from reports of torture and humiliation of Iraqi prisoners by American soldiers
at Abu Ghraib prison in Bagdad and other sites.
Invasion of Iraq was most visible of basic change in structure of American foreign policy under presidency
of George W. Bush.