CE 14 Solid Mechanics (Lecture 3) PDF

12/5/2010
Lecture 3
LECTURE 3 TOPICS
I. Flexural Stresses in Beams of Two Materials by the
Transformed Section Method

Definition of Composite Beams

Method of Solution and Assumptions
Derivation of Governing Equations
Transformation Factor, n
Reinforced Concrete Beams
II. Flexural Stresses in Curved Beams

Determination of Neutral Axis Location

Derivation of Flexural Stress Equation
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Lecture 3, Part 1
Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

COMPOSITE BEAMS are beams constructed of two or
more different materials. Engineers purposely design

beams in this manner in order to develop a more efficient
means for carrying applied loads.
Wood Beam with Straps of Steel
Concrete Beams Reinforced

with Steel Rods
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NOTE: The Flexure Formula, = My/I, developed for
homogeneous beams cannot be applied directly to

composite beams.
METHOD OF SOLUTION: Modify or transform
the composite beams cross section into one made of a

single material. Once this has been done, the flexure
formula can then be used for the stress analysis.
ASSUMPTIONS:
1. A plane section remains plane after bending, provided

the different materials are securely bonded together.
2. Behavior is elastic.

Consider the composite beam made of two materials
as shown below,
Because of assumption 1, normal strains will vary linearly from zero at the
neutral axis to a maximum in the material that is farthest from this axis.
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Assuming Hookes Law applies, the normal stress
distribution is as shown below.
Stiff Material 1 , E1
= E1
Less Stiff Material 2, E2
= E2
Notice the jump in stress that occurs at the juncture of the two materials.
Here the strain is the same, but since E suddenly changes, so does the stress.

Transforming the beam into one made of the lesser
stiff material 2 only, the beam becomes
NOTES:
1. Height of the beam, h, must be the
same, since the normal strain must be
preserved.
2. The upper portion of the beam must be
widened n times the original width of
the beam, b, in order to carry a load
equivalent to that carried by the stiffer
material 1.
3. The dimensionless number, n, is called
the transformation factor.
Factor to
transform 1 to 2
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We can also transform the beam into one made of the
stiffer material 1 only as shown
NOTES:
1. Still, the height of the beam, h, must
be the same, since the normal strain
must be preserved.
2. This time the lower portion of the beam
must be reduced n times the original
width of the beam, b, in order to carry a
load equivalent to that carried by the
lesser stiff material 2.
3. The dimensionless number, n, is
Factor to
transform 2 to 1
NOTE: Any of the 2 transformations can be chosen in the analysis.

The bending stress variations are shown below
Transformation 1 (All Material 2)
Transformation 2 (All Material 1)
NOTES: The stress variation is linear and there is no sudden increase in stress.
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NOTES:
After the transformation, the centroid (or location of n.a.)
and the moment of inertia for the transformed area can now
be determined.
The flexure formula can be applied in the usual manner to
determine the stress at each point on the transformed beam.

For the transformed material, however, the stress found on
the transformed section has to be multiplied by the

transformation factor since the area of the transformed
material is n times the area of the actual material.

Proof of Third Note:
ORIGINAL SECTION
TRANSFORMED SECTION
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STEPS:
1. Compute the transformation factor, n
n=
This equation means that the composite

material is to be transformed to all material 2
(see denominator ).
E1
E2
2. Locate the centroid of the transformed section. This is also the location of
the neutral axis.
y=
Ay
A
3. Determine the moment of inertia, INA , of the transformed section.

4. Determine the internal bending moment M to be used. This M
a. Could be a given in the problem.
b. Can be solved by statics (ES 11) by Method of Sections, or by
Construction of Shear & Bending Moment Diagrams

STEPS:
5. Evaluate the flexural stresses on the two materials:
material 1 = n
material 2 =
My
I
My
I
IMPORTANT: The
transformation factor, n, should
only be multiplied to material 1
since the section is transformed
to all material 2.
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Example 1
75
15 kN
15
steel
2m
Given: Cantilever beam with a

composite section made of wood
and steel
Ewood = 10 GPa
Esteel = 200 GPa
Determine:
a) Maximum fiber stress in wood
b) Maximum fiber stress in steel
200
mm
wood
steel
15
CROSS SECTION

Example 1
Solution: Transform to all WOOD!
Step 1: Compute transformation factor
n=
Esteel
200
=
= 20
Ewood
10
75
15
steel
75 n = 75 20 = 1,500 mm
15
wood
75
wood
200
mm
200
mm
wood
15
wood
steel
15
CROSS SECTION
75 n = 75 20 = 1,500 mm
TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL WOOD)
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Example 1
Step 2: Locate NA
1,500 mm
Since the transformed section

is symmetric, the neutral
axis falls at mid-height.
200 + 2(15)
y=
2
200
mm
15
75
NA
15
y = 115 mm
1,500 mm
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)

Example 1
Step 3: Determine INA
1,500 mm
1
(75)(200)3
12
1
3
+ (1500)(15)
12
2
+ 1500(15)(107.5)
1
3
+ (1500)(15)
12
2
+ 1500(15)(107.5)
15
I NA =
I NA = 570.875 x 10 mm
200
mm
75
NA
y = 115
15
1,500 mm
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)
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Example 1
Step 4: Determine M
IMPORTANT! The maximum
fiber stresses required in the
problem will occur at the
section where M is maximum.
fixed end
15 kN
2m
For the given beam, it is obvious

that Mmax will occur at the fixed
end.
Mmax will
occur here!
M max = P x L = 15 (2) = 30 kNm

Example 1
Step 5: Determine maximum fiber stresses
1,500 mm
WOOD (consider farthest
15
actual wood fiber)
max wood =
M max cmax wood

I NA
30(10 )(0.1)
570.875(10 6 )
200
mm
75
Mmax
NA
max wood = 5.255 MPa

(T & C )
cmax wood
y = 115
15
1,500 mm
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)
10
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Example 1
Step 5: Determine maximum fiber stresses
1,500 mm
STEEL (consider farthest
15
actual steel fiber)
M c
max steel = n max max steel

I NA
3
30(10 )(0.115)
= 20
6
570.875(10 )
200
mm
NA
cmax steel
y = 115
max steel = 120.867 MPa

(T & C )
Mmax
75
15
1,500 mm
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)

Example 1
NOTE: Try solving Example 1 by transforming to all STEEL!
n=
75
Ewood 10
=
= 0.05
Esteel 200
75
15
steel
15
steel
75 x 0.05 = 3.75 mm
wood
200
mm
200
mm
steel
15
steel
steel
15
CROSS SECTION
TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL STEEL)
11
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Example 2
Given: Composite beam made
of wood and steel
Ewood = 10 GPa
Esteel = 200 GPa
Determine:
The maximum fiber stress in
wood when the maximum fiber
stress in the steel is 70 MPa (T).
15
steel
300
mm
wood
120
CROSS SECTION

Example 2
15
n=
Esteel
200
=
= 20
Ewood
10
120 n = 120 20 = 2,400 mm
steel
15
wood
120
300
mm
wood
300
mm
wood
120
CROSS SECTION
TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL WOOD)
12
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Example 2
Step 2: Locate NA
2,400 mm
y=
Ay
A
15
= 2400(15) 300 +
2
300
+ 120(300)
2
2400(15) + 120(300)
15
NA
300
mm
120
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)
y = 228.75 mm

Example 2
I NA
1
3
= (2400)(15)
12
2
+ 2400(15)(78.75)
1
3
+ (120)(300)
12
2
+ 120(300)(78.75)
I NA = 717.1875 x 106 mm4
2,400 mm
15
NA
300
mm
y = 228.75
120
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)
13
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Example 2
Step 4: Determine M
2,400 mm
Given: max steel = 70 MPa (T )

STEEL (consider farthest
cmax steel
actual steel fiber)
Mcmax steel
max steel = n
I NA
I
M = max steel NA
ncmax steel
15
NA
300
mm
y = 228.75
M
120
70(106 )(717.1875(106 ))
M=
20(0.08625)
M = 29.10326 kNm
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)

Example 2
Step 5: Determine maximum fiber stress in wood
2,400 mm
WOOD (consider farthest
15
actual wood fiber)
max wood =
Mcmax wood
I NA
29.10326(103 )(0.22875)
=
717.1875(106 )
NA
300
mm
y = 228.75
cmax wood
M
120
max wood = 9.283 MPa (C )
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL WOOD)
14
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Flexural Stresses in RC Beams

NOTE: Concrete has relatively little tensile strength; therefore,
concrete beams must be reinforced with another material,

usually steel, that can resist the tensile forces.
Where
b width of RC beam
h height of RC beam
d distance of the
reinforcing steel bars
from the top of the beam
to the centroid of steel areas
Reinforced Concrete Beam

Due to bending moment M, all concrete below the
neutral axis is assumed to crack

NOTES:
1. All concrete on top of the
neutral axis is under
compression. Stress varies
linearly from zero at neutral
axis and maximum on top.
2. All reinforcing steel bars are
under tension.
Reinforced Concrete Beam
15
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Transformed Section
STEPS:
1. Get n:
Transform RC beam into an all

concrete section.
2. Determine h which is the
location of the neutral axis from
the top of the beam.
3. Compute INA of the transformed
section.
4. Determine internal bending
moment M. This M
a) Could be given in the
problem.
b) Can be solved by statics by
method of sections, or by shear
& bending moment diagrams.

Transformed Section
STEPS:
5. Determine the flexural
stresses at concrete and steel
bars.
16
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Example 3
10
Given: Reinforced-Concrete, simply

supported beam with a uniform load
w = 1,100 lb/ft
L = 16 ft
Econcrete = 2,500 ksi
Esteel = 30,000 ksi
Determine at the section of
maximum moment:
a) The maximum compressive stress in
the concrete
b) The average tensile stress in the
reinforcing steel
18
As = 2 in2
CROSS SECTION

Example 3
Solution: Transform to all CONCRETE!
10
Esteel
30,000
=
= 12
Econcrete
2,500
10
h
18
18 h
As = 2 in2
n=
CROSS SECTION
Concrete
under
compression
Concrete
under
tension;
assumed
to crack
due to M
NA
concrete
All concrete areas under
tension will be removed.
17
12/5/2010

Example 3
n=
10
Esteel
30,000
=
= 12
Econcrete
2,500
10
h
NA
18
As = 2 in2
16 h
concrete
n x As = 12 2 = 24 in
CROSS SECTION
M
2
TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL CONCRETE)

Example 3
Step 2: Compute h to locate NA
Note: The first moment of the
area about NA = zero.
M NA = 0
h'
10(h') = 24(16 h')
2
2
5h' +24h'384 = 0
h'= 6.68625"
10
h
NA
16 h
M
n x As = 12 2 = 24 in 2
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL CONCRETE)
18
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Example 3
I NA =
1
(10)(6.68625)3
12
2
6.68625
+ 10(6.68625)
2
+ 24(9.31375)
10
6.68625
NA
9.31375
M
I NA = 3,078.286 in 4
Note: The third term of above equation
is the moment of inertia of nAs about NA
equal to its area multiplied by the square of
the distance of its centroid from NA.
n x As = 12 2 = 24 in 2
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL CONCRETE)

Example 3
Step 4: Determine M
For a simply supported beam, the
maximum moment occurs at
mid-span with the formula:
wL2
8
2
1100(16 )
=
8
= 35,200 lb ft
M max =
M max
1,100 lb/ft
16 ft
Mmax will occur at mid-span!
19
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Example 3
Step 5: Determine flexural stresses
10
a) Maximum Concrete Compressive Stress

CONCRETE (consider
farthest concrete fiber)
max conc =
=
cmax conc
6.68625
NA
M max cmax conc

I NA
9.31375
M
(35,200 12)(6.68625)
3,078.286
max conc = 917.482 psi (C )
n x As = 12 2 = 24 in 2
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL CONCRETE)

Example 3
10
b) Average Steel Tensile Stress

Distance of Steel Areas
from NA
6.68625
csteel = 9.31375 in
M c
avesteel = n max steel
I NA
(35,200 12)(9.31375)
= 12
3,078.286
avesteel = 15,336.3 psi (T )
NA
9.31375
csteel
M
n x As = 12 2 = 24 in 2
TRANSFORMED SECTION
(ALL CONCRETE)
20
12/5/2010

Example 3
max conc
CONCRETE:
max conc = 917.482 psi (C )

STEEL (RSB):
avesteel
avesteel = 15,336.3 psi (T )
Lecture 3, Part 2
21
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Flexural Stresses in Curved Beams

CURVED BEAMS are beams that have curved axes
and are subjected to bending.
EXAMPLES: Hooks, Chain Links, etc.

NOTE: For curved beams, the linear variation of strain over the
cross section is no longer valid, even though the assumption of

the plane cross section remaining plane is valid.
Straight Beams
(Linear variation of strain)
Curved Beams
(Non-linear variation of strain)
22
12/5/2010

ASSUMPTIONS:
1. Constant cross sectional area and has an axis of
2.
3.
4.
5.
symmetry that is perpendicular to the applied

moment.
The beam is subjected to pure bending.
Constant or slowly varying initial radius of
curvature in the plane of bending.
Material is homogeneous and isotropic and it
behaves in a linear-elastic manner.
The cross sections remain plane when the moment
is applied.

Consider
Based on plane section remaining
plane and similar triangles,
ri
R
a
ro
ri = radius of inner surface

ro = radius of outer surface
R = location of NS
(1)
b
(2)
ro
o
y
23
12/5/2010

Consider
Variation of Normal Strain at the
Cross Section of the Curved Beam
ri
R
a
ro
x
ro
o
y

Consider
(2)
ri
Since elastic, Hookes law

applies
a
ro
x
ro
o
y
(3)
b
NOTE: The flexural stress
distribution is similar to
the strain distribution.
24
12/5/2010

Determination of the location of the neutral axis.
ri
R
But y = - R
ro
x
ro
(4)
zero
Formula to
determine the
location of NA, R
o
y

For a rectangular cross section of
width, t
centerline
ri
ri
From the figure,
ro
x
ro
o
y
dA = td
ro
dA
The above equation

becomes
t
Rectangular Cross Section
25
12/5/2010

For a rectangular cross section of
width, t
ri
R
a
ro
Since R is a constant,
x
(5)
ro
o
NOTE: For rectangular sections only.

For the resisting moment MR ,
ri
R
a
ro
x
ro
Zero from equation 4.
o
y
26
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For the resisting moment MR ,
(6)
Where y-bar is the y coordinate of
the centroid of the cross sectional
area A measured from the N.A.
Replacing
by
(7)
Elastic Flexural Stress at any
point in an initially curved beam.

Example 4
Given: Curved Beam

with Rectangular
Cross Section 80 x
160 mm deep
ri = 500 mm
M = +40 kNm
Determine:
The flexural stresses
at the inside and
outside surfaces
of the beam.
27
12/5/2010

Example 4
Solution:
NA
centerline
Step 1: Locate the NA
ro ri
ln (ro ri )
660 500
=
ln (660 500)
R=
ri = 500 mm
ro = 500 + 160
= 660 mm
R = 576.303 mm
R
80
ri =
500
mm
160 mm
ro

Example 4
Solution:
rCA = 500 +
NA
centerline
Step 2: Determine y
160
= 580 mm
2
y = rCA R = 580 576.303

= 3.697 mm
CA
rCA
R = 576.303
80
ri =
500
mm
y
160 mm
ro = 660 mm
28
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M
Example 4
Solution:
centerline
Step 3: Flexural Stresses
My
Ay
At Inside Curved Surface
= ri = 500 mm
y = R ri = 576.303 500
= 76.303 mm
3
40(10) (0.076303)
i =
(0.500)(0.08 0.160)(0.003697)
NA
rCA = 580
CA
R = 576.303
ri =
500
mm
80
y = 3.697 mm
160 mm
ro = 660 mm
i = 128.99 MPa (C )

M
Example 4
Solution:
centerline
My
Ay
At Outside Curved Surface
= ro = 660 mm
y = ro R = 660 576.303
= 83.697 mm
3
40(10) (0.083697)
o =
(0.660)(0.08 0.160)(0.003697)
NA
rCA = 580
CA
R = 576.303
ri =
500
mm
80
y = 3.697 mm
160 mm
ro = 660 mm
o = 107.2 MPa (T )
29
12/5/2010

Example 5
Given: Curved Beam with Cross Section as shown
Determine: b that will make i = o for the curved beam.
6
1
b
Cross Section

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline
R
dA = 0
From = 6 to 8:
From = 8 to 14:
General Form
6
1
dA = bd
dA = 1d + 1d
= 2d
Therefore,
NA
14
R
(bd) + 8 R (2d) = 0
ri = 6
dA
b
dA
1
d
ro = 14
Cross Section
30
12/5/2010

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline
14
R
(bd) + 8 R (2d) = 0
8 R
14 R
b 6
d + 2 8
d = 0
b (8 6 R ln(8 6))
+ 2 (14 8 R ln(14 8)) = 0
b (2 R ln(4 3)) + 2 (6 R ln(7 4)) = 0
NA

8
6
1
ri = 6
dA
b
dA
R[b ln(4 3) + 2 ln(7 4)] = 2b + 12

2b + 12
R=
b ln(4 3) + 2 ln(7 4)
ro = 14
Cross Section

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline
My
Ay
At Inside Curved Surface
= ri = 6
y = R ri = R 6
M ( R 6)
i =
(6) Ay
NA
R
2
6
1
ri = 6
b
1
ro = 14
Cross Section
31
12/5/2010

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline
My
Ay
At Outside Curved Surface
= ro = 14
y = ro R = 14 R
NA
6
1
ri = 6
b
M (14 R )
o =
(14)Ay
1
ro = 14
Cross Section

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline
Given: i = o
i =
M (14 R )
M (R 6)
= o =
(14) Ay
(6) Ay
R 6 14 R
=
6
14
14 R 84 = 84 6 R
168 42
R=
=
= 8.4"
20 5
NA
6
1
ri = 6
b
1
ro = 14
Cross Section
32
12/5/2010

M
Example 5
Solution:
centerline

Equating R from Step 1 to 8.4
2b + 12
= 8.4
R=
b ln(4 3) + 2 ln(7 4)
Solving for b
NA
R
2
6
1
ri = 6
b
2b + 12 = 8.4b ln(4 3) + 16.8 ln(7 4)

16.8 ln(7 4) 12
b=
2 8.4 ln(4 3)
b = 6.24"
1
ro = 14
Cross Section
33

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12/5/2010

Definition of Composite Beams

II. Flexural Stresses in Curved Beams

Determination of Neutral Axis Location

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

more different materials. Engineers purposely design

Wood Beam with Straps of Steel

Concrete Beams Reinforced

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

homogeneous beams cannot be applied directly to

the composite beams cross section into one made of a

1. A plane section remains plane after bending, provided

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Less Stiff Material 2, E2

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Transformation 2 (All Material 1)

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

determine the stress at each point on the transformed beam.

the transformed section has to be multiplied by the

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

This equation means that the composite

3. Determine the moment of inertia, INA , of the transformed section.

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Given: Cantilever beam with a

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Since the transformed section

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

For the given beam, it is obvious

M max = P x L = 15 (2) = 30 kNm

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

WOOD (consider farthest

actual wood fiber)

M max cmax wood

max wood = 5.255 MPa

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

STEEL (consider farthest

actual steel fiber)

max steel = n max max steel

max steel = 120.867 MPa

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL STEEL)

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

120 n = 120 20 = 2,400 mm

TRANSFORMED SECTION (ALL WOOD)

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

I NA = 717.1875 x 106 mm4

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

Given: max steel = 70 MPa (T )

actual steel fiber)

Flexural Stresses in Composite Beams

WOOD (consider farthest

actual wood fiber)

max wood = 9.283 MPa (C )

Flexural Stresses in RC Beams