Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
of Tourism
Rmarch,
Pergamon
0160-7383(95)00075-5
INTRODUCTION
Social and cultural
impacts of tourism are the ways in which
tourism
is contributing
to changes
in value systems,
individual
behavior, family relationships,
collective
lifestyles,
moral conduct,
creative expressions,
traditional
ceremonies
and community organization (Pizam and Milman
1984:ll).
Social impacts involve the
more immediate
changes in the social structure of the community
and adjustments
to the destinations
economy and industry... while
the cultural impacts focus on the longer-term
changes in a societys
norms and standards, which will gradually emerge in a communitys
social relationships
and artifacts
(Murphy 1985: 117).
Nicholas Haralambopoulos
(76 Agiou Nikolou
St., 16674 Glyfada,
Greece)
holds an MSc.
in Tourism
Management
from The University
of Surrey and is currentlv
serving
in the Greek
armed
forces.
His research
interests
are in the area of tourism
social impacts.
Abraham
Pizam is Professor
of Tourism
Management
in the Department
of Hospitality
Management,
FI orida (Email apizamOucfl\,m.cc.ucf.edu).
University
of Central
His current
research
intrrests are cross-cultural
tourism
management
and marketing,
and social impacts
of tourism.
503
PERCEIVED
504
IMPACTS OF TOURISM
Structure
of Host Communities
The development
of the tourism industry usually affects the size
of the host population, as the creation of new employment
opportunities slows migration
and attracts new workers or residents in the
community
(Baud-Bovy and Lawson 1977). More critically, tourism
can, on one hand, help the host community
to retain its members,
particularly
unemployed or under-employed
youths in economically
and
marginal
areas, and on the other hand, displace agriculture
result in migration
from villages
and mountain
communities
to
tourism areas (Cohen 1984; Tsartas
1989). Further, tourism development can attract
foreign workers from other economic
sectors,
particularly
agriculture
(Cohen 1984; de Kadt 1979).
Population
stability and growth as a result of tourism have been
reported in a number of studies such as Milman and Pizam (1988)
in Central Florida, Tsartas (1989) and Loukissas (1982) in the Greek
islands, Getz (1986)
in the highlands
of Scotland,
and Noronha
(1979) in Bali, Indonesia.
But tourism development
tends to alter
the composition
of the population,
not just its size. Pearce (1989)
and Reynoso, Valle and de Regt (1979) observe changes in the age
pyramid of their tourism communities;
Peck and Lepie (1989) find
tourism
responsible
for the modification
of family
size (from
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND PIZAM
505
extended
to nuclear);
and Tsartas (1989), Smaui (1979), and Getz
(1986) report on transformation
of their host populations from rural
to urban and the creation of new communities.
506
and Gambling
Crime
is considered
an externality
of tourism
development.
However, reports on crimes against tourists in many destinations
communities
have drawn
increased
attention
to the complex
relationship
between international
mass tourism and the incidence
of crime in resort areas. Data on crime are relatively easy to secure,
although
it is often very difficult
to prove a causal relationship
between
tourism
and crime. McPheters
and Strong
(1974), Jud
and Chesney-Lind
and Lind ( 1986)
(1975),
Lin and Loeb (1977),
have investigated
the relationship
between tourism presence
and
various types of crimes. They all suggest that crime is somewhat
associated with tourism. Furthermore,
many host community studies
reveal that residents perceive a positive association between tourism
and crime (King, Pizam and Milman 1993; Milman and Pizam 1988;
Pizam 1978; Rothman
1978). But certain aspects of mass tourism
HAFCAIAMBOPOULOS
AND PRAM
507
development
substantially
contribute
to an increase in criminal acts.
The most important factors directly associated with increased crime
rates are perceived
loss of local control
(Chesney-Lind
and Lind
1986),
depersonalized
commercialized
human
relations
and
(Chesney-Lind
and Lind 1986; Dogan
1989),
tourist
densities
(Bryden
1973), conflicts,
enmities
and community
resentment
perhaps because of their wealth and luxurious lifestyles-against
tourists (Cater 1987; de Kadt 1979; Nicholls 1976; Dogan 1989). In
contrast to these findings and propositions,
Pizam (1982) finds the
association
between
tourist
expenditures
in a community
and
various
types of crimes
infinitesimal:
.. tourism
expenditures
though found to be [statistically]
significantly
correlated
with four
types of crimes, property, robbery, rape and aggravated
assault, the
magnitude
of the coefficients
was minuscule
(Pizam 1982:9).
A number of studies give a passing reference
to the impacts of
tourism on prostitution
(Archer 1978; Pizam 1978; Urbanowiz 1989),
but detailed research on the subject has not yet been conducted. One
of the most critical attempts to ascertain this relationship
is Cohens
(1982b) detailed account of the various types of prostitution
available to tourists and foreigners in Bangkok. Urbanowiz (1989) reports
increased
homosexuality
and prostitution
in Tonga due to tourism.
Similarly,
as Graburn
states:
Korea has become famous for its
Kisaeng tourism. Kisaeng used to be equivalent
of Japanese
Geisha,
accomplished
female entertainers
and companions,
but by now it has
become a synonym for prostitutes.
These women are introduced
to
men in hotels as part of package tours, as enterprise
rewards to
functionaries
of small and middle sized companies,
and by travel
agencies, taxi drivers, and bellboys and cost about one quarter of the
price for similar services in Japan (1983:441).
Some authors further
associate
increases
in prostitution
with an increase
in venereal
diseases
(Turner
and Ash 1975). Cohen
(1988a)
notes that the
emergence
and spread of AIDS in Thailand
coincided
with an
increase in the economic importance
of tourism and the sex industry in the country.
Gambling
has often been perceived
as one of tourisms
byproducts. Although little research
has examined
this relationship,
much of casinos patronage depends on tourists, and thus the effects
of gambling can be assumed to be partially the result of tourist activity (Mathieson
and Wall 1982). While the positive economic impacts
of gambling on resort communities
are recognized
(Stanslield
1978;
Pizam and Pokela 1985), despite its growing economic importance,
gambling is considered
to have some negative socioeconomic
consequences (Pizam and Pokela 1985).
508
PERCEIVED
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
AND THE
ISLAND
OF SAMOS
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND PIZAM
509
510
PERCEIVED
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
HARALAMBOPOULOS
RESULTS
AND PIZAM
51 1
AND ANALYSIS
In general, respondents
expressed a very positive attitude towards
tourism. Some 80% of the respondents
strongly favored or favored
somewhat
the presence
of tourism in the area [mean = 4.1 and
standard deviation
(SD) = 1.0 on a l-5 scale, where 1 = strongly
oppose and 5 = strongly favor]. In respect to their overall attitude
towards tourism on the island of Samos, the vast majority of the
respondents
(76%)
stated
that they either
favored or strongly
favored tourism activities and development
on the island. The mean
support score was 4.0, with an SD of 1.1. Only 3.5% of the respondents strongly opposed the existence
of tourism on the island.
With regards to the effect of tourism on the image of Pythagorion,
a very large proportion of the residents (about 84%) stated that the
image of the area has improved somewhat or significantly
improved
because of tourism (mean = 4.1, SD = 1.1). Respondents
attitudes
towards further
tourism
development
were very positive.
When
asked how they felt about the volume of tourists visiting the area,
512
78% indicated that the number of tourists visiting the area should
increase somewhat or significantly
increase, and only 13% suggested
that it should significantly
or somewhat decrease.
The perceptions
of the sample about the difference
or similarity
between themselves
and tourists visiting the area were also investigated. As anticipated,
the majority of respondents
(87%) perceived
tourists as being very different
or somewhat
different
from local
inhabitants.
Similarly, about 66% believed that Greek tourists were
very different or somewhat different from foreign tourists. Contrary
to the previous question, however, a large proportion of the sample
(34.1%)
identified
some similarities
between
Greek
tourists
and
foreign tourists.
Perceptions on the Social Impacts
of Tourism
Respondents
were asked to express
their opinions
about the
impact of tourism on a variety of socioeconomic
issues. As can be
seen from Table 1, the mean responses indicated that employment
opportunities,
towns overall tax revenue, personal income, standard
of living, attitude
towards work and hospitality
towards strangers
were perceived
to improve as a result of tourism in the area. As
expected,
local residents
had very positive perceptions
about the
impact of tourism on economic-related
issues. Sexual permissiveness
was also perceived to increase as a result of tourism. This could have
been the result of the increased
and closer contact between local
residents and tourists. In contrast, variables such as prices of goods
and services, brawls, drug addiction, vandalism and individual crimes
were perceived to worsen as a result of tourism.
As to the rest of the variables,
namely confidence
among people,
honesty, morality, organized crime, prostitution
and gambling, their
means (around 3.0) may well indicate that the residents perceived
that the current level of tourism development
had no effect on them.
The above results confirmed
the findings of other studies with
regards to the perceived impact of tourism on a variety of similar
socioeconomic
variables
(King, Pizam and Milman
1993; Milman
and Pizam 1988; Pizam and Pokela 1985; Rot hman 1978). According
the perception
of the residents
to the island police authorities,
regarding
organized crime, prostitution,
and gambling
levels was
close to reality.
In addition to studying the perceived impacts of tourism on the
residents, this study questioned the respondents
on tourisms particular impacts
on women and young residents,
because
previous
studies found that in some developing countries women and young
adults were affected disproportionally
by tourism development.
The
results indicate that respondents
believed employment
opportunities
for women and the socioeconomic
position of women within this
traditional
society had improved as a result of tourism (both with
means of 4.3). In addition, respondents
contended that tourism had
increased womens participation
in family decisions (mean of 4.1).
In short, according
to them, tourism has improved the social and
economic status of women at home and in the community.
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
513
PIZAM
SD
Employment
opportunities
Towns
tax revenue
Personal
income
Standard
of living
Prices of goods and services
Attitude
towards
work
Courtesy
& hospitality
towards
strangers
Mutual
confidence/sincerity
among
people
Honesty
in any commercial
exchange
Morality
Sexual
permissiveness
Organized
crimes
(initiated
by criminal
groups)
Individual
crimes
(committed
by individual
criminals)
Brawls
Drug addiction
Prostitution
Sexual
harassment
Gambling/illegal
games
Vandalism
Grand
mean
4.6
4.0
4.5
4.4
2.3
3.5
3.6
3.2
2.8
2.6
4.1
2.9
2.6
2.1
2.0
2.7
2.1
2.9
2.2
3.1
0.5
1.0
0.6
0.7
1.0
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.7
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.9
0.3
0.7
What
impact
do you think
the current
level of tourism
following
issues?
bScale: 1 = significantly
worsen;
2 = worsen
somewhat;
ence; 4 = improve
somewhat;
5 = significantly
improve.
SD = standard
deviation.
development
Impact
Variables
3 = not
make
has
on the
any
ditier-
As to the impact
of tourism
on young adults,
respondents
perceived that out migration of young family members was substan:
tially decreased
as a result of tourism development
(mean of 1.8).
Respondents
also felt that tourism was responsible
for the increased
economic independence
of young adults from the family (mean of
4.4), for increased travel of young adults to foreign countries (mean
of 4.5) and for the establishment
of new homes after marriage
(mean of 3.6). On the other hand, tourism was not perceived to have
any impact on the marriage of young family members (mean of 3.2).
This may be because marriage in such closed societies is still subject
to the strict patterns
of tradition,
a finding that was reported by
Kousis ( 1989) in the island of Mykonos.
The survey set out to investigate attitudes towards tourism employment. First, respondents were asked to express their opinions about
the desirability
of tourism-related
jobs in their community.
The
results indicated a very high degree of desirability
(mean = 4.7 on a
l-5 scale, where 1 = very undesirable
and 5 = very desirable)
for
tourism occupations. About 96% of the respondents said that tourism
jobs were desirable or very desirable. This result was of no surprise
once it was found that most respondents were employed in or associated with the tourism industry. Respondents
were then asked to
select their preferred
occupation
from a limited list of jobs that
5 I4
included
showed
frequently
would be
by school
(1 1.5%),
PEKCXIVED
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
one tourism
occupation
-hotel
receptionist.
The results
that
the tourism
occupation
was mentioned
the most
by respondents.
Ov:er 37% said that hotel receptionist
the most desirable
occupation
for them. This was followed
teacher
(2 1A%), government
officer (15.4%), ship mechanic
agricultural
laborer
(1 1.5%) and fisherman
(2.6%).
Socioeconomic
Characteristics
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
PIZAM
5 15
Bus.
Variables
Tourisms
presence
in the area
Difference
between
locals and tourists
Difference
between
Greek
& foreign
tourists
Volume
of tourists
in the area
Image
of the area
Employment
opportunities
Tax revenue
Personal
income
Standard
of living
Prices of goods and services
Attitude
towards
work
Courtesy
and hospitality
Mutual
confidence
and sincerity
Honesty
Moralit)
Sexual
permissiveness
Organized
crimes
Individual
crimes
Brawls
Drug addiction
Prostitution
Sexual
harassment
Gambling/illegal
games
Vandalism/damages
Employment
for women
Socioeconomic
position
of women
Womens
participation
in family decisions
Out migration
of young adults
Economic
independence
of young adults
Significant
travel of young adults
Marriage
of young adults
New home after marriage
Overall
opinion
about
tourism
in Samos
,Statistically
significant
Rel.
4.5
1.4
1.9
4.3
4.6
4.8
4.3
4.7
4.6
2.7
4.0
4.0
3.4
3.1
2.8
4.2
2.9
2.8
2.2
2.2
2.8
2.2
2.9
2.3
4.6
4.5
4.3
1.7
4.5
4.6
3.4
3.8
4.4
No Bus.
3.2
1.1
1.6
3.0
3.0
4.1
3.2
4.1
3.8
1.5
2.4
2.9
2.6
2.1
2.2
4.0
2.8
2.2
1.8
1.6
2.4
1.8
2.8
1.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
2.0
4.2
4.3
2.9
3.2
3.2
Rel.
l-Value
-6.8,
-2. I
-1.1
-6.4
-6.9
-6.1~
-5.2,
-4.3
-5.4,
-5.0
-6.2
-5.2,
-3.1
-3.6
-2.6
- .9
-1.0
-3.4
-1.9
-2.7
-2.3
-2.0
-1.2
-3.1
-5. 1
-5.5
-4.8
1.5
-1.8
-1.8
-1.9
-2.5
-5.7
at .05 or less.
These results together confirm the first part of the initial hypothesis and also confirm the findings of other studies that revealed the
same differences
in the perceptions of those who were and those who
were not economically
dependent on the tourism industry (Husbands
1989; Milman and Pizam 1988; Pizam 1978; Rothman
1978; Schluter
and Var 1988; Thomason et al 1979). A second attempt was made to
investigate
the possibility of any perceptual
differences
between the
self-employed and those employed by others. The results of the t-tests
did not show any significant differences
in attitudes towards tourism
and its impacts between the two groups. It seems that whether one
is self-employed
or employed by others makes no difference
as to
5I6
PERCEIVED
IMPACTS OF TOURISM
HARALAMBOPOULOS
Table
those
AND
PIZAM
517
3. Perceptual
Differences
between those Residents
Who
did not Have
Immediate
Family
Members
Tourism
Means
Impact
No Family
Members
Employed
in
Tourism
Variables
Tourisms
presence
in the area
Difference
between
locals and tourists
Difference
between
Greek
& foreign
tourists
Volume
of tourists
in the area
Image
of the area
Employment
opportunities
Tax revenue
Personal
income
Standard
of living
Prices of goods and services
Attitude
towards
work
Courtesy
and hospitality
Mutual
confidence
and sincerity
Honesty
Morality
Sexual
permissiveness
Organized
crimes
Individual
crimes
Brawls
Drug addiction
Prostitution
Sexual
harassment
Gambling/illegal
games
Vandalism/damages
Employment
for women
Socioeconomic
position
of women
Womens
participation
in family decisions
Out migration
of young adults
Economic
independence
of young adults
Significant
travel of young adults
Marriage
of young adults
New home after marriage
Overall
opinion
about
tourism
in Samos
,Statistically
significant
3.8
1.3
2.0
3.6
3.7
4.6
3.7
4.4
4.2
2.1
3.3
3.4
3.1
2.6
2.6
4.1
2.8
2.5
1.9
1.9
2.6
2.1
2.8
2.1
4.1
4.0
3.9
1.7
4.3
4.5
3.2
3.6
3.8
Family
Members
Employed
Tourism
4.2
1.3
1.7
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.1
4.6
4.5
2.5
3.6
3.8
3.2
3.0
2.7
4.2
2.9
2.7
2.2
2.1
2.8
2.1
2.9
2.2
4.5
4.5
4.2
1.9
4.4
4.5
3.2
3.6
4.2
in
t
-I .8,
.I9
1.2
-2.1
-2.2
-.34
-1.6
-1.1
-I .4
-1.4
-1.2
-1.5
-.26
-1.4
-.48
-.22
-.65
-1.4
-1.8
-1.3
-1.4
-.09
-.67
-.75
-1.8
-2.5
-1.G
-1.1
-.59
-.43
-.32
.24
-2.9
at .05 or less.
518
PERCEIVED
Table
4. One-Way
Analysis
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
with Different
Means
Impact
Variables
Tourisms
presence
Fulltimf
Iarttime
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
SNK
4.2
4.5
2.4
4.0
4.0
3.0
1.5
I .3
1.0
2.0
3.0
I.0
1>3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
n/s
Retired
Uncmp.
Stdn.
Housewife
Difference
between
locals and tourists
Difference
between
Greek
& foreign
tourists
Volume
of tourists
1.7
2.0
I.4
2.0
3.0
1.3
n/s
4.1
4.2
2.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
Image
4.1
4.6
2.0
-1.0
5.0
2.8
Employment
opportunities
4.7
4.8
3.6
4.5
5.0
4.1
Tax
4.0
4.4
2.6
4.0
5.0
2.8
6>3,
4>3
I >3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
4>3,
5>3
I >3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
l>3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
I >3,
I=-6
2~3,
2>6
I >3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
I >3,
2>3
2~6,
2>l
2>6
of the
area
revenue
Personal
income
4.7
4.7
3.6
4.5
4.0
4.0
Standard
of living
4.3
4.7
3.4
3.5
4.0
4.0
2.1
2.6
1.1
2.0
2.0
1.5
3.6
4.0
2.4
2.1)
3.0
2.0
Courtesy
3.7
3.7
3.0
4.5
4.0
2.7
and
hospitality
l>6,
I>3
2~6,
2> 3
1>6,
2>6
continued
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
519
PIZAM
Table Aontinued
Means
Fulltime
Parttime
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
SNK
2.8
3.5
2.8
33
3.0
2.7
n/s
2.7
3.1
1.6
4.0
3.0
2.0
Morality
Sexual
permissiveness
Organized
crimes
2.3
3.8
2.8
2.9
4.3
3.0
2.0
4.4
2.6
3.0
4.5
2.0
3.0
3.0
4.0
2.5
4.2
3.0
Individual
crimes
Brawls
Drug addiction
Prostitution
Sexual
harassment
Gambling/illegal
games
Vandalism/damages
Employment
for women
2.6
2.2
2.1
2.8
2.2
2.8
2.2
4.4
2.8
2.2
2.1
2.8
2.2
2.9
2.3
4.5
2.2
1.8
1.6
2.2
1.6
2.8
1.4
3.4
1.5
1.5
2,O
2.0
2.5
3.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
I.0
1.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
2.0
1.7
1.5
2.5
1.5
2.7
1.7
3.6
2>3,
2~6
2>l
n/s
2>4,
514
2>6
n/s
n/s
Socioeconomic
of women
4.4
4.5
3.4
3.0
4.0
3.6
Womens
participation
in family decisions
4.3
4.2
3.2
4.0
3.0
3.0
Out migration
of young
adults
Economic
independence
of young adults
Marrtage
of young adults
1.8
1.7
2.2
1.5
3.0
2.1
n/s
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.5
4.0
4.0
n/s
3.3
3.4
2.0
3.5
3.0
2.8
I >3,
3.6
4.1
3.8
4.4
3.0
2.4
3.0
4.5
3.0
5.0
3.3
3.0
Grand
3.3
Impact
Variables
Mutual
confidence
sincerity
Honesty
mean
and
position
3.5
Retired
2.5
Uncmp.
3.2
Stdn.
3.4
SNK = Student,
Newman,
Keuls range
test.
n/s = none of the groups
are significantly
different
than each other.
1~3 = indicates
that Full-time
group
(1) is statistically
significantly
Retired
group
(3).
Housrwifc
2.7
larger
n/s
n/s
n/s
2>3
I>3
I>6
2>3,
2>6
2>4
1>3,
1>6
2>3,
2~6
1>3,
1>6
2>3,
2~6
2>3
n/s
1>3,
I>6
2>3,
2>6
1~3; 1>6
2~3; 2~6
than
520
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
PIZAM
521
Impact
Years
Living
in the
Area
Variables
Tourisms
presence
in the
area
Difference
between
locals
and tourists
Difference
between
Greek
&
foreign
tourists
Volume
of tourists
in the
area
Image
of the area
Employment
opportunities
Tax revenue
Personal
income
Standard
of living
Prices of goods and services
Attitude
towards
work
Courtesy
and hospitality
Mutual
confidence
and
sincerity
Honesty
Morality
Sexual
permissiveness
Organized
crimes
Individual
crimes
Brawls
Drug addiction
Prostitution
Sexual
harassment
Gambling/illegal
games
Vandalism/damages
Employment
for women
Socioeconomic
position
of women
Womens
participation
in
family decisions
Out migration
of young
adults
Economic
independence
of
young adults
Significant
travel of young
adults
Marriage
of young adults
New home after marriage
Overall
opinion
about
tourism
in Samos
Shadowed
numbers
indicate
Age
*XI
LA@
i&3
-.07
-.oo
-.%O -2E3
No. of
Family
Members
Variables
under
18 in
Family
Education
;:%I
$4
4%
.09
.10
.oo
-.oo
.08
.03
$8
.14
.ll
Household
Income
-.03
.Ol
$8
&@
.15
.08
.03
-.ll
-.05
.09
.35
.06
-.13
-.14
&$
-$J1
_;#
-.07
-.09
.02
.12
-.lO
-.25
-.08
&%I
&+#
&$I
-.16
+;;
+!!a
287
-.05
.I7
.02
.oo
+$
.lO
.oo
-%iis
-.04
.ll
.ll
.07
-.12
.06
.I1
;IE&
.07
-.Ol
-.99
-.08
-.Ol
$38
.12
.oo
-.07
-.Ol
.ll
-.13
-.16
.23
,12
1:
-23
.07
.05
-.15
-.14
a4
.I1
.15
-.14
-.I2
-.Ol
.12
.08
.07
.2tj
-.oo
-.08
.08
-.05
.03
.08
.09
_;s
3I
.03
;$I
statistical
significance
-.07
.03
-.15
-.oo
%I
-.14
-.02
-.oo
.I0
.11
-.15
.08
.Ol
-.09
,zQ
.02
,ar
.14
.ll
-.Ol
.14
at .05 or less.
2%
*sic
.E#
-.08
.I1
.08
.Ol
-.03
-.27
.03
*z@
1:
522
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
PIZAM
523
thesis
at the
-This
University
article
is based on data collected
of Surrey,
United
Kingdom.
for the
first
authors
M.Sc
REFERENCES
Andronicou,
A.
1979 Tourism
in Cyprus. In Tourism:
Passport
to Development?
E. de Kadt, ed., pp.
237-264.
Oxford:
Oxford
University
Press.
Archer,
B. H.
1973 The Impact
of Domestic
Tourism.
Bangor
Occasional
Papers
in Economics,
No. 2. Cardiff: University
of Wales Press.
1978 Domestic
Tourism
as a Development
Factor.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
.5:126141.
Baud-Boy,
M., and F. I,awson
1977 Tourism
and Recreation
Development.
London: Architectural
Press.
Boissevain,
J.
1979 Impact
of Tourism
on a Dependent
Island: Gozo, Malta. Annals
of Tourism
Research
6:76-90.
Boissevain,
J., and S. P. Inglott
1979 Tourism
in Malta. In Tourism:
Passport
to Development?
E. de Kadt, cd., pp.
265-284.
Oxford:
Oxford
University
Press.
Bryden. J.
1973 Tourism
and Development:
A Case Study of the Commonwealth
Caribbean.
New York: Cambridge
University
Press.
Butler,
R. W.
1980 The
Concept
of a Tourist
Area
Cycle
of Evolution:
Implications
for
Management
of Resources.
Canadian
Geographer
24:5-12.
Cater,
B. A.
1987 Tourism
in the Least
Developed
Countries.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
14:202-226.
Chcsney-Lind,
M., and I. Y. Lind
1986 Visitors
as Victims:
Crimes
against
Tourists
in Hawaii.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
13:167-191.
Cohen,
E.
1982a Marginal
Paradises:
Bungalow
Tourism
on the Islands of Southern
Thailand.
Annals of Tourism
Research
9: 189-228.
1982b Thai Girls and Farang
Men: The Edge of Ambiguity.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
9:403428.
1984 The Sociology of Tourism:
Approaches,
Issues and Findings.
Annual
Review of
Sociology
10:373-92.
524
PERCEIVED
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
1988a Tourism
and AIDS in Thailand.
Annals of Tourism
Research
15:46711-86.
l988b Authenticity
and Commoditization
in Tourism.
Annals of Tourism
Research
15:371-387.
Dogan,
H. Z.
1989 Forms of Adiustment:
So&cultural
lmnacts
of Tourism.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
16:216236.
Dufield,
B. S., and J. Long
1981 Tourism
in the Highlands
and Islands
of Scotland:
Rewards
and Conflicts.
Annals of Tourism
Research
8:X)3-43 1.
Epilogi
1993 The Greek Economy,
1993: Short-Term
Progress
and l,ong-Term
Problems,
Greek Economic
and Demographic
Overview.
Epilogi (Greek Economic
Journal)
Special Annual
Edition
(March).
Evans, N.
1976 Tourism
and Cross-Cultural
Communication.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
3:189-198.
Forster, J.
1964 The
Sociological
Consequences
of Tourism.
International
Journal
of
Comparative
Sociology
.5:2 17-227.
Gampcr,
J. A.
1981 Tourism
in Austria:
A Cast
Studv of the Influence
of Tourism
on Ethnic
Relations.
Annals of Tourism
Research
8:432-446.
Getz, D.
1986 Tourism
and Population
Change:
Long-Term
Impacts
of Tourism
in the
and
Strathspcy
District
of the
Scottish
Highlands.
Scottish
Badenoch,
Geographical
Magazine
102: 113-126.
Georgas,
J.
1989 Changing
Family
Values
in Grrece:
From
Collectivism
to Individualism.
Journal
of Cross-Cultural
Psycholo&?
20:80-9 1.
Graburn,
N. Ii., ed.
1976 Ethnic
and Tourist
Arts:
Cultural
Expressions
from
the Fourth
World.
Berkeley:
University
of California
Press.
Graburn,
N. H.
1983 Tourism
and Prostitution.
Annals of Tourism
Research
10:437-442.
Greenwood,
D. J.
1972 Tourism
as an Agent of Changr:
A Spanish
Basque Case. Ethnology
11:80-91.
1989 Culture
by the Pound:
An Anthropological
Perspective
on Tourism
as
Cultural
Commoditization.
1)~ Hosts and Guests:
The Anthropology
of Tourism
(2nd ed.), V. L. Smith, ed., pp. 17 l-185. Philadelphia:
University
of Pennsylvania
Press.
Hofstedc,
G.
1980 Cultures
Consequences.
Beverly Hills: Sage.
Huit, G.
1989 The Sociocultural
Effects of Tourism
in Tunisia:
A Case Study of Sousse. In
? E. de Kadt, rd., pp. 285-304.
Oxford:
Oxford
Tourism:
Passport
to Development
University
Press.
Husbands,
W.
1989 Social Status
and Perception
of Tourism
in Zambia.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
16~237-253.
Jafari, J.
1974 The Socioeconomic
Costs of Tourism
to Developing
Countries.
Annals
of
Tourism
Research
1:227-2.59.
Jud, G. D.
1975 Tourism
and Crime in Mexico. Social Sricncc
Quarterly
56:324-330.
de Kadt, E.
1979 Tourism:
Passport
to Dcvclopment?
Oxford:
Oxford Univrrsity
Press.
King, B., A. Pizam, and A. Milman,
1993 The Social Impacts
of Tourism
on Nadi, Fiji as Perceived
by its Residents.
Annals of Tourism
Research
2O:G50-665.
Kousis, M.
1989 Tourism
and the Family in a Rural Cretan
Community.
Annals
of Tourism
Research
l6:3 18-332.
HARALAMBOPOULOS
AND
PIZAM
525
LaFlamme,
A. G.
1979 The Imoact of Tourism:
A Case from the Bahamas
Islands. Annals of Tourism
Research
6: 137-148.
Lin, V. L., and P. D. Loeb
1977 Tourism
and Crime
in Mexico:
Some Comments.
Social Science
Quarterly
58:164-167.
Loeb, L. D.
1989 Creating
Antiques
for Fun and Profit:
Encounters
Between
Iranian
Jewish
Merchants
and Touring
Coreligionists.
In Hosts
and Guests:
The Anthropology
of Tourism
(2nd ed.), V. L. Smith, ed., pp. 237-246.
Philadelphia:
University
of
Pennsylvania
Press.
Loukissas,
P. J.
1982 Tourisms
Regional
Develooment
Imoacts:
A Comoarative
Analvsis
of the
Greek Islands. Annals of Tourism
Research
9:523-541.
MacKean,
P. F.
1989 Toward
a Theoretical
Analvsis
of Tourism:
Economic
Dualism
and Cultural
Involution
in Bali. In Hosts and Guests:
The Anthropology
of Tourism
(2nd ed.),
V. I,. Smith, ed., pp. 119-168.
Philadelphiia:
University
of Pennsylvania
Press.
MatNaught,
T. J.
1982 Mass
Tourism
and
the Dilemmas
of Modernization
in Pacific
Island
Communities.
Annals of Tourism
Research
9:359-381.
Mathieson,
A., and G. Wall
1982 Tourism:
Economic,
Physical
and Social Impacts.
London:
Longman.
McElroy, J. L., and K. de Albuquerque
1986 The Tourism
Demonstration
Effect
in the Caribbean.
Journal
of Travel
Research
25:3 l-34.
McPheters,
L. R., and W. B. Strong
1974 Crime
as an Environmental
Externality
of Tourism:
Miami,
Florida.
Land
Economics
50:288-29
1.
Milman,
A., and A. Pizam
1988 The Social Impacts
of Tourism
in Central
Florida. Annals of Tourism
Research
15:191-204.
Ministry
of National
Economy
1992 Annual
Statistical
Report No 2. Athens:
Ministry
of National
Economy.
Monthly
Statistical
Bulletin
of Greece
1994 Monthly
Statistical
Bulletin
39(2):73-85.
Murphy,
P. E.
1985 Tourism:
A Community
Approach.
London:
Routledge.
National
Statistical
Service of Greece
1994 Statistical
Yearbook
of Greece
1990-1991.
Athens:
National
Statistical
Service
of Greece.
Nichols,
L. L.
1976 Tourism
and Crime. Annals of Tourism
Research
3:176181
Noronha,
R.
1979 Paradise
Revisited:
Tourism
in Bali. In Tourism:
Passport
to Development?
E.
de Kadt, ed., pp. 177-204.
Oxford:
Oxford
University
Press.
Pearce,
D. G.
1989 Tourist
Development
(2nd ed.). London:
Iongman.
Peck, J. G., and A. S. Lepie
1989 Tourism
and Development
in Three North Carolina
Coastal
Towns. In Hosts
and Guests: The Anthropology
of Tourism
(2nd ed.), V. I,. Smith, ed., pp. 203-222.
Philadelphia:
University
of Pennsylvania
Press.
Pizam. A.
1978 Tourisms
Impacts:
The Social
Costs
to the Destination
Community
as
Perceived
bv its Residents.
Iournal
of Travel Research
16(4):8-12.
1982 Tourism
and Crime:
1; there
a relationship?
Journal
of Travel
Research
20(3):7-l
1.
Pizam, A., and A. Milman
1984 The Social Impacts
of Tourism.
UNEP Industry
and Environment
7(1):1 I-14.
Pizam, A., and J. Pokela
1985 The Perceived
Impacts
of Casino
Gambling
on a Community.
Annals
of
Tourism
Research
12: 147-156.
526
PERCEIVED
IMPACTS
OF TOURISM
Reynoso,
Y., A. Valle, and J. I. de Rrgt
1979 Growing
Pains: Planned
Tourism
Development
in lxtapa
- Zihvatanejo.
In
Tourism:
Passport
to Developmrnt?
E. de Kadt, cd., pp. 11 I-134. Oxford: Oxford
University
Press.
Rothman,
R. A.
1978 Residents
and Transients:
Community
Reaction
to Srasonal
Visitors. Journal
of Travel Research
16(3):8-13.
Schlutrr,
R., and T. Var
1988 Resident
Attitudes
Toward Tourism
in Argentina:
A Research
Note. Annals of
Tourism
Research
15:442-445.
Smaui, A.
1979 Tourism
and Employment
in Tunisia.
In Tourism:
Passport
to Development?
In E. de Kadt, ed., pp. 101-l 10. Oxford:
Oxford University
Press.
Stansfield,
C.
1978 Atlantic
City and the Resort
Cycle:
Background
to the Legalic.ation
of
Gambling.
Annals of Tourism
Rrscarch
5:238-2.5 1.
Stott, M.
1973 Economic
Transition
and the family in Mykonos.
The Greek Review of Social
Rrsearch
17: 122-133.
Thomason,
P., J. Id. Crompton,
and B. 1). Kamp
1979 A Study of the Attitudrs
of Impacted
Groups
Within
a Host Communit)
Toward
Prolonged
Stay Tourist
Visitors. Journal
of Travel Research
17(3):2-6.
Travis, A. S.
1984 Social and Cultural
Aspects
of Tourism.
UNEP Industry
and Environment
7( 1):22-24.
Triandis,
H. C., and V. Vassiliou
1972 A Comparative
Analysis
of Subjective
Culture.
In The Analysis
of Subjective
Culture,
H. C. Triandis,
cd., pp. 29%335.
New York: Wiley.
Triandis,
H. C., el al
1986 The Measurement
of I-tic Aspects
of Individualism
and Collectivism
Across
Cultures.
Australian
Journal
of lsycholo<gy 383237-267.
Tsartas,
P.
1989 The Social and Economic
Impacts
of Tourist
Development
in the Cycladic
Islands,
with Particular
Refercncc
to 10s and Serifos. Brtween
1950-85
(Greek
Text). Athens:
National
Centrc
of Social Research.
Turner,
i., and J. Ash
197.5 The Golden
Hordes:
International
Tourism
and the Plcasure
Periphrn;.
I,ondon:
Constable.
UNESCO
1976 The Effects of Tourism
on Sociocultural
Values. Annals of Tourism
Research
4:74-105.
Urbanowiz,
C. F.
1989 Tourism
in Tonga Revisited:
Continued
Tr.oublrd
Times? In Hosts and Guests:
The
Anthropology
of Tourism
(2nd
ed.), V. L. Smith,
cd., pp.
105-1 18.
Philadelphia:
University
of Pennsylvania
Press.
Vassiliou,
V., and G. Vassiliou
1973 The Implicative
Meaning
of the Greek Concept
of lhilotimo.
Journal
of CrossCultural
Psychology
4(3):32&341.
Williams,
T. A.
1979 Impact
of Domestic:
Tourism
in Host Population:
The Evolution
of a Model.
Tourist
Recreation
Research
4( 1): 15-21.
Wilson, D.
1979 The Earlv Effects
of Tourism
in the Seychelles.
Zri Tourism:
Passport
to
Development3
E. de Kadt, ed., pp. 205-236.
Oxford:
Oxford
University
Press.
Young, G.
1973 Tourism:
Blessing
or Blight? 1Iarmondsworth:
Penguin.
Submitted
4 February
1994
Resubmitted
23 October
1994
Accepted
1 December
1994
Refereed
anonymously
Coordinating
Editor: Jeremy
1:. Boisscvain