Department of Automobile Engineering

INTRODUCTION

Virtually nothing moves, rotates, rolls or flies without casting process.

Metal casting is one of the oldest methods.
Casting means pouring molten metal into a refractory mould with a cavity of the
shape to be made and allowing it to solidify.
After solidification the desired metal object is taken out from the refractory mould
either by breaking or by taking the mould apart.

The solidified object is called casting

This process is called founding
The mold into which metal is poured is of heat resistant materials normally
sand is used.
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PROS & CONS OF CASTING

PROS
Used to create small sections in
mould cavity and as such intricate
shape both internal and external.
Both Ferrous or non ferrous
materials can be casted
Tools required are very simple
and inexpensive
Ideal method for trial production
or production of a small lot.
Weight reduction can be achieved
Castings are cooled uniformly so
they are expected to have no
directional properties.
Castings can be done upto 200
tons

CONS
Dimensional accuracy and surface
finish achieved by sand casting is not
adequate to be a final product.
Sand casting is labour intensive to
some extents
In some materials it is often difficult
to remove defects arising out of the
moisture present in sand castings.

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CASTING TERMS

Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.

Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag lower molding flask, cope upper molding flask, cheek intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.

Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help
of pattern.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.

Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is
a mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in appropriate proportions.

Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of
the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
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Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.

Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten
metal is poured.

Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.

Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic force.

Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and

solidifies. Also known as feed head.

Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
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PATTERN

It is a replica of the object to be made by

casting process, with some modification .
A wooden or metal shape or model of real
component.
Addition of pattern allowances.
Provisions of core print.
Elimination of fine details, which cannot be
obtained by casting.
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FUNCTIONS OF PATTERN
A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of
making a casting.
A pattern may contain projections known as core prints
if the casting requires a core and need to be made
hollow.
Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal
in the mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth
surfaces reduce casting defects.
A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall
cost of the castings.
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PATTERN MATERIALS
Patterns may be constructed from the
following materials. Each material has its
own advantages, limitations, and field of
application. Some materials used for
making patterns are:

Wood
Metals
Alloys
Plastic
Plaster of Paris
Plastic and rubbers
Wax
Resins.

The pattern material should be:

Easily worked, shaped and joined

Light in weight
Strong, hard and durable
Resistant to wear and abrasion
Resistant to corrosion, and to
chemical reactions
Dimensionally stable and unaffected
by variations in temperature and
humidity
Available at low cost

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PATTERN ALLOWANCES

Shrinkage or contraction allowance

Draft or taper allowance
Machining or finish allowance
Distortion or camber allowance
Rapping allowance

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SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE
Material

Dimension

Shrinkage
allowance (inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron

Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 4 feet
over 4 feet

0.125
0.105
0.083

Cast Steel

Up to 2 feet
2 feet to 6 feet
over 6 feet

0.251
0.191
0.155

Aluminum

Up to 4 feet
4 feet to 6 feet
over 6 feet

0.155
0.143
0.125

Magnesium

Up to 4 feet
Over 4 feet

0.173
0.155

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Exercise 1
The casting shown is to be made in cast iron using a wooden pattern. Assuming only shrinkage
allowance, calculate the dimension of the pattern.

The shrinkage allowance for cast iron for size up to 2 feet is o.125 inch per feet
For dimension 18 inch, allowance = 18 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.1875 inch 0.2 inch
For dimension 14 inch, allowance = 14 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.146 inch 0.15 inch
For dimension 8 inch, allowance = 8 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0833 inch 0. 09 inch
For dimension 6 inch, allowance = 6 X 0.125 / 12 = 0.0625 inch 0. 07 inch

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DRAFT ALLOWANCES
Pattern material

Height of the
given surface
(inch)

Draft angle
(External
surface)

Draft angle
(Internal
surface)

Wood

1
1 to 2
2 to 4
4 to 8
8 to 32

3.00
1.50
1.00
0.75
0.50

3.00
2.50
1.50
1.00
1.00

Metal and plastic

1
1 to 2
2 to 4
4 to 8
8 to 32

1.50
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.50

3.00
2.00
1.00
1.00
0.75

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MACHINING ALLOWANCE
Metal

Dimension (inch)

Allowance (inch)

Cast iron

Up to 12
12 to 20
20 to 40

0.12
0.20
0.25

Cast steel

Up to 6
6 to 20
20 to 40

0.12
0.25
0.30

Non ferrous

Up to 8
8 to 12
12 to 40

0.09
0.12
0.16

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TYPES OF PATTERN

Single piece pattern

Split pattern
Match pattern
Gated pattern
Cope and drag pattern
Loose piece pattern
Sweep pattern
Follow pattern
Skelton pattern
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SINGLE PIECE PATTERN

These are inexpensive and the simplest type of

patterns.
They are made single piece.
Very small scale production or in prototype
development

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Single piece pattern

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SPLIT PATTERN

When the contour of the casting makes its

withdrawal from the mould difficult, or depth of
casting is too high, then the pattern is split into
two parts so one part is in drag and other in the
cope.
The two halves of the pattern should be aligned
properly by making use of dowel pins which are
fitted to the cope half. These dowel pins match
with the precisely made holes in the drag half of
the pattern and thus align the two halves properly.
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Split pattern

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GATED PATTERN

This is an improvement over the simple pattern

where the gating and runner system are
integral with the pattern.
To eliminated the hand cutting of the runners
and gates.

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Gated pattern

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MATCH PLATE PATTERN

To use this type of pattern in machine

moulding.
Here the cope and drag patterns along with the
gating and the riser are mounted on single
matching metal.

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Match plate pattern

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COPE AND DRAG PATTERN

Similar to split patterns

In addition to splitting the pattern, the cope
and drag halves of the pattern along with the
gating and riser are attached separately to
metal or wooden plates along with the
alignment pins.

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FOLLOW BOARD PATTERN

Some castings have certain portions which are

structurally weak. If those portion of the
pattern is not supported properly they are
likely to break under the force of ramming. In
this case a special type of pattern called follow
board pattern is adopted. A follow board is a
wooden board used to support a pattern during
moulding. It acts as a seat for the pattern

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Follow board pattern

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SWEEP PATTERN
Sweep pattern can be advantageously used for
preparing moulds of large symmetrical castings,
particularly of circular cross section. The equipment
consists of abase, suitably placed in the sand mass, a
vertical spindle and a wooden template called sweep.
The outer end of the sweep carries the contour
corresponding to the shape of the desired casting. The
sweep is rotated about the spindle to form the cavity
as shown in fig. Then the sweep and spindle are
removed leaving the base in the sand. The hole made
by the removal of spindle is patched up by filling the
sand.

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Sweep pattern

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SKELETON PATTERN

When the size of the casting is very large, but

easy to shape and only a few numbers are to
be made, it is not economical to make a large
solid pattern of that size. In such cases a
pattern consisting of wooden frame and strips
is made called skeleton pattern. It is filled with
moulding sand and rammed properly.

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LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

Certain single piece patterns are made to have

loose pieces in order to enable their easy
withdrawal from the mould. These pieces from
an integral part of the pattern during moulding.
After the mould is complete the pattern is
withdrawn leaving the pieces in the sand.
These pieces are later withdrawn separately
through the cavity formed by the pattern.

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FACTOR FOR SELECTING

PATTERN MATERIAL

Number of quantity required

Types of mould
Size of the component to made
Types of sand used
Require accuracy & surface finish

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PATTERN MATERIALS

Wood
Metal
Plastic
Plaster
Wax

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WOOD PATTERNS

These are used where the no. of castings to be

produced is small and pattern size is large.

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ADVANTAGES OF WOOD PATTERNS

Inexpensive
Easily available in large quantities
Easy to fabricate
Light in weight
They can be repaired easily
Easy to obtain good surface finish

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LIMITATIONS OF WOOD PATTERNS

Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling

Possess poor wear resistance
Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped
Cannot withstand rough handling
Life is very short

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METAL PATTERNS

These are employed where large no. of

castings have to be produced from same
patterns.

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ADVANTAGES OF METAL PATTERNS

Do not absorb moisture

More stronger
Possess much longer life
Do not wrap, retain their shape
Greater resistance to abrasion
Accurate and smooth surface finish
Good machine able cast
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LIMITATIONS OF METAL PATTERNS

Expensive
Require a lot of machining for accuracy
Not easily repaired
Ferrous patterns get rusted
Heavy weight , thus difficult to handle

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PLASTIC PATTERNS
Advantages:
Provides a smooth surface
Moisture resistant
Does not involve any appreciable change in size or
shape
Light weight
Good strength
Wear and corrosion resistance
Easy to make
Abrasion resistance
Good resistance to chemical attack
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LIMITATIONS OF PLASTIC PATTERNS

It may not work well when subject to

conditions of severe shock as in machine
moulding (jolting).

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PLASTER PATTERNS

Plaster may be made out of Plaster of Paris or

Gypsum cement.
Advantages:
It can be easily worked by using wood
working tools.
Intricate shapes can be cast without any
difficulty.
It has high compressive strength
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WAX PATTERNS

Advantages:
Provide very good surface finish.
Impart high accuracy to castings.
After being molded, the wax pattern is not taken
out of the mould like other patterns; rather the
mould is inverted and heated; the molten wax
comes out and/or is evaporated. Thus there is no
chance of the mould cavity getting damaged while
removing the pattern.

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GATING AND RISERS

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into
the mold cavity is called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system
refers to all passage ways through which molten metal passes to enter into
the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the
function of different channels which they perform.
Down gates or sprue
Cross gates or runners
Ingates or gates
The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down
gate or sprue and passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or
gates before entering into the mold cavity.
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GOALS OF GATING SYSTEM

The goals for the gating system are
To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into
the mold
To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the
metal starts to solidify
To avoid shrinkage
Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the
solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if occurs must
be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic
inclusions

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TYPES OF GATING SYSTEMS

The gating systems are of two types:
Pressurized gating system
Un-pressurized gating system
Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full
Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more
turbulence and chances of mold erosion
Un-Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full
Less turbulence
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RISER
Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to
compensate for shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts
solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts of the casting will have shrinkage
defects, either on the surface or internally.
Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers.
Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in
three stages.
during the liquid state
during the transformation from liquid to solid
during the solid state
First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating
system. For the second type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are
normally placed at that portion of the casting which is last to freeze. A riser
must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be able to
feed the casting during this time.
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FUNCTIONS OF RISERS
Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
Allow mold gases to escape
Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold
details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers
Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of
(volume / surface area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting.
However, when this condition does not meet the metal in the riser can be
kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in
the risers.
Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by
effectively calculating the feeding distance of the risers.
Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as
spherical risers, although considers as best, are difficult to cast. To
increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as
hemisphere.
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COREMAKING & MOULDING

In core making, cores are formed, (usually of

sand) that are placed into a mold cavity to
form the interior surface of the casting. Thus
the annul space between the mold-cavity
surface and the core is what finally becomes
the casting.
Molding is a process that consists of different
operations essential to develop a mold for
receiving molten metal
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