Seminararbeit

Proseminar Sozialpsychologie
Liebe, Freundschaft & Partnerschaft
Rka Artner 0908689, Julian Thiele 0846950, Stephanie Walter 0947013

TOWARD A PERSON X SITUATION MODEL OF SEXUAL RISK-TAKING BEHAVIORS:

Illuminating the Conditional Effects of Traits Across Sexual Situations and
Relationship Contexts

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Inhaltsverzeichnis
1. Introduction .................................................................................... 3
2. Study 1 ............................................................................................. 3
Introduction ....................................................................................... 3
Methods ........................................................................................ 7
Measures ....................................................................................... 8
Results ........................................................................................ 10
Discussion .................................................................................. 16
3. Study 2 .......................................................................................... 19
Introduction .................................................................................... 19
Methods ...................................................................................... 20
Measures ....................................................................................................... 21
Results ............................................................................................................ 21
Discussion .................................................................................................... 22

4. Study 3 .......................................................................................... 23
Introduction ..................................................................................... 23
Methods ..................................................................................... 25
Measures ....................................................................................................... 26
Results ............................................................................................................ 27
Discussion .................................................................................................... 29
In Context with Study 1 ........................................................................... 30
5. Final Conclusion ............................................................................... 32

6. Literature ........................................................................................... 33

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Introduction
The topic of sexual risk-taking behavior becomes more and more relevant nowadays in terms
of health related consequences. The number of HIV infected people has never been as high as
it is today and each year an additional 20 million are newly infected with sexual transmitted
diseases. Past studies made the effort to find out the reasons for sexual risky behavior in order
to come up with solutions to stop this trend. However the overemphasis on static personallevel causes like background and demographic factors of risky sexual behavior without
considering the dynamic situational and relationship factors made them fail to deliver the
expected results.

Study 1
Toward a Person x Situation Model of Sexual Risk Taking Behaviors
Well aware of these limitations the following study has been conducted in order to provide a
comprehensive test of the person-by-situation perspective (the belief that behavior is best
understood as an interaction between relevant aspects of the person and the situation) on risky
sexual behaviors with data from six different sexual events collected over 12 years from a
community sample of adolescents and young adults.
The sexual events were divided into two categories (whether the event was a first-time sexual
experience with a new partner and whether the partner was casual or committed). The
personal-level factors reflected traits representative of both the Big Five/five-factor model
(Costa & McCrea, 1985 cited by Cooper, 2010) and the interpersonal circumplex (Wiggins,
1979 cited by Cooper, 2010). At the end a range of risky behaviors that can either directly or
indirectly increase the risk of exposure to HIV was examined.
Personal-Level Factors and Risky Sexual Behaviors
As mentioned above past research on risky sexual behavior had a narrow focus on
interindividual differences in background and demographic factors. However such factors
appear to be only modestly predictive of risky sexual behaviors. Similar results have been
found while examining the trait effects of interindividual differences in personality in relation
to risky sexual behaviors. Two core dimensions of personality show the most consistent
patterns of effects: Conscientiousness (described by responsibility and self-control) and
Agreeableness (described by humility, trust and sympathy). On the one hand studies from
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Schmitt (2004) and Hoyle, Fejfar and Miller (2000) show the positive correlation between
sexual promiscuity and low Conscientiousness. (Cooper, 2010) Whereas on the other hand
Hoyle and colleagues reported a negative correlation between Agreeableness and the number
of partners or high risk encounters. Similar to that Schmitt obtained a negative correlation
between Agreeableness and sexual promiscuity. Results for other personality dimensions
such as Openness to Experience or Extraversion were rather inconsistent or weak compared to
the ones above.
Concluding that past research has indicated that individuals low in Conscientiousness and
Agreeableness engage in higher levels of risky sexual behaviors, whereas for other
dimensions of personality the findings were not as sufficient.
Relationship Context, Situation Type and Risky Sexual Behavior
As the relationship context is also playing an important role when it comes to risky sexual
behavior it is essential to know the definition. The study defines partners as either serious
and regular or occasional and casual. The sexual situations are defined in terms of the
presence versus the absence of prior sexual experience with the partner. As past research
suggests people are more likely to use condoms on first occasions of intercourse and on
occasions of intercourse with casual or occasional partners. (Misovich, Fisher & Fisher, 1997)
The reason why the condom use is higher with occasional partners or at first occasions is,
because the rate of condom use drops by about one half over the first weeks of a new sexual
relationship. (Fortenberry, Wanzhu, Harezlak, Katz & Orr, 2002)
Despite the fact that occasional partners and first occasion intercourses are associated with
more cautious behavior in terms of condom use, research shows that they are linked to greater
risk taking. Individuals with new or casual partners are more likely to drink in conjunction
with sex (Cooper &Orcutt, 1997), less likely to use highly effective non-coital forms of birth
control (Morrison, 1985) and less likely to discuss sexual risks and condom use before sex.
(Cleary, Barhmann, MacCormack & Herold, 2002)
Limitations of Past Research
In the past research about sexual risk taking behavior had a focus on only one or a few factors
in isolation. It is lacking the interaction and combination of all the factors which are
determining sexual risky behavior. There is hardly any research done about the possibility that
associations between personal-level factors and risky sexual behavior vary across relationship
contexts or types of sexual situations.
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Furthermore the majority of studies conducted in the past used global measures of risky
sexual behavior. This way the possibility of quantifying the between-persons and withinperson components of behavior and of separately examining their causes and correlates is not
given.
Another limitation could be the focus on some aspects of personality while others have been
ignored. The almost exclusive focus on factors such as Venturesomeness and Impulsivity
shifted the attention away from rather silent factors such as Agency and Communion. These
are two factors relevant for the better understanding of interpersonal behavior.
There was also the false impression that sexual risky behavior can only happen directly
through the absence of the use of condoms. However, the probability to be exposed to HIV
can also increase through indirect factors such as failing to discuss condom use.
Lastly the generalizability of the past studies can be questioned. They usually used out of
convenience college students or high-risk (i.e. drug users) patients. Is it possible to use the
findings to describe the general public?
The present study
The goal is to provide a comprehensive test of the Person x Situation interactionist
perspective on risky sexual behaviors with event-level data from a large community sample of
adolescents and young adults. The study assumes three factors to be influential on risky
sexual behavior.
-

Personality: The personality factor can either directly influence risky sexual behavior or
indirectly via the likelihood of seeking and being in a committed or serious relationship.

Relationship Context: The relationship context can also be seen as directly influential on
risky sexual behavior or as a factor moderating together with situational factors the
strength or nature of personality effects on risky sexual behavior.

Sexual situation: Situation factors can either directly or in an interaction with personality
and relationship context factors influence risky sexual behavior. Since the interactions are
symmetrical, personality can also be seen as moderating situational or context effects on
behavior.

There is less attention paid to background and demographic characteristics in this study.
However, it is important to mention that they are viewed as distal factors that either directly
or indirectly predict sexual risk taking.

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Hypothesis
Hypothesized Main Effects of Situation Type and Relationship Commitment
Due to the results of past studies first sexual experiences and experiences with casual partners
are expected to predict more alcohol use, a riskier partner profile and less risk discussion but
more condom use. Furthermore the factors situation type and relationship commitment should
independently predict risky sexual behavior.
Hypothesized Main Effects of Personality
The study has chosen five personality traits that are assumed to individually predict sexual
risk taking.
-

Communal orientation: This personality trait is highly developed in people who seek
proximity to their relations and care about others and their interests. Individuals
motivated by communal needs should seek out partners and circumstances conducive to
the attainment of intimacy and avoid behaviors such as condom use in order to not
convey the mistrust of ones partner. Surprisingly past studies failed to support this
hypothesis until now.

Agency: It is a controversial personality trait since on the one hand agentic individuals
are thought to be socially skilled and dominant and to have a positive focus on the self,
which in this context would predict that they are more motivated to engage in safer or
less risky behaviors. However, on the other hand they are more likely to drink and to
have more uncommitted sexual relations, which makes a straightforward prediction
impossible.

Negative Emotionality: Individuals prone to experience negative emotions should be

motivated to engage in risky behaviors to the extent that these behaviors alleviate
distress.

Impulsivity: Impulsivity is a core feature of low Conscientiousness and is defined as

acting hastily and without thought. Individuals who have impulsivity as a strong
personality trait should therefore be more likely to choose the risky alternative in order to
gain immediate benefit (e.g., having sex with a desirable partner, avoiding the hassle or
reduced pleasure of using a condom). It could be, because they do not consider possible
future costs or because they are unable to regulate their behavior.

Sexual Venturesomeness: Individuals related to this personality trait should have more
risky and less intimate partners, because of their stronger desire for sex and preference for
sexual novelty. Such individuals might also drink more prior to intercourse as a way to
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enhance or disinhibit their sexual experience. The prior risk discussion or the condom use
would interfere with excitement and pleasure and is therefore highly unlikely to happen.
Hypothesized Person x Situation Interactions Predicting Risky Sexual Behaviors
The effects of personality on sexual risk taking are hypothesized to be stronger on first sex
occasions and with more casual partners. The reason for this hypothesis is that individuals are
more likely to show their real personality traits in situations where there is pressure to
behave, but not clarified in what kind of way. People tend to rely on well-rehearsed and
familiar styles of behavior, which reflect their underlying personality. In contrast, sex
occasions with established partners are more likely to reflect patterns of shared dyadic scripts
that evolve over time as relational partners interact and intimacy develops than ones own
personality. Thus, the influence of ones personality on shared dyadic behaviors such as sex
would be expected to wane over time as the relationship becomes more established and
committed.
Method
Sample of Respondents
The present study includes data from the first three waves of a longitudinal study of
adolescents identified through a random-digit dial procedure, in 1989, in Buffalo, New York.
The participants were interviewed up to five times over a decade whereas the data from the
last two waves are not included.
In 1989, 2544 eligible adolescents, aged from 13 to 19 years, were interviewed for the first
time (T1)
The second interview was about six years later and the third one followed after another six
years.
A comparison of respondents and non respondents showed no differences in race or age, but
female adolescents and those with better educated parents were more likely to participate.
Although retention rates were generally excellent and there was little systematic race, SES
(socioeconomic status), or age bias, the final sample is likely to be more representative of
female than male participants due to their higher overall retention across waves.

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Sample of Event Reports

At each wave, respondents were asked a series of questions regarding the most recent time
they had had sex, followed by a parallel series of questions about the first time they had had
sex with that partner.
All of these reports involved consensual intercourse.
Each person provided about an average of 3.9 sexual event reports at each wave.
As the study shows more first sex occasions occurred at Wave 1 whereas a larger proportion
of all first-sex reports was provided at Wave 2. Subsequent-sex events were mainly reported
at Wave 3.
Interview Procedures
A structured face-to face interview was conducted by a professional trained interviewer who
was always matched on gender and 75% of the time on race. The interview lasted an average
of 2 hr and contained both interviewer- and self-administered portions.
At later waves the interview protocol was essentially identical with two exceptions.
First, both the interviewer- and self-administered portions of the interview were
computerized. Second, participants had moved out of the area and were therefore interviewed
by phone.
Measures
Control variables:
Gender, race, age of time of sex, and parental SES were used as control variables.
The parental SES was based on two standardized items; on the parental occupation status
(employed vs. not employed) and on education (highest year in school completed by either
parent).
Personality traits:
Nine measures were used to index the five individual difference constructs that were of
interest to the present study. Measures were assessed identically across waves.
1. Communal orientation.
Communal orientation was measured by a composite of the expressivity subscale from the
Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ; Spence, Helmreich & Stapp, 1974) and a measure of
need for intimacy (Bernstein, Hoffmann, Santiago, & Diebolt, 1989).
2. Agency.
Agency was assessed by the instrumentality subscale from the PAQ (Spence et al., 1974).
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3. Negative emotionality.
Negative emotionality was assessed by a composite of three subscales from the Brief
Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983): Depression, General Anxiety, and
Hostility.
4. Impulsivity.
Impulsivity was assessed by the seven items from the Conscientiousness scale of the NEO
Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1985).
5. Venturesomeness.
Venturesomeness was assessed by a composite of erotophilia from the ErotophiliaErotophobia scale (Fisher, Byrne, & White, 1983) and a measure of need for sex (Cooper et
al., 1998).
Erotophilia- erotophobia was conceptualized as a bipolar dimension assessing the valence
(from positive to negative) of emotional responses to a wide array of sexual stimuli.
Forming composite personality measures.
For analytic purposes, both wave-specific and cross-wave composites were created for each
of the five traits.
Event-level assessments of context variables.
Relationship context was assessed by a single item (Zelnick & Kantner, 1979) in which
respondents were asked to describe the nature of their relationship with their sex partner at the
time of intercourse on a 7-point scale ranging from 1(your spouse) to 7(someone you had just
met that same day or evening)
These results gave an index of the degree to which the relationship was casual or
uncommitted.
Event-Level risk measures.
Situation type was divided into subsequent sex occasion with a more established partner
and first sex occasion with a new partner.
Five behaviors were assessed for each sexual situation at all waves.
1.

Low relation commitment; was treated as an indicator of poor or risky partner choice
and as it describes the degree of relationship commitment it also provides a meaning
structure in which the sexual experience occurs and therefore might alter the
expression of ones personality.

2.

Alcohol use; was assessed by two items: alcohol or no alcohol consumption prior to
intercourse and, if so, how drunk or high the respondent was at the time of
intercourse.
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Partner risk; was assessed by six items asking the respondent about his or her partners
sexual history at the time of intercourse. Respondents were also asked weather their
partner was currently sexually involved with anyone else, as well as how many total
sex partners their partner had had at the time of sex.

4.

Prior risk discussion; was measured by discussing different topics (pregnancy, STD
risks, partners past sexual experiences, drug use, birth control) with the partner before
having sex.

5.

Condom and birth control use; was assessed by a single item. The respondents were
given a list of birth control options and were asked to check the ones they have used
when they had sex.

Overview of Data Analysis

To analyse the data a series of multilevel random coefficient (MRC) models was estimated
with the Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling (HLM) program (Version6;
Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, & Congdon, 2004).
Results
Preliminary Analyses: Effects of Background/ Demographic Characteristics
Results of preliminary multilevel analyses showed that age at time of sex was significantly
associated with all five risky behaviors.
The strongest effects were found for partner risk and risk discussion, with older respondents
reporting more in-depth risk discussion and riskier partners. Older individuals also had more
committed relationship partners, drank more prior to intercourse, and were less likely to use a
condom. Men show more alcohol use, more casual relationships and less risk discussion but
also more condom use and less risky partners.
Furthermore, Blacks reported, relative to White, more casual relationship context and more
risky partners but less alcohol use and more condom use. Lastly, individuals from higher SES
backgrounds reported more alcohol use and more risk discussion.
Parsing Variability in Risk-Taking Behaviors
An important contention of the present study is to focus on influences that vary across
situations and relationship contexts. This contention assumes that people vary in their
behaviors from situation to situation or from context to context.
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To show weather risky behaviors reflect between-person or within-person variability the total
variance was divided in each risky behavior into its between-person and within-person
components.
The withinperson variable was age at time of sex. Between-person variables were gender,
race and parental SES.
Results of these analyses revealed that 75% of the variance in the five risky behaviors was
due to within-person differences across situations, partners, and time.
Effects of Situation Type and Relationship Commitment on Situational risk Taking
The next series of analyses tested the effects of changing situational and relational contexts on
within-person variability in risk taking behaviors. An MRC model assessed that situation type
predicted relationship casualness. More precisely, individuals were, as expected, in casual
relationships more often on first than on subsequent sex occasions.
Results of that analyses revealed that both situation type and low relationship commitment
independently predicted three of the four risky behaviors whereas risk discussion was only
predicted by low relationship commitment: People drank more, had riskier partners, and were
more likely to use a condom on sex occasions with a new or casual partner whereas more risk
topics were discussed with serious partners than with casual partners.
Effects of Personality on Situational Risk Taking
A series of five multilevel models was estimated in which the effects of stable interindividual
differences in personality (cross-wave measure) were estimated, controlling for significant
background/demographic factors. In addition, the effects of within-person changes in
personality were estimated, controlling for age at the time of sex and situation type. The
results indicate that between-persons and within-person effects were on the whole quite
similar, though between-persons effect were both more numerous and stronger than withinperson effects were. Statistical inference in this data shows that stable between-persons
differences in personality still account for more of the overall variance in risk taking than
does within-person changes in personality.

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1.Results at the between-person level

Communal orientation

Communal individuals had less casual and less risky partners and discussed more risk
topics than did their noncommunal counterparts and were as likely to use a condom.

Drank less alcohol than their less communal counterparts.

Agency

Highly agentic individuals were more likely to use a condom than were their lowagency counterparts

They were also marginally more likely to drink short before sex.

Effects of interindividual differences in agency on risky behaviors were weak and

inconsistent.

Negative Emotionality

Was related to higher levels of drinking prior to intercourse and to both more casual
and more risky partners.

Between-persons differences were unrelated to risk discussion and condom use.

Impulsivity

Highly impulsive individuals take more risks across all five behaviors than do their
less-impulsive counterparts.

Venturesomeness

Sexually adventurous individuals engaged in higher levels of risk taking across all five
behaviors than did their less adventurous counterparts.

2.Results at the within-person level

Communal orientation
When people felt more communal they;

Had less casual and less risky partners and discussed more risk topics.

They were less likely to use a condom and

Drank less alcohol

Agency
Agency was unrelated at the within-person level.
Negative Emotionality
When people felt more negative affect the;
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Were more likely to have sex with casual or risky partner.

They were less likely to discuss risk topics.

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Impulsivity
People that experience heightened impulsivity are more likely to engage in risky sexual
behavior.
Venturesomeness
When people felt more adventurous they;

People were more likely to drink alcohol proximal to intercourse and to have sex with
casual and risky partners.

They were not any more or less likely to discuss risk topics or use a condom.

Moderation of Trait Effects on Sexual Risk Taking

Two series of analyses tested the moderating effects of situation type and relationship
commitment on the links between personality and risky sexual behaviors.
Person X Situation interactions
The results of the first analysis showed that;

The overall pattern of interactions revealed that the effects of all traits, except negative
emotionality, were moderated for at least two of the five risky behaviors.

Effects for both impulsivity and venturesomeness were stronger on the first than on
subsequent sex occasion.

Communal orientation predicting risk discussion and agency predicting having sex
with a more casual partner and risk discussion was more strongly on first than on
subsequent sex occasions.

Contrary to expectation, communal orientation predicted condom use more strongly

with established partners than with new partners.

Figure 2 in the paper of Cooper (2010) illustrates four interactions that conformed to withinperson change in behavior across situations.

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Those who were high in venturesomeness or impulsivity, or low in communality or agency,

showed the largest changes from first to subsequent sex occasions.
Those who were low on a risk-promotive trait (or high on a risk-protective one) showed less
change from first to subsequent sex occasions.
Figure 3 illustrates the two interactions predicting condom use.
Those who were high on communality showed steeper declines in condom use, which means
that highly communal individuals were substantially more likely to discontinue use with an
established partner than were their low-communal orientated counterparts.
Individuals low in impulsivity reported the highest levels of condom use on first sex
occasions, coupled with a steeper decline in use across occasions. In contrast, highly
impulsive individuals reported consistently lower levels of use across both occasions.
Person x Relationship Commitment interactions
Looking on Table 5 it reveals that four of the five trait effects (all but negative emotionality)
were moderated by relationship commitment. The simple slopes for significant interactions
show that six of eight interactions conformed to expectations with stronger personality effects
observed with casual than with serious partners. Moreover the most consistent pattern can be
observed for venturesomeness, where all four interactions are significant and conformed to
the predicted pattern.
Figure 4 is ideal to demonstrate high within-person changes. Especially individuals who were
low in communality or in agency or high in venturesomeness, showed the greatest change in
behavior across the relationship commitment spectrum. As demonstrated in Panels A and B,
the steeper change observed among those with riskier trait profiles was primarily due to the
high levels of risky behavior exhibited with casual partners. Panel C, however, reflects the
steeper change among individuals low in agency and their unusually low levels of alcohol use
with serious partners.
Figure 5 is representing the communality and impulsivity interactions predicting condom use.
As predicted in the hypothesis beforehand individuals with high communality revealed the
lowest rates of condom use (i.e., the riskiest behavior) with serious partners. They generally
showed a steeper decline in condom use across the relationship commitment spectrum than
did their low-communality counterparts, thus conformed to the predominant within-person
change pattern. Simultaneously Panel B in Figure 5 shows that individuals who were low in
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impulsivity relative to their highly impulsive counterparts showed steeper declines in condom
use over the relationship commitment spectrum, which means that they had higher rates of
condom use reported with casual partners.
A closer examination of the results leads to the conclusion that although the observed
interactions accounted for only small amounts of variance in risk-taking behaviors, these
interactions translated into four- to fivefold increases in the magnitude of between-persons
differences across situational and relationship contexts and into two- to threefold increases in
the magnitude of within-person change among individuals who were high versus low on the
relevant trait construct.
Testing the Independence and Generalizability of Personality Main Effects and
Interactions
The following four sets of analyses were conducted to assess the independence and robustness
of the primary findings reported in Tables 4 and 5.
-

Confounding of interaction effects with one another: In order to find out about significant
interaction effects between situation type and relationship commitment the statistical
independence of these two factors has been examined. Results show that (with one
exception predicting condom use) all trait risky behavior links were uniquely
moderated by one of the two contextual variables.

Confounding of interaction effects with age: A simple correlation examination of Trait x

Age interactions would be significant suggesting that age has an effect on traits.
However, when it was estimated in the presence of the corresponding situation or
relationship commitment interaction then the results turned out to be not significant
anymore. Thus, these analyses indicate that the moderation effects of situation and
relationship commitment cannot be explained by underlying differences in age.

Confounding by socially desirable responding: To ensure that the primary results in the
present study were not spurious due to the uncontrolled effects of socially desirable
responding, a serious of supplemental analyses was conducted. Results showed that all
personality main effects were replicated in both sing and significance even after control
analyses. Together these analyses indicate that the main and interactive effects of
personality on risky behaviors reported in Tables 4 and 5 cannot be attributed to the
shared bias of social desirability on self-reports of personality and risky behavior.

Generalizability across men and women: In order to make the study relevant to both men
and women two additional series of analyses tested the invariance of the primary effects
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across gender groups. In the first series Gender x Trait has been examined in addition to
the previously described main effects. Out of the 25 interactions tested, only two were
significant, showing that risk-protective effects of communal orientation on relationship
commitment and risk discussion were significantly stronger among men than women.
The second serious added Gender x Trait x Situation or Gender x Trait x Relationship
Commitment interactions to the interaction models summarized in Table 5. Out of the 45
interactions tested only three were significant. Interestingly the personality trait Agency
was involved in all the three. The results for the Agency trait showed stronger and more
varied effects on risky behaviors among women.
This leads to the conclusion that trait effects examined in the present study did not vary
significantly across men and women. The effects were completely invariant for negative
affectivity, impulsivity and venturesomeness whereas effects for the gender-linked traits
of agency and communion varied.
Discussion
The results of multilevel analyses support the following conclusion. First, risky sexual
behaviors exhibit reliable variability between persons, as well as reliable variability within a
person over time and across situational and relationship contexts. Important is that these
behaviors vary approximately three times as much within a person as they do between
persons. Second, more than one fourth of the variance in between-person differences in sexual
risk taking was explained by a relatively small number of personality traits (low communality,
high negative emotionality, high impulsivity, and high sexual venturesomeness). Similarly up
to 20% of the within-person variability in risky sexual behaviors was explained by situation
type and relationship commitment, independent of age. Nevertheless these effects were quite
modest in magnitude. Finally, approximately half of all traits that were associated with risky
behavior were moderated by situational or relational context. Therefore an interactionist
perspective on risky behavior is very important consider.
These findings are elaborated below.
Situation and Relationship Context Effects on Risky Sexual Behaviors
The present study revealed that sex occasions with new and casual partners are riskier than
are sex occasions with established or serious ones, though these effects werent uniform
across levels of traits. Moreover, the majority of within-person, across situation-type
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variability remained unexplained. It is likely that a more in-depth assessment of partner and
relationship commitment characteristics would lead to substantially improved prediction.
Trait Effects on Risky Sexual Behaviors
Finally, low levels of communality and high levels of negative emotionality, impulsivity, and
venturesomeness predispose individuals to engage in a range of risky sexual behaviors which
doesnt rule out the possibility that they are influenced by other contextual cues or even by
other intraindividual factors.
Person X Situation Effects on Sexual Risk-Taking Behaviors.
Risky sexual behavior, in most cases, is the unique combination of the person and the
situation that causes maximal risk. More precisely, risk was caused by a unique combination
of standing on the trait, the nature of situational demands, and the specific dynamics or
meaning of the behavior.
Implications for Theory and Research on Risky Sexual Behaviors
The study is relevant for the research on risky sexual behavior in terms of new theoretical and
methodological implications. It managed to confirm three important findings:
-

Meaningful within-person and between-person differences in risky sexual behavior can

and do coexist;

Risky behaviors vary substantially more within a person than they do on average between
persons;

Identifying and understanding reliable patterns of cross-situational variability in risky

sexual behavior;

Strengths and Limitations of the Present Study

Strengths:
-

The present study provides the most comprehensive test of the Person x Situation
interactionist perspective on risky sexual behavior conducted to date.

It enabled a stronger test of Person x Situation effects than earlier studies owing to the six
events conducted with up to three different partners.

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The present study included a sufficient number of units at both the between-persons and
within-person levels to provide statistically powerful tests of the key interaction
hypotheses.

The large, representative and diverse community sample also enables more broadly
generalizable conclusions than have been presented in the past.

Limitations:
-

The validity of retrospective, self-reports of behavior in specific sexual events can be an

issue since such reports are highly subjective.

The present constellation of personality factors fails to provide complete coverage of the
major dimensions of personality as identified by contemporary measures used in the Big
Five. (Costa & McCrae, 1985)

Many of the measures used in the present study also were not standard measures of
personality. Thus, future research with standardized measures of a more comprehensive
set of personality dimensions would help to establish the generalizability of the present
findings.

Conclusion
The study manages to give a better understanding of the factors that influence sexual
behavior. The goal set in the beginning about showing the importance of situational factors
and relationship commitment related to risky behavior was highly obtained. Furthermore it
showed a clear distinction between the importance of between-persons and within-person
differences underlining the constant interaction between all these factors. This leads to the
conclusion that individual differences in personality do play an important role in shaping
risky sexual behavior, however, the situation and relational context is just as important to
consider.
Hopefully in the future these results can be put into a model or a method that can help to
reduce risky sexual behavior.

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Study 2
Agentic and Communal Personality Traits: Relations to Attitudes Toward Sex and
Sexual Experiences
Catherine E. Mosher and Sharon Danoff-Burg
Catherine E. Mosher and Sharon Danoff-Burg designed a study to examine relations among
agentic and communal personality traits, attitudes toward sex and sexual experience. The
results of this study partially support Helgesons (1994) theoretical model that links
unmitigated agency to relational conflict and instability and links communion to emotional
bonding and commitment.
Helgeson (1994) developed a theoretical model of the relations among biological sex,
gender-linked personality traits, and physical and psychological health. A basic assumption of
this model is that men and women are socialized to adopt somewhat different personality
characteristics and social roles and that these differences act to enhance or undermine wellbeing. According to this model, men are more likely to develop personality traits related to
agency, which is defined as a focus on the self and autonomy. Conversely, women are more
likely to develop personality traits related to communion, which is defined as a focus on other
people and relationships.
From this theoretical perspective, both agency and communal are required for optimal
well-being, and when one exists in the absence of the other (i.e., unmitigated agency or
unmitigated communion), negative health and relational outcomes are likely to occur. In
particular, Helgeson (1994) predicted that unmitigated communion would be positively
related to psychological distress and that both unmitigated agency and unmitigated
communion would be negatively related to physical well-being and social adjustment.
Unmitigated communion involves focusing on others problems and needs to ones own
detriment. Conversely, unmitigated agency includes the tendency to be hostile, which has
been associated with interpersonal difficulties and physical illnesses.
Although links among agentic and communal characteristics and interpersonal outcomes have
been examind (e.g., Helgeson & Fritz, 1996; Saragovi et al., 1997), a paucity of research
exists on relations among these personality characteristics and sexual outcomes.
The present study of Mosher and Danoff-Burg is the first to examine the relationship between
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agentic and communal qualities and a variety of attitudes towards sex and sexual experiences.
Sociosexuality, an individual difference dimension assessed in the present research has been
defined as the degree to which one is willing to engage in uncommitted sexual relations
(Gangestad & Simpson, 1990; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991; Snyder, Simpson & Gangestad,
1986).
Catherine E. Mosher and Sharon Danoff-Burg hypothesized that:
1. Unmitigated agency would be positively associated with willingness to engage in
uncommitted sexual relations.
2. Unmitigated agency is correlated with sexual aggression and acceptance of
interpersonal violence.
3. Communion would be negatively correlated with sexual aggression and acceptance of
interpersonal violence.
4. Agency and unmitigated communion would be unrelated to these variables.
5. Communion would be associated wit sexual victimization.
6. Both qualities would correlate positively with current sexual satisfaction and
satisfaction with romantic relationships.
7. Unmitigated agency and unmitigated communion would be negatively associated with
current sexual satisfaction with romantic relationships.
Method
Participants
Tested were 202 undergraduate students (67 men and 135 women) at a state university in the
north-eastern United Sates.
Participants ranged in an age from17 to 23 years wit different racial/ethnic backgrounds.
Procedure
Participants anonymously completed questionnaires in mixed-sex groups that ranged in size
from 15 to 30 people.

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Measures
Personality Characteristics
Agency, communion, and unmitigated agency were measured by using the extended version
of the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (E-PAQ; Spence, Helmreich & Holahan, 19797)
Unmitigated communion was assessed with Helgesons Revised Unmitigated Communion
Scale (Helgeson & Fritz, 1999).
Sexual Aggression and Victimization
Various degrees of experience with sexual aggression and victimization were assessed by
using the 10-item Sexual Experience Survey (SES; Koss & Gidyez, 1985; Koss & Oros,
1982).
Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence
Participants completed the Acceptance of Interpersonal Violence Scale (Burt, 1980), which
assesses agreement with the notion that force and coercion are legitimate ways to gain
compliance, particularly in intimate and sexual relationships.
Sociosexuality
Willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations was measured by the Sociosexual
Orientation Inventory (SOI; Simpson & Gangestad, 1991).
Sexual Satisfaction
The Global Sexual Evaluation scale (GLOBE; Andersen & Jochimsen, 1985) was used to
assess current sexual satisfaction.
Results
In general women scored higher than men on communion and unmitigated communion,
whereas men scored higher than women on agency and unmitigated agency.
Men were more willing than woman to engage in uncommitted sexual relations. In addition,
women reported greater satisfaction than men with their current sex life and romantic
relationships.
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Relations of Agentic and Communal Qualities to Attitudes Toward Sex and Sexual
Experiences
As hypothesized
o The acceptance of interpersonal violence, with particular reference to intimate and
sexual relationship, was positively associated with unmitigated agency and unrelated
to agency and unmitigated communion among both men and women.
o The willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations was positively associated
with unmitigated agency and negatively associated with communion und unmitigated
communion among men.
Contrary to hypotheses
o Womens reports of sexual victimization were not significantly associated with
agentic and communal personality traits with the exception of a positive association
between unmitigated communion and reports of rape and attempted rape.
o Communion was unrelated to the acceptance of interpersonal violence.
o No significant relation between sociosexuality and agency was found.
o Among women, no associations were found between agentic and communal qualities
and sociosexuality.
o Other agentic and communal qualities were unrelated to these outcomes.
o Among men, no agentic and communal personality traits were associated with current
sexual satisfaction with romantic relationships.
Discussion
The willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relations among men was negatively
correlated with communion and unmitigated communion and unrelated to agency which
supports Helgesons (1994) theoretical prediction that both communion and unmitigated
communion would be associated with relational commitment, whereas agency would be
unrelated to interpersonal outcomes.

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Study 3
Drinking and Sexual Experience on First Dates Among Adolescents
M. Lynne Cooper, Holly K. Orcutt
Taking Steele's inhibitory conflict model as a framework, the present study investigated the
link between alcohol use and the probability that intercourse occurred on two different first
date occasions in a random sample of adolescents and young adults interviewed twice circa
four and a half years apart.
So the object of study refers to the likelihood, that drinking alcohol leads to more riskier
sexual behavior when intercourse occurs.
Inhibitory Conflict Model of Alcohol-Related Disinhibiton
According to Steele's model, alcohol's effects come into play primarily in high-conflict
situations where both instigatory and inhibitory pressures are strong and nearly equal. In such
cases, the alcohol-induced reduction in processing of inhibitory cues may result in more
extreme social behaviors.
Correlating to this study, the authors assume that males experience a greater inhibition
conflict about having intercourse on a first date than females.
Therefore they expect an increased probability of intercourse, if the male partner drinks.

Gender Differences in Conflict About Having Sex in a New Dating Relationship

The foregoing argument, that male adolescents should be more conflicted about having
intercourse on a first date rests on three premises.
Firstly named is the socially proscription about having sexual contact with a new dating
partner for both sexes, based on a survey by Roche & Ramsbey, 1993.
Nevertheless males always agreed more to sexual contact in dating relationships, regardless
which quality the relationship possessed.
Due to the previous sentence, women were more reserved to have sexual contact, which leads
us to the second premise.
According to Miller, Christopherson, & King, 1993, female adolescents are less likely to be
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sexually active at every age than their male counterparts. They also report fewer sexual
partners (Baldwin & Baldwin, 1988), and they hold less permissive attitudes toward sex in
general and toward casual sex in particular (Hendricks, Hendricks, Slapion-Foote, & Foote,
1985).
Additionally only females can get pregnant, which probably guides to psychological, social
and financial costs, restraining females from having sexual contact as much as males want to.
Third and finally, McCabe & Collin, 1984, report from a higher desire for sexual intimacy on
a first date than females. Appropriate to that Zelnik & Shah, 1983, claim that male
adolescents require less
commitment in a relationship than do females before engaging in sexual behavior.
Looking on the facts and in dependence on Steele's inhibitory conflict model, the authors
expect a more robust effect on sexual behavior through drinking by males, based on the
assumption, that females are unlikely to experience high levels of conflict about having sex
on a first date. Contrary to males, who have a high level of conflict, because of the
simultaneous presence of strong inhibiting and instigating cues.

Prior Research on Alcohol Use and Intercourse Probability

Harvey and Beckman (1986) found a significant negative relationship between alcohol and
intercourse probability. Leigh (1993) also found a negative relationship in a mixed-sexualpreference sample of humans in monogamous and non-monogamous relationships.
Both studies underline that there is an meaningful prediction about alcohols effect on sexual
behavior.
The Present Study
The hypothesis is predicated on the dual assumptions that males are more conflicted than
females about having sex on a first date, and that alcohol effects on sexual behavior are
greater among those who are highly conflicted about having sex on the date.
The authors conducted a cross-sectional analysis to test the independent and interactive
effects of male and female partner use on level of intimate sexual contact for each of two
dating occasions.
To test what happens when the male partner drinks on the first or the second or on neither or
both occasions, the controllers used a data from the subset of respondents who reported on
two different dating experiences and within-subjects analytic procedures.
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So the prediction refers to males who would report lower costs, higher benefits and greater
conflict about having sex on the date and that alcohol use would interact with conflict to
predict intercourse probability.
Method
Sample
The used data were obtained from a two-wave, longitudinal study of adolescents, interviewed
initially in 1989-1990 and again in 1994-1995. The samples at Time 1 and 2 (T1 and T2)
actually consisted of two different studies.
The first one was intentionally oversampling the minority youth and was graduated into race,
age, gender and parental socioeconomic status (SES).
The authors did not test/interview everybody on every variable to find out how they differ
from each other and they confined themselves to a target group from ages 13 to 19.
Their second part of the study must be understood as a subsample of adolescents who had
ever been on a date and had complete data on all variables. A definition of a date was also
given.
It turned out, that the members of the second group were significantly older and more
experienced with sex, drugs and alcohol.
T1 Interview Protocol and Procedures
30 Interviewers were instructed to interview the respondents on an average interview length
of two hours. Interviewers were always matched on gender and when possible on race as well.
The admission procedure was taken by interview-administered and self-administered portions.
The latter because of more intimate questions.
T2 Modifications to the Interview Protocol
The arising data at T2 was collected by 24 interviewers. First they used the interviewer- and
self-administrated portions to switch then to a computerized one. So it got more reliable for
complex skip patterns o.e. (see Rosenfeld, Booth-Kewley & Edwards, 1993, on the advantage
of computer administration).

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Measures
For the sake of convenience and also for the reason of clarity I address only the most
important measurements. Some points of the results are going to be deal with it and pick it up
anyway.
All analysis contained age, gender and race (black vs. not black) as covariates.
Religiosity, thrill and adventure seeking and finally impulsivity were assessed and controlled
in all analysis, testing the link between alcohol use and sexual behavior, as well as lifetime
drug and alcohol use, which was divided into a standardized composite of two items,
assessing usual quantity of consumption and frequency of drinking to intoxication.
Within the frame of tests, concerning alcohol use and sexual behavior on the date, the
respondents had to answer about their (male, female and both) drinking behavior on their first
date at T1 and slightly modified at T2.
Concerning the sexual behavior, it was asked if there was any occurred during the date and if
how much (0=no contact; 1=kissing; 2= sexual contact short of intercourse; 3=sexual
intercourse). Similar to the foregoing test, they modified T2, so that respondents were asked if
they have had sexual experiences other than kissing or making out on the date. Those who
had sex were asked whether they had vaginal or anal intercourse. The authors created a threelevel variable from that (0= no contact; 1=short of vaginal or anal intercourse; 2=vaginal or
anal intercourse).
Costs, benefits, and conflict about having sex on the date
The asked questions and its following measures only concerned T2. Through a six-point
scale, the composers wanted to find out if the respondents had problems to decide whether
they wanted to have intercourse on that occasion or not.
Furthermore they tried to proportion costs and benefits on a seven-point scale on a
background of promoting and inhibiting sexual behavior operationalized as perceived benefits
of having sex on that occasion, or as potential costs of having sex on that date.
It turned out, that benefits and costs were correlated with the problem to decide (conflict) and
with each other.
Measures used in supplemental analysis

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The raised questions here are whether drinking by the male partner is related to sexual
aggression or rather to coerce the female partner into having sex.
Subject of examination was the use of coercion and perceptions of shared responsibility.
At T1 verbal and physical threats regarding sexual activities were tested, which were
combined into one item at T2 (whether pressure, threats or force were used). Different
response options were given (no; yes, verbal pressure or threats only; yes, physical force only;
yes, verbal pressure or threats and physical force) and at T2 an additional question were asked
on a seven-point scale about whose idea it was to have sex.
Results
Gender Differences in Costs, Benefits, and Perceived Conflict Related to Having Intercourse
Through multivariate analysis of covariance(s) in which the set of costs, set of benefits and
perceived conflict measure served as dependent variables and gender as the dependent
variable, plus race and age as covariates, it was confirmed that the hypothesis of gender
difference in orientation to having sexual intercourse on a first date was significant.
Tests of the Gender-of-Drinker Hypothesis
Between-subjects analysis
Cooper and Orcutt used two multinominal logit models (LIMDEP/ version 6.0; Greene, 1992)
in which the 3-level (T1) or the 4-level (T2) sexual contact variable served as the dependent
measure and male and female use were the independent variables.
To exclude the effects of the use of other drugs a dichotomous variable indicating whether the
respondent used drugs at T1 and two dichotomous variables indicating whether the
respondent and his or her partner used drugs at T2, were also included as covariates.
Appropriate to the authors hypothesis only drinking by the male partner was related to an
increased probability of sexual contact, especially intercourse, on the first date.
Robustness across gender of reporter and across self-versus other report
Through the emerged problem that males overreport and females underreport their sexual
experiences, Cooper and Orcutt selected a logistic regression analysis for each dating
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occasion in which a dichotomous intercourse variable was regressed on self- and partner
alcohol use.
Gender X Self-use and Gender X Partner use interaction terms were then added to the
equation.
As expected by the authors, the differential effect for alcohol use emerged among both sexes,
whether it was described by his or her own drinking behavior or that of the partner's.
Within-subject analysis
Broadly similar to the between-subject analysis, potential confounders were the same, but an
additional covariate, namely female partner use, was included.
The respondents were divided into four groups to find out who drank when on what occasion.
As hypothesized a significant Group X Occasion interaction was obtained and the pattern of
covariate-adjusted means conformed almost perfectly to the expectation.
Moreover changes in the probability did not covary with female partner use. When the female
use was the grouping factor and the adjusted means did not conform to any meaningful
pattern.
Tests of Alcohol Use X Conflict Interactions
Using a logistic regression analysis in which the dichotomous intercourse variable was
regressed on gender, alcohol use, perceived conflict and all possible two- and three-way
interactions, the authors tested the hypothesis that alcohol effects on sexual behavior should
be greater among those who are more ambivalent or conflicted about having sex.
It turned out that intercourse probability was elevated among all high dose drinkers,
regardless of their conflict level, whereas corresponding elevations were found among low
drinkers only if they also were highly conflicted. Further neither quantity nor the Quantity X
Conflict interaction differed by gender.
Supplementary Analyses: Was Sexual Contact Consensual or Coerced?
The final analysis asked the question whether males who drank were more likely to coerce
their partners into having sex or if they took the consensual way.
Reported coercion at T1 as well as T2 was pretty low, which suggested that male alcohol use
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was associated with an increase in consensual rather than coerced sexual contact.

Discussion
The biggest part of the discussion dealt with the question which hypothesis of Steele's
inhibitory conflict model (Steele & Josephs, 1990), which was the framework of the whole
study, matched or do not matched to the conclusions of Cooper and Orcutt. Towards the end
the authors gave some impacts in which direction future research could go.
Consistent to Steele's model was the confirmed hypothesis, that sexual contact was more
probable in a new dating relationship when the male partner but not the female partner drinks.
In contrast to Steele's model, highly conflicted females who drank were less likely to report
having had intercourse than their nondrinking counterparts.
An alternative explantion to this statement was that males and females may experienced
qualitatively different kinds of conflict. The fact that alcohol might lead to behavioral
inhibtion under special conditions (sample of females in the Cooper & Orcutt study) is a
possibility acknowledged by Steele.
Among others (costs and benefits of a relationship), these findings led to the assumption that
male and female adolescents experienced qualitatively different types of response conflict, in
which cues favoring behavioral action dominated among males, whereas cues favoring
behavioral inhibition dominated among females.
Regarding the role of perceived conflict and alcohol dose and knowing that quantity was
positvely related to intercourse probability, which was predicted by Steele's model,
nevertheless quantity did not interact with perceived conflict in a theoretically manner. The
observerd patter was inconsistent with Steele's model in two ways: There was no dose effect
among high conflcit respondents and no conflict effect among high dose respondents. It
remained unclear how the lack of a conflict effect among high dose individuals can be
reconciled with an extant theory.
According to the authors, their study is the first one which assessed conflict directly and
demonstrated the predicted Conflict X Alcohol use interaction. Further the data can be
measured in a direct meaningful manner now and do not need to simply inferred anymore.
To put the matter in a nutshell, the study provides empirical support for the undocumented
assumption that drinking promotes sexual contact.
The discussed study emerges several questions, which could be dealt with in future research
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as for example that it remains unclear how the effects of male alcohol use were mediated at
the interpersonal level.
Also the question how conflict experienced by one couple member relates to that of his or her
partner is not clarified yet.
Therefore using data from both couple members as well as more refined measures of
interpersonal process is needed to adress more the interpersonal dynamics triggered when the
male couple drinks.
In conclusion the discussed study shows that alcohol effects on human sexual behavior are
complex and variable and that alcohol has different influences on both sexes connected with
the individual actors as well as with the specific situations there are in.

Contextual relation to M. Lynne Cooper's study:

Both studies are longitudinal studies, having the same target group of adolescents with the age
of 13 to 19 and almost the same survey date.
Alcohol use is one of the subitems of Cooper's study and stands, among others, in a direct
relation to risky sexual behaviors.
Sexual experience is also one of the subitems, coming up as sexual venturesomeness or as
first or subsequent sex variable based on different contexts.
It is important not to forget that the Cooper & Orcutt study is only interested in the first sex or
to be precise on the first date.
A great togetherness of both studies is that drinking and sexual experience on first dates and
risky sexual behaviors are both linked to the fact that their found out results are a complex
product of the person, the situation and the relationship context.
Although Cooper's study have three survey dates (T1, T2, T3) and the Cooper and Orcutt
study only two (T1, T2), at both studies the respondents were asked to report on one first and
on one subsequent occasion and also the report style switched from a interviewer- and
selfadministrated to a computerized one.
Appropriate to Cooper and Orcutt's study, Orcutt assumes that first sexual experiences and
experiences with casual partners should predict more alcohol use, a riskier partner profile and
less risk discussion but more condom use.
Orcutt's study divides five main effects of personaltity into: communal orientation, ageny,
negative emtionality, impulisivity and sexual venturesomeness. All of these effects are
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divided into the within-person effect and the between persons effect.
Concerning the actual study of Cooper and Orcutt i am going to list some of the meaningful
points:
- Communal orientation:
It was found out that communal individuals drank less alcohol than did their less communal
counterparts and likewise people drank less at waves (L1, L2) when they felt more communal
and they had less casual and risky partners.
- Ageny:
According to Jackson & Matthews, 1988; Markey & Markey, 2007 and Mosher & DanoffBurg, 2005, socially dominant individuals have been shown to drink more and to have more
promiscuous or uncommited sexual relations.
Due to this, highly agentic individuals were more likely to drink proximal to intercourse.
In contrast individuals low in agency reflected an unusually low level of alcohol use with
serious partners. Specifically, among both men and woman, agency was associated with
having a more intimate sex partner but only on first sex occasions. In addition, highly agentic
woman discussed significantly more risk topics with new sex partners, which could be one
reason why woman drink less on first dates, because a high level of confidence and verbal
skills are required to negotiate or insist on safe sex discussions. So agency was related to
greater alcohol use with serious partners and to more risky casual sex partners. All in all
highly agentic individuals may have both risk-protective and risk-promotive consequences
among woman, whereas these attributes, in situations in which they have an effect at all,
function in a risk-protective among men.
- Negative emotionality:
This effect was related to higher levels of drinking prior to intercourse and to both more
casual and more risky partners at the between-persons level. In consequence of high negative
emotionality comfort, relief or distraction by drinking or having sex with a desired but risky
partner could occur.
Regarding the within-person effect, people with negative affect were more likely to have sex
with a casual or risky partner.
- Impulsivity:
Between-persons effects indicated that highly impulsive individuals took more risks across all
five behaviors (alcohol use, casual relationship, partner risk, risk discussion, condom use),
equally to the within-preson effect.
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Highly impulsive individuals drank more prior to intercourse and had riskier sex partners
- Sexual venturesomeness
Those individuals were more likely to drink alcohol proximal to intercourse as a way to
enhance or disinhibit their sexual experience and to have sex with casual and risky partner at
waves they felt more adventurous.
Results of the Orcutt study revealed that older individuals drank more prior to intercourse,
with men reporting at L2 (between-persons effect) about more alcohol use, more casual
relationship contexts and less risk discussion but also more condom use and less risky
partners.
Epidemiologic data showed that alcohol use, sexual experience and the likelihood of moving
into a committed relationship increase during late adolescence and emerging adulthood
(Arnett, 2000; Schulenberg, Wadsworth, O'Malley, Bachmann & Johnston, 1996).
Besides men have more casual sex partners (Smith, 1992) and higher SES individuals drink
more (van Oers, Bongers, van de Goor & Garretsen, 1999).
Orcutt's study allegedly enabled a stronger test of Person X Situation effects than earlier
studies, which relied on data from two situations (serious partner vs. casual partner).
The arguments just addressed perfectly complement and fit in the study of Cooper & Orcutt.

Final Conclusion
The intensive engagement with the topic of risky sexual behavior showed us the potential that
lies within this research field. Several studies in the future can be conducted with similar
topics and still result in new findings. The more one reads about this topic the more complex
and multifarious it gets in terms of personality traits interactions with several other factors
such as the situational context the person is in. It is hard or rather almost impossible to view
one factor isolated from all the others since they are interrelated and influential. To
understand this complex structure in detail it would be necessary to conduct another study
with concrete models as results at the end. However, the work that has been done up until
now is already a great contribution to society and hopefully useable to limit risky sexual
behavior and the danger of a HIV infection.

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