For their existence, all living organisms essentially require the food.

Food is required to perform various life activities. It is required for

growth, development and body repair.
Sources of food:
The two major sources of food are the plants and the animals.
1. Plant Products: Cereals, pulses, vegetables, fruits, nuts,
oilseeds, condiments and spices.
2. Animal Products: Milk and milk products, meat, egg and
poultry, fish and other sea products.
With the increase in human population there is a growing demand for
food resources. It is necessary to increase production of both, plant
and animals. Earlier also to meet the demand of Indian population
our scientists put efforts to increase food production. This resulted
in a variety of revolutions which made India self-reliant.
These revolutions include green revolution (bumper production of
food grains), blue revolution (enhanced fish production), white
revolution (increased milk production) and yellow revolution
(increased oil production). But it is important that we should
increase in food production without degrading our environment and
disturbing the natural balance (soil erosion, silting of rivers, floods,
droughts, ozone depletion etc).
Hence, the need is develop an agricultural system that aims to meet
the needs of present generation without endangering the resources
of future generation and without causing degradation in the present
environment.
Currently, there is a need of adoption of technique sustainable
agriculture and organic farming.
Sustainable agriculture
Sustainability means keeping an effort going continuously. So,
sustainable agriculture means successful management of resources
for agriculture to satisfy the changing human needs, while

maintaining or enhancing the quality of environment and conserving

natural resources.
Sustainable agriculture can be achieved by adopting;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mixed farming
Mixed cropping
Crop rotation
Crop selection
Varietal improvement

Advantages of Sustainable agriculture:

1. It achieves the integration of natural biological cycles and
control.
2. It protects and renews soil fertility and the natural resource
base.
3. It provides an adequate and dependable form of income.
4. It promotes opportunity in family farming and farm
communities.
Organic Farming
It is practice of raising unpolluted crops through the use of manures,
bio fertilizers and bio pesticides with healthy cropping systems that
provide optimum nutrients to plants and keep the pests as well as
weeds under control.
In organic farming:

There is little or no use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and

herbicides. Therefore, there is no toxicity due to pollution of
crop plants, soil, water or air.

Bio fertilizers include the nitrogen fixing organism and mineral

solubilizing bacteria.

Bio pesticides are organism or their extracts which repel or kill

weeds, insects and other pests.

Healthy cropping includes mixed cropping, intercropping and

crop rotation.

Advantages of Organic farming:

1. It does not cause pollution of any component of our
environment.
2. Farm wastes are recycled.
3. Soil fertility is preserved.
Organic farming methods are studied in the field of agro ecology.
Crop production
Crops are plants grown on longer area for food or other use. Branch
of agriculture connected with rearing and management of crop plant
is called agronomy.
Successful crop production depends upon understanding of how
crops develop and grow, how various factors affect the growth and
development of crops and how each factor can be modified or
managed.
Types of crops Example
Wheat, rice, maize,
barley, oats etc.
Gram, green pea,
Pulses
pigeon pea etc.
Soyabean,
Oilseeds crops groundnut,
mustard etc.
Cereal crops

Fruits and
vegetable
crops
Spices

Source
carbohydrates
proteins
Oils, fats and fatty
acids

Vitamins,
minerals,
Orange, apple,
proteins,
mango, cabbage,
roughage,
potato, brinjal etc.
carbohydrate
and fats
Chilly, turmeric,
Used for

black pepper etc

Fodder crops

Oat, berseem

enhancing
palatability of
food
Green fodder to
the cattle

Crop Seasons:
Various crops require different climatic conditions, temperature and
photoperiod for their growth and completing their life cycle. In
northern India, there are following two distinct season crops:

Kharif season crops (summer season crops):

These crops are grown in rainy seasons, i.e., Kharif season from the
month of June to October. For example, paddy, soyabean, arhar,
maize, cotton and moong are kharif season crops.

Rabi season crops (winter crops):

These crops are grown in winter season, i.e., rabi season from
November to April. For example, wheat, gram, peas, mustard and
sugarcane are rabi season crops.
Improvement in Yields or Increase in food production
Following three scientific approaches are adopted in India to obtain
high yield s from our agriculture farms:
1. Crop variety improvement
2. Crop production management
3. Nutrient management
Crop variety improvement:
Varietal improvement means combining desirable characteristics in
one and multiplying it. Plant breeders select plant varieties with
desired character and cross them. The developed offsprings
combine the qualities of both plants. These varieties are multiplied
and supplied to farmers.

Need for higher crop yield

Continuous increase in human and animal population has

created a demand to increase food and fodder production.
Increased standard of living, health consciousness and
competition in market demand quality products.
To develop disease-resistance varieties.
To develop superior varieties in terms of quantity and quality of
yield.

The objectives of crop improvement may differ from crop o crop.

Crop variety improvement is done for the following factors:
Higher yield: Higher yield of crops can be brought about by
developing High Yielding Varieties (HYV) by cross-breeding and
hybridization.
Improved quality: Quality consideration of crop products varies from
crop to crop, e.g., baking quality in wheat, protein quality in pulses
etc.
Biotic and abiotic resistance: Under different situations crop suffers
due to biotic stresses (such as diseases, insects) and abiotic
stresses (such as drought, salinity, heat, cold). If we develop crop
varieties which are resistant to these stresses, then we can improve
significantly the crop production.
Changes in maturity duration: In some of the short duration crops,
early maturing varieties can make the crop fit into double and
multiple cropping system.
Desirable agronomic traits: If we develop those varieties of crops
which contain desired agronomic traits then it will help in setting
higher production.
Wider adaptability: If we develop those varieties of crops which have
wider adaptability, then it will help in stabilizing the crop production
under different environmental conditions.
Easy to acclimatize: The varieties should have the ability to adapt
themselves to new climatic conditions.

Crop production management:

India is an agriculture based country. Three fourth of the

population engaged in agriculture.
In India, as in many other agriculture based countries, farming
ranges from small to very large farms. Different farmers thus
have more or less land, money and access to information and
technologies. There is a correlation between higher inputs and
yields.
In other words, farmers purchasing capacity for inputs
decides the cropping system and production practices. These
include no cost production, low cost production and high
cost production practices.

Nutrient management:
Like other living organisms, plants also require inorganic elements
for building their structure and maintaining their metabolic process.
These inorganic elements are called nutrient. There are sixteen
nutrients which are essential for plants. Nutrients are supplied to
plants by air, water and soil.
Macronutrients: The essential elements, which are utilized by plants
relatively in large quantities, are called macronutrients.
Micronutrients: The essential elements, which are used by plants in
small quantities, are called micronutrients.
Source Nutrients

Type

Air

Macronutrient

Carbon (C), Oxygen (O)

Water Hydrogen (H)

Soil

Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P),

Potassium (K), Calcium (C),
Magnesium (Mg), Sulphur (S)
Iron (Fe), Maganese (Mn), Boron
(B), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu),
Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl)

Macronutrient
Macronutrient
Micronutrient

Deficiency of these nutrients affects physiological processes in

plants including reproduction, growth and susceptibility to diseases.
Manures and fertilizers:
The deficiency of plant nutrients and organic matter in the soil is
made up by adding manures and fertilizers to the soil of crop-fields.
Manures:

Manures are natural fertilizers. They are bulky sources of

organic matter which supply nutrients in small quantities but
organic matter in large quantities.
Manures are prepared by the decomposition of animal excreta
and plant waste. Manures include farmyard manure (FYM),
compost, green manure etc.

Functions or advantages of manure:

1. Manure helps in enriching soil with nutrients and organic
matter and increasing soil fertility.
2. The bulk of organic matter in manure helps in improving the soil
structure. This involves increasing the water holding capacity
in sandy soil.
3. Manures provide food to soil organisms (like bacteria, fungi,
etc.) which help in making nutrient available to plants.
4. In using manure we use biological waste material, which is
advantageous in protecting our environment from excessive
use of fertilizers.
5. Manures contain substances which act as stimulants for seed
germination and plant growth.

Types of manures:
Based on the kind of biological waste material used, the manures are
classified as:
1. Farmyard manure (FYM): It is the decomposed mixture of cattle
excreta (dung) and urine along with litter and leftover organic
matter such as roughage or fodder. The waste materials are

collected daily from the cattle shed and stored in a pit for
decomposition by the microorganisms (bacteria and fungi etc.).
FYM contains nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium.
2. Compost: It is a mixture of decomposed organic matter derived
from garbage, sewage, vegetable waste etc. the mixture is
decomposed in pits and the process is known as composting.
3. Vermicompost: The degradation of organic waste through the
consumption by the earthworms is called vermicomposting.
Earthworms used in vermicomposting are Dichogaster bolani
and Drawida willisi.
4. Green manure: It is prepared by cultivating fast growing green
manure crops like Sunhemp, Horse gram, Guar, Cow pea
before sowing of seeds. The fast growing crop is then ploughed
back under the soil. Green manure enriches the soil with
nitrogen, phosphorous as well as organic matter and provides
protection against erosion and leaching.
Fertilizers:
Fertilizers are commonly produced plant nutrients. Fertilizers supply
nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. They are used to ensure good
vegetative growth, giving rise to healthy plants.
Type of Fertilizers

Availability of
Example
nutrient

Nitrogenous
fertilizers

Nitrogen

Urea CO(NH2)2, Ammonium

sulphate (NH4)2SO4, Sodium
nitrate NaNO3

Phosphatic
fertilizers

Phosphorous

Single superphosphate,
Dicalcium phosphate

Potassic fertilizers Potassium

Potassium chloride KCl,

Potassium nitrate KNO3

Two or more
Nitrophosphate, Ammonium
Complex fertilizers nutrients (N,
phosphate
P2O5, K2O)

Fertilizers should be applied scientifically in terms of proper dose,

pre- and post-application precautions for their utilization. These
should not get washed away due to excessive irrigation.
Irrigation:
Most agriculture in India is rain-fed, that is, the success of crops in
most areas is dependent on timely monsoons and sufficient rainfall
spread through most of the growing season. The extra water
required by crops is met through irrigation.
The process of supplying water to crop plants through human efforts
by means of canal, wells, reservoirs, tube-wells etc., is known as
irrigation.
Irrigation systems or Sources of irrigation:
Our country is awarded with large water and land resources with
varied climatic conditions under such circumstances, various types
of irrigation systems have been adopted to supply water to the
agricultural lands. Some most commonly used irrigation systems are
the following:
1. Wells: these are constructed in the region where enough
ground water is available. They are of two types- Dug wells and
tube wells.
2. Dug wells: In the dug wells, the water is collected from water
bearing strata. From these wells water is lifted by bullockoperated devices or by pumps.
3. Tube wells: a tube well can tap water from the deeper strata.
From these wells, water is lifted by diesel or electricity run
pumps.
4. Tanks: tanks are small storage reservoirs, which catch and
store the runoff of smaller catchment areas.
5. Canal system: This is usually an elaborate and extensive
irrigation system. In this system canals receive water from on
or more reservoirs or from rivers. The main canal is divided into
branch canals having further distributaries to irrigate fields.
6. River lift system: It is more useful in those areas where canal
flow is insufficient or irregular due to inadequate water release.

In this system, water is directly drawn from the river for

supplementing irrigation.
7. Other sources are river valley system and Drip and sprinkle
system. Fresh initiatives for increasing the water available for
agriculture include rainwater harvesting and watershed
management.
o Rainwater harvesting: Rainwater is collected and
recycled into ground by digging canals.
o Watershed management: Small check dams are built up in
watershed areas to increase percolation of water into
ground, reduce flow of rainwater to prevent soil erosion.
Advantages of irrigation:
Irrigation has many advantages over reliance on natural water
supplies:
1. Water supplied by irrigation supplies hydrogen and oxygen
elements to the crop plants.
2. Irrigation of crops makes the soil moist, which is required for
the germination of seeds.
3. With irrigation, cultivation can be done round the year and
during the rainy season only.
4. Irrigation loosens the soil and thus helps in elongation and
growth of roots.
5. The supply of water by irrigation is regular and reliable, where
as rainfall is often seasonal or unpredictable.
6. Modern multipurpose dams not only provide water for irrigation
but also control floods and generate hydroelectric power.
Cropping pattern:
In order to get maximum benefits from the piece of land, different
pattern of growing crops are followed. These are:
1. Mixed cropping
2. Intercropping
3. Crop rotation
Mixed cropping:

The practice of cultivating two or more crops simultaneously on the

same piece of land is called mixed cropping. During mixed cropping,
if one crop faces adverse conditions or pathogen attack then the
other crop can be saved.
Objective of mixed cropping: The basic objective in mixed cropping
is to minimize the risk and insure against the crop failure due to
abnormal weather conditions.
Crop-combination used in mixed cropping: some important
combinations used by farmers during mixed cropping:
Wheat + Mustard
Groundnut + Sunflower
Wheat + Gram
Cotton + Moong bean
Barley + Chick pea
Criteria for the selection of crops during mixed cropping:

Crops should have different maturation time.

Both crops should have different water requirements.
The nutrient requirement of one crop should be lesser than the
other.
If one crop is deep rooted, the other has shallow roots.
If one crop is tall, other should be dwarf.

Advantages of mixed cropping:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Increase in yield
Optimum utilization of soil
Minimum pest infestation
No risk of crop failure
Farmers can harvest varieties of produce at the same time

Intercropping:

The practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously in a same

field in definite row pattern is called intercropping. The row pattern
may be in the ratio of 1:1, 1:2, and 1:3. It means after one row of main
crop, one, two, or three rows of intercrops can be grown.
Objective of intercropping: The basic objective in intercropping is to
increase the productivity per unit area.
Advantages of intercropping:
1. It helps to maintain the soil fertility.
2. It makes better use of resources.
3. It economizes space and time of cultivation of two or more
crops.
4. Each group can be harvested, threshed and marketed
separately.
5. Since the seeds of the two crops not mixed before sowing,
fertilizers can be placed as per the need of the crops.
Crop rotation:
The practice of growing different crops on the same piece of land in
a preplanned succession is called crop rotation.
Depending upon the duration, crop rotation is classified as:
One-year rotation: Rice-Wheat, Maize-Mustard
Two-year rotation: Maize-Mustard-Sugarcane-Fenugreek, MaizePotato-Sugarcane-Pea
Three-year rotation: Cotton-Sugarcane-Pea-Maize-Wheat, RiceWheat-Mung-Mustard-Sugarcane-Berseem
Selection of crops for rotation: Most commonly, legumes are
included in the crop rotation programme. They are used to increase
soil fertility.
Those crops which require high fertility level (e.g., wheat) may be
grown after growing legumes (e.g., pea). Thus, high input crops such
as sugarcane, potato, maize, wheat and rice may be grown before

low input required crops. Thus while making selection of crops for
crop rotation, the following points should be considered:

Availability of moisture through rain or irrigation.

Status of nutrients in the soil
Availability of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, human
power and machine power
Duration of crop-short or long
Marketing and processing facilities.

Advantages of crop rotation:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Fertility of soil maintained for longer period.

The chemical nature of soil is not altered.
It helps in weed and pest control
It saves a lot of nitrogen fertilizers.

Crop protection management:

Crops plants are infested by large number of weeds, insect pests
and diseases. If these weeds, insect pests and diseases are not
controlled at appropriate time, they can damage more than 50% of
the crop produced.
Weed and weed control: Weeds are unwanted plants in the cultivated
field. For example, Xanthium (Gokhroo), Amaranthus (Chaulai),
Parthenium (Gajar ghas), Chenopodium (Bathua), Avena sativa (Wild
oat).
How are weeds harmful to crops:

They compete for food, space and light. Weeds take up

nutrients and reduce the growth of the crop.
Weeds may produce toxic substances which may interfere with
crop growth.
During harvesting, weeds get mixed up with crop to lower down
its quality.
The weeds spread crop pests and diseases by acting as
alternate host to insects and microorganisms.

Methods of weed control: Weeds can be controlled by following

methods:
Mechanical methods: These include the following methods:
uprooting, weeding with towel or khurpi, hand hoeing (scrapping),
interculture, ploughing, burning and flooding.
Culture methods: They include proper bed preparation, timely
sowing of crops, intercropping and crop rotation.
Chemical methods: Destroying the weeds by spraying special
chemicals called weedicides like 2,4- D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic
acid), MCPA (2-methyl, 4-chlorophenoxy acetic acid), Atrazine and
Butachlor.
Biological methods: It involves the deliberate use of insects or some
other organisms which consume and specifically destroy the weed
plants. For example, cochineal insects are used to eradicate the
weeds called Opuntia (prickly pear).
Insect pests and their control: Insects which destroy or damage crop
plants are called insect pests. All crops are attacked by insect pests.
Insect pests attack the plants in three ways:
1. They cut the root, stem and leaves (Chewing insects).
2. They suck the cell sap from various parts of the plants (Sucking
insects).
3. They bore into the stem and fruits (Internal feeders).
Thus, they affect overall health of the crop and reduce yield.
Preventive measures of insect pests:

Clean cultivation
Optimum time of sowing the crops
Use of pest resistant varieties
Crop rotation and multiple cropping
Cultural practices

Control of insect pests:

By using pesticides: The chemical used to eliminate pests are called

pesticides. Pesticides include insecticides (for killing the insects),
weeedicides (for killing the weeds), rodenticides (for killing rats),
and fungicides (for killing the fungi).
By using natural insecticides: Like neem, nicotine, pyrethrum, etc.
Storage of grains
Most crops are harvested only once a year. Thus, they are available
in plenty during a selective time. For getting seasonal foods regularly
throughout the year, they are stored in safe storage. During storage,
grains and seeds are subjected to spoilage and wastage by various
means. This loss has been estimated to be 9.3% annually.
Factors affecting stored food:
There are two main factors responsible for losses during storage.
These are:
1. Biotic factors: The living organisms which influence the stored
grains are called biotic factors. These are insects, rodents
(e.g., house rat, house mouse, etc.), birds (e.g., sparrow,
bulbul, crow etc.), mites and bacteria.
2. Abiotic factors: The non-living environmental factors are called
abiotic factors. These are moisture contents, humidity of air,
improper temperature etc.
These factors causes degradation in quality, loss in weight, poor
germinability, discolouration of produce, poor marketability and
economic loss.
Preventive and control measures to be used before storage of food
grains:

Drying: The harvested food grains should be dried by spreading

them over plastic sheets or on cemented floor. All the sun dried
food grains are allowed to cool to the room temperature before
storing them.
Cleaning and maintenance of hygiene: The grains and other
agriculture produce should be properly cleaned before their

storage. They should be filled in new gunny bags before

keeping in godowns, warehouses or stores. The bags should be
absolutely dry and clean. They should be free from dirt,
webbing.
Safe and proper storage: Godown, warehouses and stores
should be properly cleaned, dries and repaired.
Fumigation: Those pesticides which can destroy insects by
forming toxic fumes are called fumigants and process of their
use is called fumigation. Fumigants may be solid, liquid or
gaseous. Examples:
1. Aluminium phosphate (solid fumigant)
2. Ethylene dichloride-carbon tetrachloride (EDCT) (liquid
fumigant)
3. Methyl bromide (gaseous fumigant)

Animal husbandry

The branch of agriculture which deals with the feeding, shelter, health
and breeding of domestic animals is called animal husbandry

Need for animal husbandry:

As the population and the living standard increase, the demand for
milk, eggs and meat also goes up. Hence, to bring a revolutionary
increase in the production of milk, eggs and meat to satisfy the
increasing demands of people for animal food, animal husbandry is
essential.

Note: Operation Flood is related to milk production. Silver revolution

is related to egg production.
Cattle Farming
Cattle farming is done for two purposes:
Dairy: for getting milk.
Draught: animals are used for agricultural tasks like tilling, irrigation
and carting.
On the above basis, the cattle are divided into two categories:
Milch breeds (dairy animals): These include the animals which are
kept for obtaining milk. Indian milch cattle belong to two different
species- Cows (Bos indicus) and Buffaloes (Bos bubalis).
Draught animals: These animals are used in agriculture and
transportation.
Breeds of
buffaloes

Breeds of cow
Indigenous
breeds

Exotic
breeds
Jersey,
Sahiwal, Gir, Brown
Red Sindhi, Swiss,
Tharparkar Holsteinfriesian

Crossbreeds
Murrah, Meshsana
Karan
and Surti
Swiss,
karan Fries,
Frieswal

Breeding for the desired quality:

Milk production depends, to some extent, on the duration of the

lactation period, meaning the period of milk production after
the birth of a calf. So, milk production can be increased by
increasing the lactation period.
The exotic breeds (e.g., Jersey, Brown Swiss) are selected for
long lactation periods, while local breeds (e.g., Red Sindhi,

Sahiwal) show excellent resistance to diseases. The two can be

cros- bred to get animals with both the desired qualities.
The breeding may be done by natural method or artificial
insemination, i.e., injecting the semen obtained from the
desired bull into the reproductive tract of the desired cow.
Some successful cross breeds on these lines are
(1)Karan Swiss: Cross-breed of Brown Swiss and Sahiwal.
(2)Karan Fries: Cross-breed of Holstein-Friesian and Sahiwal.

Farm Management Practices:

Grooming and Shelter for cattle:
Proper cleaning and shelter facilities for cows and buffaloes are
required for humane farming, for the health of the animals and for
the production of clean milk as well.

Animal require regular brushing to remove dirt and loose hair.

They should be sheltered under well-ventilated roofed sheds
that protect them from rain, heat and cold.
The floor of the cattle shed needs to be sloping so as to stay dry
and to facilitate cleaning.
The shelter should be spacious enough for animals to stay
comfortable and avoid overcrowding.
The shelter should have proper arrangement for clean drinking
water.

Food requirement of dairy animals: It is of two types:

1. Maintenance requirement: The food which helps in maintaining
normal metabolic activities of the body.
2. Milk producing requirement: The food which is required during
the lactation period.
The cattle feed consist of two component- roughage and
concentrate.
1. Roughage: It largely contains fibres such as green fodder,
silage, hay and legumes like berseem, cowpea.
2. Concentrates: It is low in fibres but contains relatively high
proteins and other nutrients. It includes cotton seeds, oilseeds,

oats, barley, gram and their by-products like wheat, beans and
molasses etc.
Cattle need balanced rations containing all nutrients in
proportionate amounts. Besides such nutritious food material,
certain feed additives containing micronutrients promote the health
and milk output of dairy animals.
Diseases of cattle:
The diseases of dairy animals are broadly classified into:
1. Diseases caused by parasites (external parasites are tick mite,
lice and internal parasites are worms)
2. Communicable (infectious) diseases caused by pathogens like
bacteria, viruses, fungi etc.
3. Non-communicable (non-infectious) diseases caused due to
deficiency of nutrients or malfunctioning of body organs.

Symptoms of sick animals:

The animal become inactive and remain isolated.

It stops eating food.
It moves slowly or limps.
The animal may pass loose dung and coloured urine.
The animal may run temperature and shiver.
The milk yield or working capacity of animal is reduced
drastically.

Prevention of cattle diseases:

The animal should be kept in spacious, cleaned and airy

shelter.
The animal should be given nutritious feed.
They should be vaccinated at regular intervals.
Proper disposal of wastes and isolation of sick animals is very
important.

Poultry Farming

Poultry is the rearing of domesticated fowl (chicken), ducks, geese,

turkey and some varieties of pigeon for their meat and eggs. The
specialized meat-producing poultry birds are called broilers while
egg-laying poultry birds are called layers.
The tremendous rise in the availability of poultry products is called
Silver Revolution.
Poultry breeds
Indigenous
breeds

Exotic breeds

Assel, Burosa,
Chattisgarh and
kadaknath

White leghorn,
Black Minorca,
Rhode island red
and Light Sussex

Variety improvement:
It is done by cross-breeding indigenous breeds with exotic breeds.
The improved varieties are developed for the following desirable
traits:

To improve the quality and quantity of chicks.

To develop breeds with low maintenance requirements.
To develop dwarf broiler parents for commercial chick
production.
To develop varieties which have tolerance to high temperature
(summer adaptation capacity)

Egg and broiler production:

Hens raised for egg production are called layers. Young birds are
vaccinated. Their food should be rich in vitamins, minerals and
macronutrients. They start laying eggs at the age of 5 months. The
average egg production period in commercial layers is 500 days.
Broilers are quick growing birds which are raised for 6-8 weeks.
They attain the weight of 700g to 1.5kg. Their food is rich in vitamin A
and K.

Shelter:

Shelter for poultry birds should be clean, well-illuminated and

well-ventilated.
Birds of different ages should be housed separately.
Temperature in their living place should be kept between 34C
to 38C.

Diseases and pests of poultry birds:

Poultry birds suffer from number of diseases caused by virus (Bird
flue disease), bacteria (Tuberculosis, Cholera diseases), fungi
(Aspergillosis), parasites as well as nutritional deficiencies.
Preventions:

By providing proper housing, cleanliness, sanitation and rich

diet.
By timely vaccination against infectious diseases.

Fish Production
Fish is a cheap source of animal protein for our food. Fish liver oil is
rich in vitamin A and D.
Basically fisheries are of two types:
1. Fin fishery includes capturing, management and exploitation of
cartilaginous and bony fishes.
2. Shell fishery includes capturing, management and exploitation
of crustaceans (prawns, crabs) and mollusks (oysters, mussels
etc.).
Depending up on the mode of obtaining fish, fisheries are of two
types:
1. Capture fishing: The fish is caught from water, both marine and
inland.
2. Culture fishing: it is cultivating, rearing and harvesting of fish.
Culture fishery is also called fish farming or pisciculture and
aquaculture.

Marine fisheries:

Our marine fishery resources include 7500kms coast line an

extensive deep sea.
Popular marine fish varieties include Pomphret, Mackerel,
Tuna, Sardines, Bombay Duck, Eel, Salmon and Hilsa.
Marine fishes are caught by:
(1) Traditional methods: These include fishing nets and gear
operated fishing vessels.
(2) Modern methods: These include use of ecosounders and
satellite to locate fish shoals.

Culture of marine fin fishes, shell fishes and sea weeds is called
mariculture.
Inland fisheries:

Inland fisheries deal with freshwater (like in rivers, canals,

reservoirs and lagoons) and brakish water fisheries.
Inland fishery is of two types- capture fishery and culture
fishery.

Composite fish culture:

Intensive fish farming can be done in composite fish culture

system. Both local and imported fish species are used in such
systems.

In such a system, a combination of five or six fish species is

used in a single fishpond. These species are selected so that
they do not compete for food among them having different
types of food habits.

As Catlas are surface feeders, Rohu feeds in the middle zone of

the pond, Mrigal and Common Carps are bottom feeders and
Grass Carps feed on the aquatic weeds.

Composite culture is highly advantageous as:

1. These fishes do not compete for food.

2. The food available in all the part of the pond is used.

3. Six different types of fishes are reared together.
4. It gives very high yield.
Increase in the production of fish, shellfish, prawns, crabs and
shrimps through culture fishery has brought a revolution. This
revolution in fish food is called Blue Revolution.
Bee-Keeping
The practice of keeping or rearing, caring and management of honey
bee on a large scale for obtaining honey and wax is called apiculture.
The place where bees are raised is called apiary. Besides honey,
other products of bee-keeping are bee wax, bee venom, propolis and
royal jelly.
Bee-keeping require low investment and generates additional
income, hence it is done by farmers along with agriculture.
Honey bee varieties used for bee-keeping:
Indigenous varieties
Apis cerana indica
(Indian bee)
Apis dorsata (Rock bee)
Apis florae (Little bee)

Exotic varieties
Apis mellifera (Italian
bee)
Apis adamsoni (South
African bee)

Colony of honey bee:

Honey bees are social, polymorphic insects which live in colonies in
nests (known as bee-hive). The colony of honey bee has bees
belonging to three castes.
1. Queen Bee: she is the supreme bee in a colony.
2. Drones: They are smaller and shorter than the queen bee.
3. Workers: They are the most active members of the colony.
Management for high yields of honey:

For the production of honey on the commercial basis, Italian variety

of honey bee, Apis mellifera is commonly used for honey production
throughout the country. It is preferred because:

It is gentle in nature.
It has high honey collection capacity.
It has more ability to protect itself from enemies.

The value or quality of honey depends upon the pasturage, or the

flowers available to the bees for nectar and pollen collection..
In addition to adequate quantity of pasturage, the kind of flowers
available will determine the taste of the honey.
So, the more of the abundance of flora and for longer duration, the
better will be the quantity and quality of honey.