Peru

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Coordinates: 10S 76W
Republic of Peru
Repblica del Per (Spanish)
Piruw Republika (Quechua)
Piruw Suyu (Aymara)
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto: "Firme y feliz por la unin" (Spanish)
"Firm and Happy for the Union"
Anthem: Himno Nacional del Per (Spanish)
National Anthem of Peru
MENU0:00
National seal:
Gran Sello de la Repblica del Per.svg
Gran Sello del Estado (Spanish)
Great Seal of the State
Capital
and largest city
Lima
122.6S 771.7W
Official languagesa
Spanish
Quechua
Aymara
Ethnic groups (2013[1])
45% Amerindian
37% Mestizo
15% White
2% others[1]
Demonym Peruvian
Government
Unitary presidential constitutional republic

President
Pedro Pablo Kuczynski

Prime Minister Fernando Zavala Lombardi

First Vice-President
Martn Vizcarra

Second Vice-President Mercedes Aroz

Legislature
Congress
Independence from the Kingdom of Spain

Declared
28 July 1821

Consolidated
9 December 1824

Recognized
14 August 1879
Area

Total 1,285,216 km2 (20th)

496,225 sq mi

Water (%)
0.41
Population

2015 estimate 31,151,643

2007 census
28,220,764

Density 23/km2
57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
2015 estimate

Total $403.322 billion[2]

Per capita
$12,638[2]

GDP (nominal) 2015 estimate

Total $217.607 billion[2]

Per capita
$6,819[2]
Gini (2013)
44.7[3]
medium
35th
HDI (2014)
Increase 0.734[4]
high 84th
Currency
Sol (PEN)
Time zone
PET (UTC5)
Date format
dd.mm.yyyy (CE)
Drives on the right
Calling code
+51
ISO 3166 code PE
Internet TLD
.pe
a.
Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co
official in the ar
eas where they predominate.
Peru (Listeni/pru/; Spanish: Per [peu]; Quechua: Piruw [p w];[5] Aymara: Piruw [p w
lly the Republic of Peru (Spanish: About this sound Repblica del Per (helpinfo)), i
s a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and
Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by C
hile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is an extremely biodiverse coun
try with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in
the west to the peaks of the Andes mountains vertically extending from the north
to the southeast of the country to the tropical Amazon Basin rainforest in the
east with the Amazon river.[6]
Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico ci
vilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the lar
gest state in Pre
Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in
the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, which i
ncluded most of its South American colonies. Ideas of political autonomy later s
pread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was for
mally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after procla
mation, Peru ensured its independence. After achieving independence, the country
remained in recession and kept a low military profile until an economic rise ba
sed on the extraction of raw and maritime materials struck the country, which en
ded shortly before the war of the Pacific. Subsequently, the country has undergo
ne changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone th
rough periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of st
ability and economic upswing.
Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a de
veloping country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level a
round 25.8 percent.[7] Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturin
g, agriculture and fishing.
The Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015,[8] is multiethnic, i
ncluding Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language i
s Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other nat
ive languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide divers
ity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.
Contents [hide]
1
Etymology
2
History
2.1
Prehistory and Pre
Columbian period
2.2
Conquest and Colonial period
2.3
Independence
2.4
19th century to present
3
Government and politics
3.1
Government
3.2
Foreign relations
3.3
Military and law enforcement
4
Regions

5
Geography
6
Economy and infrastructure
6.1
Water supply and sanitation
7
Demographics
7.1
Urbanization
7.2
Ethnic groups
7.3
Population genetics
7.4
Population
7.5
Language
7.6
Religion
8
Culture
9
See also
10
References
11
Bibliography
12
Further reading
13
External links
Etymology
The name of the country may be derived from Bir, the name of a local ruler who li
ved near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.[9] When his p
ossessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost
part of the New World yet known to Europeans.[10] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro
explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Bir or Per.[11]
An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de
la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Bir was th
at of a common Indian happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory miss
ion for governor Pedro Arias de vila, and went on to relate more instances of mis
understandings due to the lack of a common language.[12]
The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulacin de Toledo,
which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[13]
Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, w
hich became Republic of Peru after independence.
History
Main article: History of Peru
Prehistory and Pre
Columbian period
Main article: Ancient Peru
Sculpted Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of Chavn de Huant
ar
A Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated t
o approximately 9,000 BC.[14] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using
techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were
also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because th
ese societies had no notion of market or money.[15] The oldest known complex soc
iety in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pa
cific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC.[16] These early developments were follow
ed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andea
n regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1
000 to 200 BC[17] along what is now Peru's Pacific Coast was an example of early
pre
Incan culture. The Chavn culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was prob
ably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious centr
e in Chavin de Huantar.[18] After the decline of the Chavin culture around the b
eginning of the Christian millennium, a series of localized and specialized cult
ures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thou
sand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca
, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. The Mochica, who reached the
ir apogee in the first millennium AD, were renowned for their irrigation system
which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their
lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of

pre
Inca civilization; as loose confederation of cities scattered along the coa

st of northern Peru and southern Ecuador, the Chimu flourished from about 1150 t
o 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern
day Trujillo. In the hi
ghlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivi
a, and the Wari culture, near the present
day city of Ayacucho, developed large
urban settlements and wide
ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.[19]
The citadel of Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre
Columbian Peru
In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of
a century, formed the largest empire in pre
Columbian America with their capita
l in Cusco.[20] The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and r
elatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas. Gradually, as early as the thirteen
th century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion
was slow until about the middle of the fifteenth century, when the pace of conq
uest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the great emperor Pacha
cuti. Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui, the Incas came to
control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabita
nts under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to
govern his far
flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spir
itual authority as the God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cus
co.[21] From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to
peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America,
centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to Chile, betwee
n the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The offic
ial language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and
dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which c
an be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many loca
l forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred
Huacas, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti, the sun god and
imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama.[22] The In
cas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."[23]
Conquest and Colonial period
Main articles: Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire and Viceroyalty of Peru
Lima in the early 19th century, near the Monastery of San Francisco
The Viceroyalty of Peru in 1818
Main faade of the Cathedral of Lima and the Archbishop's palace
Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca became emperor when he defeated and executed his o
lder half
brother Huascar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, I
nca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pi
zarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarc
a. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaig
ns in the Spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary explo
ration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that too
k decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the regio
n known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which became known
as "The City of Kings". The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin
off campaign
s throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as
in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca res
istance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo
Inca State in Vilc
abamba in 1572.
The indigenous population dramatically collapsed principally due to epidemic dis
eases introduced by the Spanish.[24] Exploitation and socioeconomic change also
contributed to the collapse. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country
in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amer
indian forced labor as its primary workforce.[25] With the discovery of the grea
t silver and gold lodes at Potos (present
day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the vice
royalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bulli

on provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network tha
t extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[26] Because of lack of availabl
e work force, African slaves were added to the labor population. The expansion o
f a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic re
organization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South Amer
ica; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism, taking only a generat
ion to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced so
me of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusc
o. The church employed the Inquisition, making use of torture to ensure that new
ly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs. Peruvian Cat
holicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which
religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[27]
In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation
of the natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.
By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification gr
eatly diminished royal income.[28] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Re
forms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.[
29] The new laws provoked Tpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of whi
ch were suppressed.[30] As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards an
d their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many
of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Sp
anish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The
Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spai
n controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led t
o the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Gran
ada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the vicero
yalty of Peru; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the
viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bog
ot, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressi
ve decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.
Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire,
when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the ninet
eenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern
da
y countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had
constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru.[31] The conquest and colony brought a mix
of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the
Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted
, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvi
an culture.[27]
Independence
Main article: Peruvian War of Independence
The Battle of Ayacucho was decisive in ensuring Peruvian independence.
Map of the Republic of Peru in the mid 1820s
In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of inde
pendence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between e
mancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only
after the occupation by military campaigns of Jos de San Martn and Simn Bolvar.
The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe, the war of independen
ce in North America and native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate
to the development of emancipating ideas among the criollo population in South A
merica. However, the criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained l
oyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where au
tonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of the Spanish
government over its colonies.
After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, Jos de
San Martn created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days, a grea
t accomplishment in military history. Once in Chile he joined forces with Chilea
n army General Bernardo OHiggins and liberated the country in the battles of Chac

abuco and Maip in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in
the port of Paracas under the command of general Jose de San Martin and Thomas
Cochrane, who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October they to
ok control of the town of Pisco. San Martin settled in Huacho on 12 November, wh
ere he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north blockading the p
ort of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by
rebel forces under the command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the strong
hold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martins strategy to liberate
Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy t
hat Peru be granted independence, however all negotiations proved unsuccessful.
San Martn proclaiming the independence of Peru. Painting by Juan Lepiani
The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquin de la Pazuela named Jose de la Serna commander-in-c
hief of the loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion of San Ma
rtin. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela which wa
s recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power stru
ggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. In order to avoid a mili
tary confrontation San Martin met the newly appointed viceroy, Jose de la Serna,
and proposed to create a constitutional monarchy, a proposal that was turned do
wn. De la Serna abandoned the city and on 12 July 1821 San Martin occupied Lima
and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvia
n flag. Alto Peru (Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of S
imn Bolvar liberated it three years later. Jose de San Martin was declared Protect
or of Peru. Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivar
ian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Boli
via proved ephemeral.[32]
Simon Bolivar launched his campaign from the north liberating the Viceroyalty of
New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In J
uly 1822 Bolivar and San Martin gathered in the Guayaquil Conference. Bolivar wa
s left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martin retired from politics
after the first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress n
amed Bolivar dictator of Peru giving him the power to organize the military.
With the help of Antonio Jos de Sucre they defeated the larger Spanish army in th
e Battle of Junn on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 Decemb
er of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Alto Peru. Alto
Peru was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, e
ndemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability
.[33]
19th century to present
The Battle of Angamos, during the War of the Pacific
From the 1840s to the 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presid
ency of Ramn Castilla, through increased state revenues from guano exports.[34] H
owever, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily
indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.[35] Peru embarked on
a railroad-building program that helped but also bankrupted the country. In 187
9, Peru entered the War of the Pacific which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked
its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate t
he dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government
, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on 5 A
pril 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tar
apac and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region. Two outstanding
military leaders throughout the war were Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau. O
riginally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to b
e held years later, in order to self determine their national affiliation. Howev
er, Chile refused to apply the Treaty, and neither of the countries could determ
ine the statutory framework. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effo
rt of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social an
d economic reforms in order to recover from the damage of the war. Political sta
bility was achieved only in the early 1900s.

Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under th
e Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of A
ugusto B. Legua. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Legua, renewed politi
cal turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (A
PRA).[36] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and
the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final
peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima,
returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long
war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas department a
nd its capital Leticia. Later, in 1941, Peru became involved in the Ecuadorian-P
eruvian War, after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary betwe
en those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, Gen. Manuel A. Od
ria became president. Odras presidency was known as the Ochenio. Momentarily ple
asing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course
that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy all
owed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same
time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant
throughout his rgime. Odra was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, wide
spread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and i
nstall a military junta, led by Ricardo Prez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitiona
l government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belande T
erry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belande was recognized for his commitment
to the democratic process. In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velas
co Alvarado, staged a coup against Belande. Alvarados regime undertook radical r
eforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support. In
1975, General Francisco Morales Bermdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed r
eforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.
Areas where the Shining Path was active in Peru
Peru engaged in a brief successful conflict with Ecuador in the Paquisha War as
a result of territorial dispute between the two countries. After the country exp
erienced chronic inflation, the Peruvian currency, the sol, was replaced by the
Inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991, at wh
ich time the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles. The per ca
pita annual income of Peruvians fell to $720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru
s GDP dropped 20% at which national reserves were a negative $900 million. The e
conomic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly cont
ributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Lum
inoso (Shining Path) and MRTA, which caused great havoc throughout the country.
Concerned about the economy, the increasing terrorist threat from Sendero Lumino
so and MRTA, and allegations of official corruption, Alberto Fujimori assumed pr
esidency in 1990. Fujimori implemented drastic measures that caused inflation to
drop from 7,650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991. Faced with opposition to his reform e
fforts, Fujimori dissolved Congress in the auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1
992. He then revised the constitution; called new congressional elections; and i
mplemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous stat
e-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound managem
ent of the economy. Fujimoris administration was dogged by insurgent groups, mo
st notably the Sendero Luminoso, who carried out terrorist campaigns across the
country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents
and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was
marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the ins
urgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government parami
litary groups, and the bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Lumin
oso. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize the human rights violations
committed in the last years of violence.
Lima, 2009.
During early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War, but in
1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarca

ted the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned
from office and went into a self-imposed exile, avoiding prosecution for human
rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. Since
the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustain
ing economic growth.[37] In spite of human rights progress since the time of ins
urgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization
of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict.[38]
A caretaker government presided over by Valentn Paniagua took on the responsibili
ty of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejan
dro Toledo became president in 2001.
On 28 July 2006 former president Alan Garca became President of Peru after winnin
g the 2006 elections. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South Am
erican Nations.
On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected President.
Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Peru
Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.
Government
Main article: Government of Peru
Peru is a Presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party sys
tem. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and gove
rnment; he or she is elected for five years and cannot serve consecutive terms.[
39] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his or her advice, the
rest of the Council of Ministers.[40] Congress is unicameral with 130 members e
lected for five-year terms.[41] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or
the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and prom
ulgated by the President.[42] The judiciary is nominally independent,[43] though
political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history
and arguably continues today.[44]
The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all ci
tizens aged 18 to 70.[45] Congress is currently composed of Gana Per (47 seats),
Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Ca
mbio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertacin Parlamentaria (6
seats).[46]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Peru
The VI Summit of the Pacific Alliance: President of Peru, Ollanta Humala is firs
t from the right.
Peruvian foreign relations have historically been dominated by border conflicts
with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[
47] Recently, Peru disputed its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.
[48] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders
of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international or
ganizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations.
Javier Prez de Cullar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991. Former Pre
sident Fujimoris tainted re-election to a third term in June 2000 strained Perus
relations with the United States and with many Latin American and European coun
tries, but relations improved with the installation of an interim government in
November 2000 and the inauguration of Alejandro Toledo in July 2001 after free a
nd fair elections.
Peru is planning full integration into the Andean Free Trade Area. In addition,
Peru is a standing member of APEC and the World Trade Organization, and is an ac
tive participant in negotiations toward a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)
.
Military and law enforcement
Main article: Peruvian Armed Forces
The Peruvian Armed Forces are the military services of Peru, comprising independ
ent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard t

he independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. As a seco

ndary mission they participate in economic and social development as well as in
civil defense tasks.[49] Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by volu
ntary military service.[50] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of
Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief.
The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. A
lthough in fact it has a different organization and a wholly civil mission, its
training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force ha
ve produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a vir
tual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and
approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the M
inistry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru reports through the Minist
ry of Interior.
Regions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru
Peru Blue Administrative Base Map.png
About this image
Ama
zonasAncashApurmacArequipaAyacuchoCaja
marcaCuscoHunucoHuanca
velicaIcaJunnLa LibertadLamba
yequeLimaLima
ProvinceCallaoLoretoMadre de DiosMoqueguaPascoPiuraPunoTacnaTumbesSan
MartnUcayali
Desc-i.svg
Clickable map of the regions of Peru
Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an ele
cted government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.[
51] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment proje
cts, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[52] The province o
f Lima is administered by a city council.[53] The goal of devolving power to reg
ional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participatio
n. NGOs played an important role in the decentralization process and still influ
ence local politics.[54]
Regions
Amazonas
Ancash
Apurmac
Arequipa
Ayacucho
Cajamarca
Callao
Cuzco
Huancavelica
Hunuco
Ica
Junn
La Libertad
Lambayeque
Lima
Loreto
Madre de Dios
Moquegua
Pasco
Piura
Puno
San Martn
Tacna
Tumbes
Ucayali

Province
Lima
Geography
Main article: Geography of Peru
Man National Park, a biosphere reserve in the Peruvian Amazon, and Alpamayo, a mo
untain peak in the Huascarn National Park
Peru map of Kppen climate classification.
Peru covers 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders E
cuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast,
Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run p
arallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used t
o describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narr
ow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra
(highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as we
ll as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarn.[55] The
third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by th
e Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the countrys area i
s located within this region.[56]
Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of t
hree basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flow
ing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow
, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain int
o Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.[57] Perus longest ri
vers are the Ucayali, the Maran, the Putumayo, the Yavar, the Huallaga, the Urubamb
a, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.[58]
The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, an
d two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Nio) gives Peru a large diversity of climat
es. The coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high h
umidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[59] In the mountain reg
ion, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with alti
tude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[60] The Peruvian Amazon is characteriz
ed by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, wh
ich has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[61] Because of its varied geography
and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and anim
als reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic.[62]
Economy and infrastructure
Main article: Economy of Peru
Buildings in Limas financial district of San Isidro, and the Callao seaport, Pe
rus main export outlet
The economy of Peru is classified as upper middle income by the World Bank[63] a
nd is the 39th largest in the world.[64] Peru is, as of 2011, one of the worlds
fastest-growing economies owing to the economic boom experienced during the 200
0s.[65] It has a high Human Development Index of .752 based on 2011 data. Histor
ically, the countrys economic performance has been tied to exports, which provi
de hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[66] Although the
y have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitaria
n distribution of income have proven elusive.[67] According to 2010 data, 31.3%
of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that lives in extreme poverty.[6
8] Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased
in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014 it stands at 2.5%.[69] The
unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years, and as of 2012 stands at
3.6%.
Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 19681975 go
vernment of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agr
arian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an eco

nomic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These mea
sures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of
economic dependence on developed nations.[70]
Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the
liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism,
restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companie
s.[71] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a
slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[72]
Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufac
turing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[73] Recent econom
ic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, a
nd rising investment and consumption.[74] Trade is expected to increase further
after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed
on 12 April 2006.[75] Perus main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and
fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and C
hile.[76]
Water supply and sanitation
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Peru
The water and sanitation sector in Peru has made important advances in the last
two decades, including the increase of water coverage from 30% to 85% between 19
80 and 2010. Sanitation coverage has also increased from 9% to 37% from 1985 to
2010 in rural areas.[77] Advances have also been achieved concerning the disinfe
ction of drinking water and in sewage treatment. Nevertheless, many challenges r
emain, such as:
Insufficient service coverage;
Poor service quality which puts the populations health at risk;
Deficient sustainability of built systems;
Tariffs that do not cover the investment and operational costs, as well as the m
aintenance of services;
Institutional and financial weakness; and,
Excess of human resources, poorly qualified, and high staff turnover.
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Peru and Peruvian people
Urbanization
v t e
Largest cities or towns in Peru
Estimated 2014
Rank
Name
Region Pop.
Rank
Name
Region Pop.
Lima
Lima
Trujillo
Trujillo
1
Lima
Lima
9.735.587 (Metro pop.) [78]
11
Juliaca Puno
267.174 Arequipa
Arequipa
Chiclayo
Chiclayo
2
Trujillo
La Libertad
935.147(Metro pop.)
12
Ica
Ica
241.903
3
Arequipa
Arequipa
909.955(Metro pop.)
13
Cajamarc
a
Cajamarca
218.775
4
Chiclayo
Lambayeque
801.580(Metro pop.)
14
Pucallpa
Ucayali 211.631
5
Huancayo
Junn 501.384 15
Sullana Piura 199.606
6
Iquitos Loreto 432.476 16
Ayacucho
Ayacucho
177.420
7
Piura Piura 430.319 17
Chincha Alta
Ica
174.575
8
Cusco Cusco 420.137 18
Hunuco Hunuco 172.924
9
Chimbote
Ancash 367.850 19
Tarapoto
San Martn
141.053
10
Tacna Tacna 288.698 20
Puno
Puno
138.723
Ethnic groups

Limas main square, c. 1843. Throughout its history, Peruvian society has been d
iverse.
Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of different groups over
five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia b
efore Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; according to historian Noble David C
ook their population decreased from nearly 59 million in the 1520s to around 600,
000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.[79] Spaniards and Africans ar
rived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and wi
th indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been gradual immigration fr
om England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.[80] Chinese and Japanese arrived
in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major in
fluence in Peruvian society.[81]
Population genetics
A Peruvian family at the food market
According to a 2015 genealogical DNA testing, the average Peruvian is estimated
to be 79.1% Native American, 19.8% European, and 1.1% Sub-Saharan African overal
l.[82][not in citation given]
Population
With about 31.2 million inhabitants, Peru is the fifth most populous country in
South America.[8] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between
1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050
.[83] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[84] Major
cities include the Lima Metropolitan Area (home to over 9.8 million people), Ar
equipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all r
eported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[85] There are 15 uncon
tacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[86]
Language
Main article: Languages of Peru
Casa de Osambela, headquarters of the Academia Peruana de la Lengua (APL) in Lim
a
According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Perus official languages are Sp
anish and Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages in areas where they pre
dominate. Spanish is spoken by 84.1% of the population and Quechua by 13%, Aymar
a by 1.7% while other languages make up the remaining 1.2%.[64]
Spanish is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country,
which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians
who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically di
stinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the An
des and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin. Perus distinct g
eographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Sp
anish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse tr
aditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The indigenous populat
ions east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these group
s still adhere to traditional indigenous languages, while others have been almos
t completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing
and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quec
hua is spoken. In the Peruvian Amazon, numerous indigenous languages are spoken,
including Ashninka, Bora, and Aguaruna.[87]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Peru
In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselv
es as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical Protestant, 3.3% as other Protestant, Judai
sm, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and Jehovahs
Witness, and 2.9% as non-religious.[88] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007;
this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[89] Prim
ary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[64][90]
Amerindian religious traditions also play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvia

ns. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi, holy week and Christmas sometimes
blend with Amerindian traditions. Amerindian festivities which were celebrated s
ince pre-Columbian times are also widespread throughout the nation. Inti Raymi,
which is an old Inca festival, is still celebrated.
The majority of towns, cities and villages have their own official church or cat
hedral and patron saint.
Culture
Main article: Culture of Peru
Mario Vargas Llosa
Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century
Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[91] t
hough it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European
ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery,
textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained thes
e crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu
Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[9
2]
During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churche
s of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[93] Arts
stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20t
h century.[94] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by bot
h foreign and local art currents.[95]
Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizati
ons. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary express
ion included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbris
m and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the
works of Ricardo Palma.[96] The early 20th centurys Indigenismo movement was le
d by such writers as Ciro Alegra[97] and Jos Mara Arguedas.[98] Csar Vallejo wrote m
odernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is reco
gnized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading me
mber of the Latin American Boom.[99]
Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru
Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from
Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[100] Common dishes includ
e anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Perus varied climate allows the growth o
f diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[101] Perus diversity of ingredie
nts and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.[102]
Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.[103] In pre-Hispanic time
s, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya wer
e two common instruments.[104] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the
guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like
the charango.[105] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms
and the cajn, a percussion instrument.[106] Peruvian folk dances include marinera
, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.[107]
See also
Cerro de Pasco
Yanacocha
Toquepala mine
Cuajone mine
Quellaveco mine
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a msica en el Per. Lima: Industrial Grfica, 1985, pp. 215283.
Romero, Ral. "Andean Peru". In: John Schechter (ed.), Music in Latin American cul
ture: regional tradition. New York: Schirmer Books, 1999, pp. 383423.
Thorp, Rosemary and Geoffrey Bertram. Peru 18901977: growth and policy in an open
economy. New York: Columbia University Press, 1978, ISBN 0231034334
Further reading
Economy
(Spanish) Banco Central de Reserva. Cuadros Anuales Histricos.
(Spanish) Instituto Nacional de Estadstica e Informtica. Per: Perfil de la pobreza
por departamentos, 20042008. Lima: INEI, 2009.
Concha, Jaime. "Poetry, c. 19201950". In: Leslie Bethell (ed.), A cultural histor
y of Latin America. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, 1998, pp. 227260.
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