Bricks, Blocks, Walls and

Retaining Structures
Bricks and blocks
Bricks and blocks are used to create many garden features; their use is
wide and varied ranging from enclosures to formal pools, pergola piers to
raised beds. As a designer you will need to understand the materials
available to you, their qualities & restrictions, methods of construction,
and to start to understand the terminology and jargon that has
surrounded the use of bricks over the centuries. This will help you as a
landscape designer not only to specify the correct material for the type
of construction but be able to use the raw material to create moods and
harmony within the garden.
Bricks are among the most durable of all building materials - remnants of
brick buildings built by the Romans can still be seen today. The use and
manufacture of bricks predates the Romans by thousands of years; their
use is recorded in the ancient city of Babylon and the Bible mentions
several times the making of bricks.

Brick Size
The general size and proportion of bricks has varied little over the
centuries. The greatest variation seems to be in the depth of the brick,
which is mainly controlled by the density of clay used relating to their
overall weight, and the need to handle the brick with one hand without
causing excessive fatigue. The width is determined by the need for
comfortable handling and has remained fairly constant ranging between
100 125mm. However today there is a need for uniformity, so bricks are
usually made to a standard size, though this may vary from country to
country.
Due to the differences that may occur in manufacture, a nominal size of
225 x 112.5 x 75mm is often stated - this is also known as the co-ordinating
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size. This is a figure you will need to remember as it helps with the
construction of elements if the feature is designed to multiples of this size.

Types of Bricks
The majority of bricks are made of clay and because of the different
types of clay that exist in different areas a wide variation of brick colours
is available. In the past, due to lack of transport facilities for heavy
materials, houses and features in a certain region were made exclusively
of one coloured brick, for example London Stock bricks are a warm
golden cream. Today, bricks manufactured in certain regions still
maintain their characteristics but the availability of transport allows
national and international usage. When considering the use of a brick, as
with all materials, attention should be paid to the regional brick type so
that the scheme sits comfortably with its surroundings.
There are many categories of brick used in the building industry; however
as landscape designers we need not concern ourselves with many of
these. In a garden context the following bricks are of most interest:
Clay bricks
These are broadly divided into three groups:
1. Commons - made from ground dry clay with a minimal water
content, these bricks, also known as flettons, are mechanically dry
pressed four times into a mould and fired. Due to nature of their
manufacture common bricks do not have an attractive colour and
are not frost resistant when exposed to weather. Due to their low
cost per unit and despite these negative factors commons are still
used in the construction of landscape schemes, primarily where
they are not visible and are protected from the weather.
2. Facing bricks flettons that have a decorative face added are
known as sand faced commons, and are then classified as facing
bricks. These are generally used in house building and still need
protection from the weather to prevent damage from frost. Most
facing bricks used in landscape schemes are known as stocks.
Stock bricks are made from clay that has had water added, a
process called pugging. The pugged clay is then rolled in sand and
thrown into a mould called a stock from which the brick takes its
name. This gives the brick its distinctive sand textured face and
depending upon the force, the brick sides may be creased and
irregular. Stock bricks can be made mechanically or by hand.
Production of hand made bricks gives a character to each brick
but as hand throwing can only produce around 100 bricks per hour
as opposed to over 20,000 per hour by machine, this character
comes at a premium. Many stock bricks have coke, the fuel
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traditionally used in kilns and clamps to fire the bricks, added to the
clay mix. When the brick is fired the coke burns and gives the bricks
a desirable varied colour with black surface flecks - these are
called multi stocks.
3. Engineering bricks made from pugged clay engineering bricks
have a high compressive strength and are water resistant. The clay
is forced through an opening slightly larger than the finished size of
the brick to allow for shrinkage during drying. The emerging
continuous slab is cut into 75mm sections by wires attached to
frames. This method of extruding the clay produces dense, very
regular bricks that are very often perforated with three or more
holes. The clay used produces bright orange bricks so in decorative
schemes their use is restricted to hidden structural elements such as
bridge piers or used as a DPC in freestanding walls. Engineering
bricks are available in a dark blue and are called Staffordshire
Blues.
4. Sand-lime bricks - also known as silicate stock bricks, can these be
of use in contemporary schemes although the supply of this type of
brick can prove troublesome. Sand-lime bricks are made by
combining sand and lime at about 8:1 with a little water. The damp
mixture is moulded under great pressure exerted by steam, in a
large vessel called an autoclave. The result is a very regular brick
with high compressive strength.
5. Concrete bricks - These are very similar to sand-lime bricks and
manufactured in the same way replacing lime with cement. The
use of concrete bricks was popular in the UK in the seventies so
may be used by designers to create a harmony with houses of this
period.

Brickwork Terminology
As with many trades, especially ones that date back such a long way, a
whole vocabulary of terms and jargon has built up around bricklaying.
This could prove difficult for a designer when trying to communicate
ideas to contractors, so here are few of the more common terms:
1. Brick faces the sides of bricks of bricks and blocks are referred to as
faces.
2. Bedding face the largest face of the brick, also the horizontal joint is
known as the bedding joint.
3. Header face the shortest face of the brick.
4. Stretcher face the longest face of the brick.
5. Arris the edges of bricks are known as arrises. A more irregular arris
will give a visually softer and more characterful wall and will be a main
factor contributing to the perceived style.
6. Frog the indentation in the bedding face of a brick formed when a
brick is pressed or thrown into a mould. Takes its name from the raised
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section tin the base of the stock. Bricks may have one, rarely two, or
no frog depending on their method of manufacture. Where structural
strength is required bricks must be laid frog up, so all frog is filled with
mortar and compressive strength is maintained.
7. Bond the arrangement in which the bricks are laid.
8. Course each row of bricks in a bond is known as a course. Each
course is generally 75mm, which is based upon the nominal depth of
a brick - this is known as standard gauge.
9. Perpend the vertical joint in brickwork bond, short for perpendicular.
For structural strength, perpends should be directly above one
another on alternate courses.
10. Quoin the corner of a piece of brickwork. Square or rectangular
elements, such as raised beds, will have each quoin built up first.
Gauge and upright, known as plumb, will be set at the quoin. The
space between is then filled, allowing the bricklayer to fix lines and
corner blocks to each quoin and lay quickly to the line rather than
checking with a level.
11. Lead also set at the quoin, this is the stepping that ensures that the
perpends in the bond are in the correct position.
12. Queen closer there are numerous different parts or cut bricks that
each have their own term. A queen closer is a brick cut in half along
its length. Cut bricks are used to create the lead in some bonds.
13. Half bat a brick cut across its width is known as a bat. A brick cut in
half is a half bat, and there are also quarter and three-quarter bats.
14. Closure the term given to the last brick laid in a course, usually in the
centre. Well designed features should be planned to be multiples of
the nominal size of a brick so the closure is not a cut brick. If this needs
to be cut, it results in what is known as broken bond and could be an
aesthetic issue.
15. Mouses ears- an affectionate and humorous term given to the small
curves of mortar that appear on an inside corner when jointed!
This is just a selection ranging from the logical to the bizarre, however
understanding just a few could instantly elevate your standing when you
visit a site.

Brickwork Bonds
As we have seen this is the term given to the various recognised
arrangements of brickwork in walling.
Bonds are not only essential for a wall carrying any load as they prevent
structural failure, but can also be a decorative feature breaking up and
creating interest in what may otherwise be a drab length of walling. In
order to for a bond to be structurally strong the arrangement of the bricks
must distribute the load evenly over the entire length of the wall so each
unit carries a small proportion of the load. If, however, the load is not
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distributed but localised to certain portions of the wall then this will result
in settlement and possible failure of that section.
When laying bricks, a wall that is only as wide as the header face is
referred to as a half brick wall. Where the bond includes bricks that are
laid with the header face showing on the front face of the wall, the
resulting wall must be 215mm in depth and is referred to as a one brick
wall. This then becomes a method of stating the depth and size of
brickwork elements, eg. a two brick wall will be 440mm in depth.
There are an infinite number of bonding arrangements. Here are some of
the more common ones:
Stretcher Bond consists of bricks laid with stretchers only on every
course and with courses laid half bond to each other, ensuring
correct spacing of the perpend joints. Stretcher bond is a half brick
wall bond and is most often used as a facing in conjunction with a
concrete block inner skin.
Header Bond consists of bricks laid with header only on each
course. This is a one brick wall bond and is most often used to
create curved wall sections.
English Bond alternate courses of header and stretchers, with a
queen closer used on alternate courses to create the correct lead.
Flemish Bond alternate headers and stretchers on each course,
with the headers in one course being placed centrally over the
stretcher in the course below
When working in a garden you may notice that the boundary walls use
bonds not shown above, but variations on these bonds; these are known
not unsurprisingly as garden wall bonds. English Garden Wall bond may
have three or four courses to every course of headers. Flemish Garden
Wall Bond may have three or four stretchers to every header in each
course. These bonds are common in older walls and as garden walls are
usually viewed from both sides it is desirable for both faces to be flat. In
older bricks the length was sometimes inconsistent so to reduce the
impact visually, the number of headers is reduced. As garden walls are
not normally load bearing, other than their own weight, the added
strength of the standard bond was not required. Although modern bricks
are more consistent it may be desirable to specify such a bond for
aesthetic reasons or to create a harmony in a period garden.

Frost Resistance and Efflorescence

Bricks are categorised according to the degree of frost resistance they
exhibit. Porosity and type of clay used in the manufacture will influence
this. Bricks that are not frost resistant will absorb water which expands
when frozen, causing the face of the brick to blow, known as spalling.
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Frost resistance is denoted by F Frost Resistance, M Moderate

Resistance or O No Resistance.
A further categorisation of bricks is their soluble salt content. Mineral salts
are present in clay and these present themselves on the face of finished
brickwork as a white powder, known as efflorescence. Levels of salt will
vary depending on type of clay used and whether the clay has been
weathered or washed to remove these. Soluble salt content is denoted
by L - Low, or N - Normal.
The frost rating is combined with the salt content rating to give 6 possible
categories for all clay bricks: FL and FN, ML and MN, or OL and ON. For
most landscaping works, only bricks from class FL or FN are suitable,
although some ML/MN bricks may be suitable for brickwork more than
150mm below ground level.

Pointing and Jointing

Pointing and jointing are the terms given to the final process of finishing a
brick wall to give a neat appearance.
There are two ways this can be carried out and each has its merits and
debits. In the first case the wall can be pointed as work proceeds; this is
commonly referred to as jointing. This is generally the stronger and more
practical method. As jointing uses the laying mix for the face of the joint,
on larger pieces of brickwork any variation in the mix colour will show in
the joints. With pointing, the wall is completed, the joints raked out and
then the pointing mix applied. This generally gives a better appearance
and allows for consistency of colour. It also allows for a different mix, such
as a lime mortar or coloured mortar to be added, allowing matching of
existing masonry.
Like bonding, there are many finishes that can be applied to pointing.
The choice of finish will be dictated by the type of brick, existing
brickwork and the style of project.

Capping and Coping

Cappings and copings protect the wall from the action of rain - this may
be for aesthetic reasons, to prevent the build up of algae on the face of
the brickwork, or it maybe to protect the bricks themselves. Bricks such as
sand faced commons can be used externally, but if they are allowed to
become saturated then they will be prone to spalling.

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Cappings a protective course of water resistant bricks such as

engineering bricks that prevent water from percolating into the top
of the wall. These courses are generally laid with the brick on edge
and often in conjunction with a clay roof tile, known as a creasing,
that creates an overhang.
Copings - differ from cappings, in that they have an over hang that
prevents water from running down the face of the wall. Copings
are usually of a different material to the wall and give the
opportunity to add period detail or create harmony in the surface
materials.

Blocks
The use of blocks has increased over the years because of the
economics of purchasing and handling; one block taking the place of a
number of brick units. This is slightly offset by the weight and difficulty of
handling of each unit, but use of concrete blocks is very common on
landscape schemes.
Typical face sizes of blocks in the UK are 440 x 215mm with corresponding
coordinating dimensions of 450 x 225mm, these being exact multiples of
nominal brick size. Depth of blocks varies from 100mm to 215mm. There
are many types of blocks available

Aerated concrete blocks light and easy to handle, their

vulnerability to frost restricts their external use.
Breeze blocks blocks that use the waste from the firing of the
bricks as aggregate. Relatively inexpensive these are used to form
the rear skins of walls with a stretcher bond face.
Solid concrete blocks dense and heavy these have high
compressive strength. In landscape work these are generally used
as above.
Cellular concrete blocks- contain one or more formed voids that
reduce the weight of the block. The void can be filled with
concrete and reinforcing steel for additional lateral strength. These
blocks are used for swimming pools, formal ponds, retaining walls
and freestanding rendered walls.

In some regions terracotta blocks may be used and as technology

moves forward systems of using cellular polystyrene blocks known as
Insulating Concrete Formwork are becoming more commonplace.
Blocks are rarely used for face work although cellular bocks can be used
that have a paint quality face. Some concrete blocks have been
developed to have a face that resembles cropped stone. These are
usually manufactured from reconstituted stone, concrete that uses an
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aggregate of the stone it is trying to replicate, and are known as pitched

face blocks. These blocks are usually laid in a random bond with larger
blocks called jumpers, spanning several courses. Laid well these walls can
replicate a tooled natural stone wall and combine particularly well with
rendered walls in modern schemes.

Piers
For economic reasons boundary walls are usually built with thin walling, so
it is therefore necessary to strengthen them at intervals with piers or
buttresses. These piers prevent the wall from overturning with the great
forces exerted on the faces by wind and other external factors. For
maximum support these piers should be bonded into the wall and are
therefore known as attached piers.
In some period gardens the need for piers has been eliminated by the
construction of serpentine walls. These curves act to support the wall and
also create sheltered niches in which to grow more tender plants. These
types of walls are known as Crinkle Crankle walls and are quite often built
as half brick walls.
A boundary wall should be thickened at any point where a gate is to be
hung, so that it is strong enough to withstand the cantilevered forces of
the weight of the gate opening. One method of constructing gate piers
is to construct a two brick hollow pier and fill the centre with poured
concrete. For extra strength, the pier could be built around steel rods set
into the foundation and then filled with concrete. This method is also used
for freestanding walls made from cellular concrete blocks, essentially
creating an internal pier and allowing the face to be one continuous run:
this is commonly used for rendered walls.

Foundations
Even non load bearing walls within a garden will need foundations to
evenly distribute the weight of the structure, protect it from frost damage
and stabilise it against wind and rain. The local climate, soil type and the
gradient will all affect the type and size of foundations.

Trench fill generally used for freestanding garden walls or larger

structures. A trench is excavated with straight sides and filled a C20
concrete mix. The depth of trench is dependent upon many
factors but the width is usually twice that of the wall or structure to
be supported. The concrete will finish 150mm (two brick courses)
below ground level. These courses are often engineering bricks as
they act as a damp proof course and add strength.

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Shallow strip used for low-level garden element such as raised

beds. Constructed as above but as the name suggests not as
deep.
Raft a large pad of steel reinforced C20 concrete, often thicker in
depth at the edges, used where extra support is needed for walls.
Rafts are commonly used for small garden buildings such as
garages and are regularly used as bases for blockwork formal
pools.
Pad effectively an individual shallow strip foundation used for
individual elements of a structure such as pergola piers.

If in doubt, as with the spacing and the size of piers, the type and size of
foundations should be checked with a structural engineer prior to a
landscape designer specifying the method of construction.

Retaining Walls
Changes of level can present problems, as sloping ground is not always
suited to the proposed use of the land. This is especially true of gardens
where space is often limited and areas of level ground are necessary
and desirable. Useable space can be maximised by creative use of
steps, ramps and terracing but all need a retaining structure to hold back
the soil and form a level space, and in garden situations, retaining walls
are not only used for site modification, they can be used to form raised
beds, planters and pools.
A retaining wall differs from a freestanding wall by the fact that it not only
has to support its own weight but also has to withstand a lateral force as
the retained soil exerts pressure on the rear face of the wall. This pressure
varies due to the angle of repose; the angle from the horizon that a soil
remains stable at, without slumping. This angle is different for every soil
and is lessened by moisture content. Some sandy clays have a very low
angle of repose whereas most rock is very steep. The angle of surcharge;
the gradient of the area of land above the retaining wall, will also
increase the lateral force on the structure.
In garden situations the level changes required are often small and while
the designer should be aware of these factors and calculations they do
not come into play for low level retaining walls. However it is
recommended that for walls above 900mm or sites with extreme soil
conditions the advice of a structural engineer is sought prior to
specifying.

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Gravity Retaining Walls

Gravity walls depend on the weight of their mass (stone, concrete or
other heavy material) to resist pressures from behind and will often have
a slight batter, or slope, to improve stability by leaning back into the
retained soil. Short landscaping walls are often made from mortar-less
stone or segmental concrete units. Dry-stacked gravity walls are known
as flexible walls and quite often do not require a rigid foundation.

Low Level Brick Retaining Wall

In many schemes a low level wall of masonry is all that is required to
accommodate a change of level. For these applications a brick and
block wall will form a simple gravity retaining wall. This method of
construction is often used for low raised beds.
1. Foundations shallow strip cast in C:20 concrete.
2. Wall solid 100mm concrete or breeze blocks tied with walls ties at
900mm centres to a front skin of FL rated stock bricks laid stretcher
bond. To prevent percolation of water into the wall the rear skin of
the blocks should be painted with two coats of bitumen
compound.
3. Drainage water pressure build up on the rear of the wall can be
minimised by the inclusion of weep holes, open perpend joints in
the faces of the wall at 900mm centres. A granular back fill of
20mm shingle or similar stone will act as a simple land drain and will
carry water to the weep holes. This infill should then be topped with
geotextile to prevent contamination from soil.

Sleeper Retaining Wall

Sleepers (originally the wooden cross-beams used in the construction of
railway lines) are a simple and cost effective method of creating low
level gravity walls. Care should be taken on selecting reclaimed sleepers
as the tar content can leach out in hot weather, so many suppliers are
now offering new sleepers of oak or treated softwood.
1. Foundations shallow strip of C:7.5 concrete.
2. Wall reclaimed or new railway sleepers bedded onto the lean
concrete mix and held in place using 12mm steel reinforcing bar
cut into pins and driven though holes in the courses of sleepers
3. Drainage as no mortar is used drainage through the face of the
wall is easier, although on heavy soils a granular back fill of 20mm
shingle or similar can be used.

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As an alternative sleepers can be used in the vertical position as a piled

retaining wall, a process generally only used in civil engineering. Materials
used for piling must have two thirds of their height beneath the ground to
give the stability required.

Gabion Retaining Walls

Gabions are galvanised steel mesh cages filled with aggregate. For
many years these have been used by civil engineers for stabilising
embankments and river banks. They are now available in smaller, more
user-friendly units, tailored for the garden situation.
1. Foundations compacted and levelled sub grade or shallow strip
of C:7.5 concrete.
2. Wall gabion cages are wired together using galvanised wire or
spiral strips and filled with aggregate such as crushed limestone.
Where a more decorative appearance is required the cage can
be faced with decorative stone and the bulk of the cage filled
with limestone or similar. Gabion walls can be laid vertical or with a
batter.
3. Drainage due to the open nature of the structure drainage
through the wall is free, however the rear of the wall must be lined
with geotextile material to prevent soil from being carried into the
gabions and contaminating the aggregate.
Dry stone walls, sandbags, interlocking concrete blocks and timber or
concrete cribs all can be used as gravity retaining walls.

Cantilevered Retaining Walls

Cantilevered walls are made from a relatively thin stem of steelreinforced cast concrete or mortared masonry incorporating steel, often
in the shape of an inverted T. These walls cantilever loads to a large,
structural footing; converting horizontal pressures from behind the wall to
vertical pressures on the ground below. This type of wall uses much less
material than a traditional gravity wall as it is not relying on mass for its
structural properties.

Brick and Block Cantilevered Wall

These are used where the change of level is relatively large but a
masonry face is still desirable.

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1. Foundations over-sized shallow strip cast in C:20 concrete. The

section to the front of the wall projects further out to transfer the
lateral load; this is known as a toe, and where a high load is
present this is repeated to the rear and called a counterfort. During
casting of the foundation steel reinforcing bar is incorporated into
the foundation and projects up into the wall.
2. Wall 215mm cellular concrete blocks are passed over the steel
reinforcing bars and tied with walls ties at 900mm centres to a front
skin of FL rated stock bricks laid stretcher bond. The voids of the
cellular blocks are then filled with C20 concrete. As this method of
construction forms a 1 brick wall, care should be taken with
capping. Quite often these are of bull-nosed Staffordshire blue
engineering bricks.
3. Drainage due to the solid method of construction clay or pvc
drainage pipes must be constructed into the wall. These will link to
a pvc land drain encased in a granular back fill of 20mm shingle or
similar stone and topped with geotextile to prevent contamination
from soil.
In commercial schemes cantilevered walls are often cast from C30
concrete, forming the wall and foundation as one continuous unit.

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