ANWIESNA

RP-22-96

American National Standard Practice

for Tunnel Lighting

Prepared by the IESNA Roadway

on Tunnels and Underpasses

Suggestions
for revisions
to this document
should be directed to IESNA.

Lighting

Subcommittee

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

Prepared by the
IESNA Roadway Lighting Subcommittee
Antanas Ketvirtis,

on Tunnels and Underpasses

Subchair

W. Adrian
J.C. Bait
J.A. Bastianpillai
J.J. Buraczynski
K.A. Burkett
V.F. Carney
R.A. Catone
B.T. Chau
D. Chaudhuri
V. Cimino
P.G. Contos
C.W. Craig
J.E. Degnan

J. DeVaal
Z. Durys
G.A. Eslinger
C. Goodspeed
J.A. Havard
H. Kajiyama
P.J. Lutkevich
W.E. Morehead
E. Morel
P.A. Mowczan
C.A. Oerkvitz
CL. Thomas, Jr.

IESNA Roadway Lighting Committee

Ian Lewin, Chair
-Balu Ananthanarayanan,
John J. Mickel, Secretary
W. Adrian
A.P. Allegretto*
J.B. Arens
J.D. Armstrong
J.C. Bair*
J.A. Bastianpillai*
P.C. Box
R.A. Bradford*
R.J. Broadbent*
J.J. Buraczynski*
K.A. Burkett
J.C. Busser
E. Cacique*
M.G. Canavan
V.F. Carney
L.A. Casolo, Jr.*
R.A. Catone*
T.J. Chapman
B.T. Chau*
D. Chaudhuri*
R.B. Chong
V. Cimino
RD. Clear
P.G. Contos
V.J. Cartes*
C.W. Craig
D.L. Crawford*
CL. Crouch**
W. Daiber
J.E. Degnan
R.J. Drago*
Z. Durys*
W.H. Edman**
J.W. Edmonds*
G.A. Eslinger
K. Fairbanks*
D.H. Fox*

Vice Chair

M. Freedman
D.G. Garner*
R. Gibbons*
A.S. Gael*
C. Goodspeed*
W.C. Gungle*
R.C. Gupta
R.L. Hamm*
J.M. Hart
G.A. Hauser*
J.A. Havard
E.O. Heinlein**
W.A. Hughes
D.E. Husby
M.S. Janoff
J.E. Jewel1
H. Kajiyama*
M.E. Keck
D.M. Keith
A. Kevirtis
AS. Kosiorek*
G.S. LaBar*
R.C. LeVere
C.H. Loch
P.J. Lutkevich
D. Mace*
D.R. Macha*
L.J. Maloney*
M. Maltezos*
S.D. Mathias*
G.H. McConnell*
J. McCormick
SW. McKnight
J.F. Meyers
D.R. Monahan*
R.G. Monsoor
S. Moonah*

W.E. Morehead*
E. Morel
H.D. Mosley**
P.A. Mowczan
K. Negash*
H.A. Odle
C.A. Oerkvitz
D.W. Okon
ES. Phillips*
G.P. Robinson*
A.S. Rose
EC. Rowsell
P.P. Sabau*
N.A. Schiewe
R.N. Schwab
B.L. Shelby**
A.D. Silbige?
J-F. Simard*
R.L. Sitzema
G.E. Smallwood
R.E. Stark
G.J. Stelzmiller*
L.A. Stephens*
CL. Thomas, Jr.
K.M. Thompson*
H.A. Van Dusen
R. Vincent
V.H. Waight
J.D. Walters
C.P. Watson
G.W. Weist*
G. Westergren*
R.R. Wylie
R.J. Wynn*
*Advisory
**Honorary

Member
Member

ANSI/IESNA

Copyright

1996 by the Illuminating

Engineering

Society of North America.

Approved by the IESNA Board of Directors, May 13, 1996, as a Transaction

the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
A// rights reserved. No part of this publication
any electronic retrieval system or otherwise,
the IESNA.
Published by the Illuminating Engineering
Street, New York, New York 10005.

of

may be reproduced in any form, in

without prior written permission of
Society of North America,

120 Wall

IESNA Standards and Guides are developed through committee consensus and
produced by the IESNA Office in New York. Careful attention is given to style
and accuracy. If any errors are noted in this document, please forward them to
Rita Harrold, Director Educational and Technical Development,
at the above
address for verification and correction. The IESNA welcomes and urges feedback and comments.
Printed in the United States of America.

RF-22-96

ANSMESNA

RP-22-96

CONTENTS
1.0

Introduction

2.0

Physical Characteristics
2.1
2.2

3.0

Visibility
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

5.0

.1
.l
1
.l
1
.l
2

Tunnel Lighting Needs .................................................................. .2

......... 2
General .........................................................................................................
2
Geographic Location .............................................................................................
2
Climatic Conditions ................................................................................................
2
Tunnel Structure Orientation ..................................................................................
.3
Traffic Speed ........................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................
.3
Traffic Volume
3
Materials Used in Tunnel Construction ..................................................................
3
........................................................................
Divided and Undivided Structures
.3
Tunnels with Special Portal Design ......................................................................

at the Tunnel Approach and Portal ................................................................. 4

General ..................................................................................................................
Pavement Type at Tunnel Approaches .................................................................
Black Hole Effect ...................................................................................................
Black-Out Effect .....................................................................................................
Adaptation Point ....................................................................................................

4
4
4
5
5

Luminance of Tunnel Interior Surfaces .......................................................................... 5

5.1
5.2
5.3

6.0

.................................................................................................

Definition of a Tunnel ............................................................................................

Tunnel Classification. .............................................................................................
2.2.1
Short Tunnel.. ...........................................................................................
2.2.2
Long Tunnel ..............................................................................................
2.2.3
Divided and Undivided Tunnels ..............................................................
2.2.4
Underpasses and Overpasses .................................................................

Factors Influencing
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

4.0

................................................. .................... ............................................. 1

.5
Architectural Features of Tunnel Cross Section ...................................................
Pavement, Wall, and Ceiling Materials, and Reflective Characteristics ............... .5
5
Wide and Narrow Tunnels .....................................................................................

Lighting Design Criteria ...................................................................................................

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

6.5
6.6

General ..................................................................................................................
Lighting Requirements.. .........................................................................................
Assessment of the Major Factors Influencing Lighting Design ............................
Method of Determination of Luminance Levels ....................................................
Luminance Values in Threshold Zone .......................................................
6.4.1
6.4.2
Threshold and Transition Zones ...............................................................
6.4.3
Tunnel Interior Zone.. ................................................................................
6.4.4
Nighttime Luminance ................................................................................
6.4.5
Non-Roadway Surface Luminances .........................................................
6.4.6
Uniformity Ratios.. .....................................................................................
Flicker Effect .......... ................................................................................................
Switching Steps in Threshold and Transition Zones. .............................................

5
5
5
.6
.6
6
6
6
6
8
8
9
9

ANSI/IESNA

7.0

Light Application

9
9
9

Symmetrical Light Distribution.. .............................................................................

Asymmetrical Light Distribution-Negative
Contrast ............................................
Asymmetrical Light Distribution-Positive
Contrast .............................................

.9

Lighting and Electrical Equipment.. ...............................................................................

.9

7.1
7.2
7.3
8.0

Techniques ..........................................................................................

Light Sources .........................................................................................................

8.1 .I
Fluorescent.. ...........................................................................................
8.1.2
Low Pressure Sodium (LPS) ...................................................................
8.1.3
High Pressure Sodium (HPS). .................................................................
8.1.4
Metal Halide (MH) ...................................................................................
8.1.5
Other Light Sources ...............................................................................
Luminaires ...........................................................................................................
Electric Power Supply and Distribution ..............................................................
Switching and Control ..........................................................................................

8.1

8.2
8.3
8.4

9
10
10
l-0
10
.lO
10
.l 1
11

General ................................................................................................................
Initial Cost ............................................................................................................
Life-Cycle Economic Analysis ............................................................................

11
11
11
.ll

........................................................................................
...............................................................................................................
General
Lamp Lumen Depreciation ..................................................................................
Luminaire Dirt Depreciation.. ...............................................................................
Tunnel Surface Reflectance Depreciation ..........................................................
10.4.1 Selection of Tunnel Surface Reflectance.. ..............................................
10.4.2 Reflectance Depreciation .......................................................................
Luminaire Cleaning and Relamping ....................................................................
10.5.1 Luminaire Cleaning .................................................................................
10.5.2 Relamping ...............................................................................................

.12
.I2
12
12
.12
12
12
13
13
13

.._...................................................

14

Glossary

.....................................................................................................................................

15

Annex A

Calculation

Annex 6

Method of Computing

Lighting System Economics. .........................................................................................

9.1
9.2
9.3

Maintenance Considerations

References

...

.........................................................................

Method ...................................................................................................

20

Luminance Levels in the Threshold Zone ....................... .26

RP-22-96

ANSI/IESNA

2.0 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

1 .O INTRODUCTION
2.1

This standard practice has the objective of providing information to assist engineers and designers
in determining lighting needs, recommending solutions, and evaluating resulting visibility at vehicular
tunnel approaches and interiors.

2.2

Tunnel Classification

In classifying tunnel structures, two factors should

be taken into account: structure length and its
geometric alignment (visibility through the structure).

The basic design criteria for tunnel lighting are outlined in Section 6.0 of this document. Tunnels may
require considerably
different treatment of the
threshold zone luminance values, depending
on
variables such as geographic orientation, geometric design, traffic volume, traffic speed, service
levels, light source used, and modes of light application. The lighting designer therefore should consider the factors which affect the visibility conditions as outlined in Section 3.0.
Treatment of tunnel portals, wall and ceiling surfaces, and selection of lighting equipment, as well
as light sources, maintenance,
and lighting economics are also reviewed and assessed in this
document.
However,
special requirements
for
pedestrians are not addressed in this document.

THRESHOLD ZONE

Definition of a Tunnel

A tunnel is defined as a structure over a roadway

which restricts the normal daytime illumination of a
roadway section such that the drivers visibility is
substantially diminished (see Figure 1).

This practice is intended also for use by administrators charged with the responsibility of providing
a safe visual environment within a tunnel during
both daytime and nighttime hours.

APPROACH

RP-22-96

Short Tunnel. A straight tunnel having an

2.2.1
overall length from portal to portal, along the centerline, which is equal to, or less than, the SafeStopping-Sight-Distance
(SSSD) is considered to
be a short tunnel. See Table 1.
2.2.2
Long Tunnel. A tunnel with an overall
length greater than one SSSD, or having an alignment or curvature which prevents motorists from
seeing through the structure to the exit end, is considered to be a long tunnel.
2.2.3
Divided and Undivided Tunnels. A structure which consists of two separate enclosures,
each designated to accommodate one direction of
traffic flow, is considered to be a divided tunnel.

TRANSITION ZONE(S)

INTERIOR ZONE

PORTAL

Figure 1. The primary external and internal areas associated

(Formal definitions of each primary area are in the glossary.)
.

with and affected by tunnel lighting design.

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

3.2

A structure which consists of a common enclosure

to accommodate the traffic flow in both directions
is considered an undivided tunnel.

Geographic Location

With respect to the geographic

location, tunnel
lighting design may be affected by the following:

2.2.4
Underpasses and Overpasses. Structures
considered to be Underpass or Overpass structures are those in which the length does not
exceed one width of the roadway over (or under)
which they are constructed. Refer to references 1
and 2 for design information.

l
l
l

Surrounding land character

Type of growth surrounding
Solar altitude and azimuth

3.3

tunnel structure

Climatic Conditions

Climatic conditions
which influence
system design include the following:

3.0 FACTORS INFLUENCING TUNNEL

LIGHTING NEEDS

l
l
l

3.1

General

l
l

Ambient luminances of the surfaces adjacent to

the tunnel portal within the visual field are the most
important factors in determining the threshold zone
luminance
values. Elements affecting this, and
other factors, act as important modifiers to the final
lighting design. These modifiers may impact the
lighting design levels by as much as *20 percent
total. Section 6.0 allows these modifiers to be factored into the final design criteria, but leaves the
decision on their relative weight to the lighting
designer.

the lighting

Temperature range
Humidity levels
Seasonal changes in natural growth
Presence or absence of snow
Atmospheric conditions (such as clouds
and haze)

3.4

Tunnel Structure Orientation

The presence of the sun in or near the approach

viewing angle of the tunnel portal creates a severe
illumination design problem. This occurs with eastwest tunnels at the east portal prior to sunset, and
at the west portal for a period after sunrise. It can
also occur in north-south tunnels at the north portal, especially during winter months at higher lati-

TABLE 1: AASHTO STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (Wet Pavement)

Estimated Safe Stopping
Sight Distance (SSSD) t
1
Meters
Feet
I

Traffic Speed
(estimated km/h and mph1
Kilometers

Miles per Hour

-per Hour
I
50

60
80
90
100
110

60
90
140
160
190
220

30
40
50
55
60
65

Refer to American Association

of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
Highways and Streets, 1990 for accurate calculation of stopping sight distance.
tAssumes average prevailing speeds in a straight and level tunnel approach
the facility. For other geometric conditions, refer to the AASHTO document.

200
300
450
530
620
720

(AASHTO)

roadway

A Policy on Geometric

Design of

are at, or near, the posted speed limit of

ANSIIIESNA

tudes. If the sun

the portal during
these orientations,
very high, creating

is close to the
an approach
the luminance
a high veiling

viewing angle of
to a tunnel with
of the sky will be
luminance.

The problem can be accentuated by a depressed

portal which permits a direct line of sight to the sun
at low viewing angles. An example would be a tunnel under a river. Highly reflective surfaces outside
of a portal, particularly those with specular characteristics, can also contribute to elevating the luminance of the areas around the portal.
High exterior luminances
from the sun, sky, or
specular surfaces around the portal require high
threshold luminances; however, no lighting system
can compete directly with the sun. Mitigating factors
are natural or artificial structures such as mountains
(without snow), trees, and buildings which have low
coefficients of reflectance and block the sky from
view during the motorists approach to the tunnel.
These factors are often present in mountainous or
urban areas, and their impact on design is discussed further in Section 6.0.

3.5

Traffic Speed

Since the eye adaptation process under dynamic

conditions
is relatively slow, traffic speed is of
great importance in determining the required luminance value in the threshold
zone. A motorist
approaching
a tunnel entrance at a relatively low
speed, say 40 km/h (25 mph), and fixating his/her
eyes at a distance of 150 m (492 ft.), will have a
preadaptation
period of 13 seconds before the
entry into the tunnel, permitting significantly lower
luminance values in the threshold zone. A motorist
travelling at 80 km/h (50 mph) will have only 6.5
seconds for eye preadaptation,
thus, the demand
for eye adaptation will be more severe, and significantly higher luminance values will be required in
the threshold zone.

3.6

Traffic Volume

The yearly average number of vehicles that pass

through a tunnel within a 24-hour period, the
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT), is of significance in determining not only tunnel interior luminance levels, but also in quality of lighting, lighting
equipment types, and maintenance and operation
procedures.
When designing a tunnel lighting system, traffic
volume, traffic density, vehicle headway, and lane
occupancy should be taken into account.

RP-22-96

A high traffic volume also implies a need to maintain the flow of traffic. The perception
by the
motorist of the presence of light within the tunnel
will encourage
the motorist to maintain speed.
Interior surfaces with high luminances
will give
motorists the impression of a bright tunnel.

3.7

Materials Used in Tunnel Construction

Architectural
features of a tunnel approach may
have a pronounced
effect on the preadaptation
process.
High retaining
walls flanking
the
approach road, painted black or with concrete
darkeners, will enhance eye adjustment. The same
types of retaining walls painted white will keep the
eye adaptation at a relatively high level, requiring
higher levels of surface luminance within the tunnel. Curved portals may permit greater contribution of daylight towards the threshold zone lighting.
In designing a lighting system, materials used in
the tunnel structure are of considerable
importance, particularly with respect to their characteristics of reflectance. For example, tunnel wall surfaces may be finished with untreated rock, raw
concrete, epoxy paint, concrete sealer, or glazed
ceramic tiles. The maintained reflectance coeff icient of untreated rock would be approximately
7
percent,
untreated
concrete
10 percent,
and
glazed tiles in the order of 45-60 percent. The use
of these materials will have an effect not only on
tunnel luminance
calculations,
but also on the
interreflectance,
which influences.the
pavement
luminance values and luminance uniformity, as
well as contrasts.

3.6

Divided and Undivided Structures

Traffic operation in divided and undivided tunnels

differs in many respects. Divided tunnels are regarded as offering safer traffic flow. In divided tunnels
there is almost no possibility for head-on collisions,
and in the case of multi-lane tunnels, the occupancy
of lanes is more evenly distributed than in undivided
structures. For this reason, the lighting level for the
interior zone should be higher in undivided tunnels
compared with that of divided tunnels.
3.9

Tunnels with Special Portal Design

Some vehicular tunnel designs incorporate sunscreens, solar galleries, and other similar devices,
whereby the daylight is used in reduced intensity
as an intermediate level between the outdoor lighting and the tunnel interior. In such situations, the
threshold and transition zone luminance
levels
should be reduced by the steps shown in Figure 2
where the screened daylight area becomes the
threshold zone.
3

ANSI/IESNA RP-22-96

SECONDS.

Figure 2. Recommended
zone inside a tunnel.

luminance

reduction

Caution should be exercised

when using sunscreen or solar gallery designs as some may be
susceptible
to dirt or snow accumulation
on the
reflective surfaces of the screens, thus creating
serious maintenance problems and/or reduction of
their effectiveness
in regulating intended lighting
levels.

4.0 VISIBILITY AT THE TUNNEL APPROACH

AND PORTAL
4.1

General

Coordination of the lighting system and the tunnel

architectural, structural, and civil designs is essential in order to provide adequate visibility at the

10

12

steps for the threshold

14

16

zone and the transition

entrance of a tunnel. This coordination

should
occur at the beginning of the project and continue
throughout the design process.

4.2

Pavement Type at Tunnel Approaches

Since eye adaptation

prior to entering a tunnel
interior is affected by the exterior approach road
pavement, a dark asphalt surface or darkened
concrete will result in a decrease of the required
threshold zone luminance.

4.3

Black Hole Effect

The black hole effect, due to the perceived difference in the external and internal luminances,
occurs when drivers slow down because they do
not have sufficient confidence that their path inside
the tunnel is clear.

ANSVIESNA RP-22-96

4.4

Black-Out

Effect

Motorists entering a tunnel interior at a relatively

high speed will require sufficient time for physiological changes to occur within the eye. If the
threshold zone is too short, in relation to the speed
of travel, the time available (see Figure 2) for eye
adaptation may also be too short, resulting in a
black-out effect. If the transition zone between
threshold and tunnel interior lighting is too short, a
screening phenomenon
(i.e., a defined and perceptible line of light and dark) detrimental to the
drivers performance will occur.

4.5

Adaptation

Point

An average windshield cut-off angle for a vehicle

above the horizontal
plane is approximately
2225. The distance back from the tunnel portal
where the cut-off angle lines up with the top of the
tunnel opening height at a driver height of 1.45 m
(4.76 ft.), is where the structure opening is the
principal feature in the visual field. This location is
called the adaptation point and its distance away
from the tunnel portal may be deducted from the
threshold zone length.

5.0 LUMINANCE OF TUNNEL

INTERIOR SURFACES
5.1

The reflectance of the tunnel pavement will have a

considerable
impact on the amount of light
required. The visibility of an object on the pavement will vary with the luminance contrast (see the
glossary). Luminance contrast is influenced by the
reflectance
of the pavement
and objects, the
directional orientation of the artificial light source,
and the amount of interreflected light (see Section
7.0). Cement-concrete
pavement has a higher total
reflectance factor, but may not enhance contrast
because of its predominantly
diffuse reflectance
characteristics.
Smooth black asphalt has a lower
total reflectance factor, but may improve contrast
due to the presence of some specular reflections.

5.3

The width of the tunnel will influence the amount of

interreflection
between surfaces and therefore
impact the overall pavement luminance. In relatively
wide tunnels (three or more travel lanes) with highly
reflective surface materials, interreflection may be
minimal (less than 10 percent), whereas interreflection in narrow tunnels (one or two travel lanes) may
be considerable (up to 50 percent) depending on
cleaning. The reflected light, however, can reduce
the amount of pavement and object luminance contrast. If the interior surfaces of tunnels are treated
with low reflectance materials, or are poorly maintained, interreflection may be negligible.

6.0 LIGHTING DESIGN CRITERIA

Architectural Features of Tunnel

Cross-Section
6.1

The tunnel cross-section

may be rectangular
or
horseshoe-shaped,
and may include textured or
grooved walls. The horseshoe cross-section
and
textured surfaces assist in controlling noise, and
thus, are often recommended
by architectslengineers. Different tunnel cross sections influence light
interreflection and options for luminaire placement.

5.2

Reflective Characteristics of Pavement,

Wall, and Ceiling Materials

It is recommended that wall surfaces be of an easily

maintained, highly reflective, nonspecular material
having an initial reflectance of at least 50 percent.
In tunnels where ceiling reflectance will contribute
to the utilization of light, these surfaces should be
finished similarly to the walls. For light application
techniques
not utilizing uplight, ceilings may be
unfinished or painted with dark flat paints for ease
of maintenance.

Wide and Narrow Tunnels

General

The main objective in tunnel lighting design is to

provide a lighting system for a given tunnel which
meets the visibility requirements for day and night
conditions. The task for a designer is not a simple
one, particularly in the case of a new tunnel, when
often only partial information about the portal and
about the approach roads is available. Procedures
for tunnel lighting design and the design criteria
included in this chapter are based not only on theoretical considerations,
but also on information
drawn from practical experience and engineering
judgment.

6.2

Lighting Requirements

Whether daytime lighting is to be provided in tunnels of different lengths will depend on a number of
factors. A summary of these conditions, including
recommendations for the threshold zone of the tunnel, is included in. Figure 2, Figure 3, Table 2, and

Table 3.
5

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

6.4

Methods of Determination
Luminance Levels

of

This section discusses the methods appropriate

for the determination
of luminance values within
the tunnel. A calculation method for use in predicting the performance of a particular lighting system
is found in Annex A.
6.4.1
Luminance Values in Threshold Zone. The
threshold zone luminance (Lth) can be determined
using the following procedures:
l
l
l

l
l

Determine maintenance factor.

Determine percent of Lth from Table 2.
Determine the tunnel scene closest to that of the
design tunnel (Figure 3).
Determine the traffic speed and orientation.
Read the appropriate
luminance
value from
Table 3 and factor by the percent found in

Table 2.
l

Adjust the value obtained

for modifications
required by the factors outlined in Section 3.0
(maximum adjustment approximate *20 percent).

Included in Annex B is the expanded method of

determining threshold zone luminance by determining the equivalent veiling luminance (Lseq).

Figure 3. Various tunnel approach scenes prepared by the CIE Committee on Tunnel Lighting
representing eight different luminance settings.

6.3

Assessment of Major Factors

Influencing Lighting Design
Criteria

In Section 3.0, the major factors affecting lighting

requirements in the tunnel entrance zone and in its
interior were discussed. Due to the complexity of
the conditions it is impossible to mathematically
determine exact design luminance values in the
threshold and interior zones. The luminance values
recommended in Table 3 serve as base values for
the tunnel threshold zones. Adjustments to these
values are required by taking into consideration
the factors outlined in Section 3.0. for the tunnel
being designed.
Changes to the base values
derived from the methods given in Section 6.4
may be as large as *20 percent depending on the
specific conditions.

6.4.2
Threshold and Transition Zones. A sample
for the reduction of luminance levels in the threshold and in the transition zones is shown in Figure
2. The recommended
length of each of these
zones should be approximately one safe-stopping-~
sight-distance (SSSD).
6.4.3
Tunnel interior Zone. The tunnel interior
zone is the portion
of the tunnel where the
motorists vision has adapted to a low luminance
environment. Luminance levels in the tunnel interior for daytime conditions should be as outlined in

Table 4.
6.4.4
Nighttime Luminance.
During nighttime
the motorists eyes are adapted to the low exterior luminance;
therefore, a nighttime pavement
luminance of 2.5 cd/m2 minimum is recommended for the entire length of the tunnel. (This luminance value has been derived by consensus
among experts.) The approach
and exit roadways should have a luminance level of no less
than one-third the tunnel interior level for a distance of a SSSD.

TABLE 2
Adjustment Factors for Pavement Luminance in Threshold (Lth)
(Adapted from CIE 68, Table 5.3 Reference 3)
TABLE 2

WALL REFLECTANCE

Low Wail Reflectance

High Wall Reflectance

light Traffic Volume < 75,000 AADT

Heavy Tmftk Volume > 75,000 AADT

WALL REFLECTANCE

< 30%
> 30%

Table 3
Recommended Daytime Maintained Average Pavement Luminance Levels in the Threshold
Zone of Vehicular Tunnels (Lth)
Approach

Characteristics*

Traffic

Driver Direction

Speed

km/h

mph

North

East-West

South

cd/m2
100

60

250

310

370

80

50

220

260

320

60

40

180

220

270

Urban T&

100

60

320

280

310

Scene 4.6.6

80

60

280

240

270

60

40

230

200

220

Scene 1.2.3

I
Mountain

Tunnel

Scene 7.8

The figures shown in this Table should be regarded as the basic approximate values of the luminance (Lth) only utilizing an SRN
of 4.7 (Refer to Annex 6 for method). The final luminance levels should be determined after the modifying factors listed in
Section 3.0 are taken into consideration.
*See Figure 3.

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

TABLE 4
Daytime Interior Zone Average Luminance Recommended from the Road
Interior zone average road surface luminance in cd/m*
Traffic Flow
Traffic
Speed

100 km/h (60 mph)

80 km/h (50 mph)
60 km/h (40 mph)

5 2,400 AADT

Low

Medium
> 2,400 AADT
< 24,000 AADT

Heavy
2 24000 AADT

6
4
3

8
6
4

10

6.4.5
Non-Roadway
Surface Luminances.
In
general, interior surfaces with high luminances will
decrease the black hole effect, improve the visibility of objects seen by contrast, and improve the
motorists perception of the presence of light in the
tunnel. Tunnel interiors are composed of roadway
shoulders, walls, and ceilings, in addition to the
roadway pavement. Luminance requirements
for
non-roadway surfaces vary with tunnel geometry
and architecture, traffic volume, light application
techniques,
and other factors as identified
in
Section 4.0 and Section 5.0. However, higher
interior
surface
luminance
does not always
improve visibility.
Some wall luminance, however, is always necessary. The lower part of the tunnel walls, up to 3
meters (10 ft.) above the roadway shoulder, should
have a minimum luminance
of one-third of the
roadway level. Greater luminance,
up to the full
pavement luminance, is desirable if a wall forms a
major portion of the viewable background.
The
most common example is the outer curve wall and
roadway shoulder of a curved tunnel.
Other geometries, architecture,
or tunnel usage
(such as bicyclists)
may require improving wall
luminance as well. Ceiling luminance may be beneficial in tunnels where the threshold slopes downhill, or where the tunnel is level and the approach
to the threshold is uphill. However, the luminance
of the luminaires can define the ceiling geometry
and effectively
create
a luminous
surface.
Additionally,
the motorists
attention
is mostly
directed towards the roadway surface and evasive
routes, so the ceiling luminance is less critical.
8

a
6

Maintenance aspects should also be considered

when targeting an improved luminance value for a
particular surface. Some surfaces, such as shoulders, may accumulate prohibitive amounts of dirt;
others, such as high or uneven ceilings, may be
difficult to clean.
6.4.6
Uniformity Ratios. Uniform luminance
of
tunnel interior surfaces is necessary to assure adequate adaptation to tunnel luminances. Individual
luminaires with set candela distribution
patterns
give variations in luminance levels depending on
the pattern and distance from the luminaire. The
uniformity ratio tolerances relative to the values in
Figure 2, are 2 to 1, average-to-minimum;
and 3.5
to 1 maximum-to-minimum.
(These uniformity ratios
have been derived by consensus among experts.)
In order to *avoid glare from the lighting system,
which would in turn impact the visibility
of an
object within the tunnel, the veiling luminances
ratio should be less than 0.3 to 1 and as defined in
ANSI/IESNA RP-8: These tolerances are applicable across all travel lanes in a single direction and
are to be calculated
across multiple lanes in a
multi-lane tunnel.

Figure 2 shows average

luminance
levels
decreasing
smoothly throughout
the transition
zone(s), and into the interior zone. It is intended
that the luminance decrease with smooth transitions. The curve represents an average pavement
luminance in various zones at any distance inside
the tunnel. For a given distance, the luminance
along a section of pavement must meet the uniformity requirements for the average light level determined by Figure 2.

ANSI/IESNA RP-22-96

These uniformity ratios are applicable to the roadway pavement and to the portion of the non-roadway surfaces requiring luminance. It is not practical to account for lamp burnouts when designing
for uniformity, and recommendations
should be
made to the tunnel operator
regarding
spot
relamping.

6.5

Flicker Effect

In the interior of a lighted tunnel where luminaires

or their reflected images are in full or partial view
of the vehicle occupants, the stroboscopic
effect
of passing closely spaced light sources may produce undesirable behavioral sensations.

I2

7.0 LIGHT APPLICATION TECHNIQUES

7.1

Symmetrical Light Distribution

Symmetrical light distributions used in tunnel lighting design will produce

a uniform luminance
throughout the tunnel interior, particularly when linear sources are used. However, relatively low contrast values will be generated.

7.2

Asymmetrical Light DistributionNegative Contrast

system

is also known

as Counter-

91011I21

CYCLES PER SECOND

beam Lighting (CBL). Light is predominantly

distributed toward the driver providing high pavement
luminance and low object luminance creating negative contrast.

7.3

Asymmetrical Light DistributionPositive Contrast

The ALD-PC system, also known as Pro-beam

Lighting (PBL), is similar to that of the Counterbeam light application
technique,
except the
direction of the main beam of light is in the direction of the traffic flow. This method provides high
object luminance and low pavement luminance
creating positive contrast.

8.0 LIGHTING AND ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

8.1

Light Sources

Fluorescent,
Low Pressure Sodium (LPS), Metal
Halide, and High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamps
are the light sources often used for tunnel lighting
installations. The following factors affect the selection of light sources for tunnel lighting:
l
l
l
l
l

The ALD-NC

Figure 4. The stroboscopic effect produced when

a motorist passes closely-spaced
light sources in
a tunnel can result in undesirable behavior and
sensations.

Switching Steps in Threshold and

Transition Zones

Tunnel threshold and its interior lighting requirements vary during daily operation as a result of the
changes in external luminances created by weather conditions and/or the position of the sun. For the
purpose of maintaining luminance ratios between
exterior and interior surfaces during varying ambient light conditions,
switching
steps are often
used. This is achieved by arranging the luminaire
numbers and lamp sizes within each switching
cycle, as well as the circuitry design of the system.
The switching
steps are normally controlled
by
appropriate photocontrols. Switching from full daytime levels to nighttime levels should be moderately stepped to avoid abrupt changes in illumination.

WMINAIRE

Figure 4 illustrates the range of luminaire cycles

per second that are considered
to produce the
disturbing
effects. It is recommended
that the
designer avoid luminaire spacing within the annoyance range shown (5 to 10 cycles per second).
However, the effect of flicker in practice
may
cause negative effects on a drivers performance.
6.6

3 4

Efficacy
Lamp lumen output (lamp size)
Life
Lamp lumen depreciation
Ambient temperature
Cost (lamp and luminaire)

ANWESNA RP-22-96

Restrike time
Luminaire light distribution
l Physical
size (lamp and luminaire)
. Physical durability (lamp and luminaire).
l Color temperature
l
l

The advantages and disadvantages

of the various
viable sources are discussed in the following paragraphs.
8.1.1
Fluorescent.
Fluorescent
lamps are frequently used for the tunnel interior zones, where
lower illumination
levels are required. They are
often used in conjunction with other light sources
which provide
the higher illumination
levels
required in threshold and transition zones.
The advantages of fluorescent lamps include: (1)
instant restrike in the event of momentary power
interruption, (2) linear source, which can provide
continuous
lighting, eliminating
the concern for
flicker effect, (3) low lamp cost, and (4) availability
of various lamp color temperatures with high color
rendering indices.
The disadvantages
include: (1) possible
large
lamp size, (2) potential lower lamp efficacy, (3)
minimal control of luminaire light distribution,
(4)
reduced lumen output at lower temperatures, and
(5) difficulty of maintaining the luminaire dust-tight
and water-tight for large enclosures.
8.1.2
Low Pressure Sodium (LPS). Low pressure
sodium lamps have very high efficacy and are frequently used in conjunction with other sources to
provide the high illumination
levels required in
threshold and transition zones. Lower wattage LPS
sources can be also used in interior zones.
The advantages
include:
(1) relatively
short
restrike in the event of momentary power interruption, (2) linear source (in larger size lamps), which
may reduce the concern for flicker effect, (3) high
efficacy, and (4) minimal or no lamp lumen depreciation over life (at the expense of increased
power consumption over the same period).
The disadvantages
include: (1) high lamp replacement cost, (2) possible large luminaire size, (3)
shorter lamp life than HPS lamps, (4) minimal control of light distribution, (5) poor Color Rendering
Index (CRI), and (6) difficulty of maintaining
the
luminaire
dust-tight
and water-tight
for larger
enclosures.
10

8.1.3
High Pressure Sodium (HPS). High pressure sodium lamps have a wide selection of lamp
sizes, increased life ratings, compact size, and are
easily optically controlled.
The advantages
include: (1) high lamp efficacy,
(2) excellent luminaire light control, resulting in
high luminaire efficiency, and (3) good lamp life
and minimal lumen depreciation.
The disadvantages
include: (1) required restrike
time in the event of momentary power interruption
(or higher cost for dual arc tube lamps), (2) small
luminaire size, which may require that flicker effect
be considered,
(3) careful luminaire design and
placement to eliminate high brightness and resultant discomfort and/or disability glare problems, as
well as non-uniform wall brightness and/or striations, and (4) potential low Color Rendering Index
(CRI).
8.1.4
Metal Halide (MH). Metal Halide lamps
also have a wide selection of lamp sizes, good
lamp life, compact size, and are easily optically
controlled.
The primary advantage of metal halide lamps is
their color. Various lamp color temperatures
are
available with a high Color Rendering Index (CRI).
The disadvantages
include: (1) required restrike
time in the event of momentary power interruption,
(2) small luminaire size, which may require that
flicker effect be considered, (3) careful luminaire
design and placement to eliminate high brightness
and resultant discomfort
and/or disability glare
problems as well as non-uniform wall brightness
and/or striations,
(4) lower efficacy than HPS
lamps, and (5) risk of lamp rupture at end of life if
operated continuously
with no occasional
shutdown.
8.15
Other Light Sources. It is rare that an alternate less efficient light source, other than those
discussed
above, would be used today in the
design of either a new lighting
system or a
replacement
system. As new light sources are
developed
(e.g., sulfur or induction lamps) the
available options will grow.

8.2

Luminaires

Tunnel lighting luminaires must be ruggedly construtted to withstand the harsh environment found
in all tunnels. Vibration, air turbulence caused by

ANSIIIESNA RP-22-96

vehicles,
climates),
industrial
equipment
luminaires

exhaust fumes, road dirt, salt (in some

and the periodic washing of tunnels with
detergents
and high pressure spray
are some of the conditions
to which
are exposed.

The following are factors that must be evaluated

the design, selection, installation,
and testing
tunnel lighting equipment:

9.0 LIGHTING SYSTEM ECONOMICS

9.1

Lighting system economic

following major aspects:

in
of

Prevention of vapor, dust, and water jet spray

from entering into the luminaires.
l Ease of cleaning,
relamping, and replacement of
parts.
0 Resistance to corrosion and reactions to dissimilar materials (e.g. concrete).
l Physical
strength sufficient to prevent warping,
twisting, or deforming during installation or servicing.
l Highest
and lowest ambient operating temperature within the tunnel.
l Luminaires
which permit specific directional light
control, resulting in improved contrast and overall visibility conditions.
l

8.3

Electric Power Supply and Distribution

It is important that the tunnel lighting power supply

be highly reliable. It is recommended that primary
feeders be duplicated and originate from different
segments of the power network to minimize the
possibility of power supply interruption.
Lighting
circuits should be divided between the primary
sources or configured
to provide an equivalent
level of redundancy.
Consideration should be given to the installation of
an emergency power supply to assure essential
lighting services.

8.4

Switching and Control

In order to maintain the desired ratio between the

exterior luminance level and the threshold zone
luminance level, step switching is normally provided to vary the light output of the lighting system.
Step switching can be controlled by a set of electronic photocontrols
that monitor outdoor light at
the tunnel entrance.

l
l
l
l
l

analysis consists of the

Selected lighting level

Type of light source
Quality of lighting equipment
Method of equipment installation
Maintenance and operation procedures
Cost of energy

In the assessment of lighting system economics,

initial cost is only one factor to be considered.
Typically a more in-depth analysis is involved.

9.2

Initial Cost

The initial cost of the lighting system installation

normally includes the equipment
cost and the
labor cost for installation. In comparing the cost of
the lighting systems which employ different equipment (lamps, luminaires), initial capital investment
does not provide complete information on the relative system cost. In fact, the initial cost is often
misleading for it does not take into consideration
such important factors as lamp cost, life, and efficacy. Also, the initial costs do not reflect the maintenance and operation costs, and thus may create
a false impression in the process of selecting a
lighting system for a given tunnel.

9.3

Life-Cycle Economic Analysis

For a more accurate cost comparison between different lighting systems, an economic
analysis
based on life-cycle should be used. Such analysis
takes into consideration not only the capital investment, but also such factors as:
l
l
l
l

Programmable control systems are also available

which can result in better coordinated
visibility
under varying luminance conditions. By monitoring
interior tunnel luminances and exterior luminances,
and energizing only the luminaires needed, energy
consumption can be reduced. This monitoring can
also make adjustments for maintenance factors.

General

Lamp replacement
Energy cost
Maintenance and operation expenses
Equipment replacement caused by
traffic accidents
Interest on the capital investment

Numerous-computer
programs are available to
quickly analyze the life-cycle cost. However, the
accuracy of the results will depend on the accuracy of the input data.
11

ANSI/IESNA RP-22-96

10.0 MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS

10.1

General

When planning and designing

a tunnel lighting
system, the engineers and designers should take
into consideration
all matters concerning maintenance. A good lighting system is one which not
only provides acceptable initial results, but which
also enables the maintenance staff to keep system,
performance
in good condition
throughout
the
expected equipment life.
In selecting the equipment, designers should consider its capability to withstand washing by applying high pressure spray and mechanical brushes.
Repair of the luminaire
components
must be
accomplished
with minimal time spent in the tunnel. Some types of luminaires may be prone to
premature failure due to their inability to maintain
water tightness
and dust tightness,
features
required in the tunnel environment. Materials used
in the manufacturing of the luminaire are of specific importance. Aluminum and carbon steel components exposed to moisture and chemicals
may
allow galvanic reactions that cause early deterioration of the equipment. The luminaire materials and
finish, therefore, should be carefully considered
when selecting equipment for tunnel applications.
The recommended
luminance
levels in Table 3
represent the lowest-in-service
values that should
be maintained throughout the operating life of the
system. Therefore, the initial luminance figures
should be higher to compensate for Lamp Lumen
Depreciation
(LLD), Luminaire Dirt Depreciation
(LDD), and the tunnel surface (wall and ceiling)
reflectance depreciation.

10.2

Lamp Lumen Depreciation

The LLD factor will depend on the type of light

source used for the tunnel lighting. Lumen output
characteristics
for the different lamps (fluorescent,
HPS, MH) vary due to aging.

10.3

Luminaire Dirt Depreciation

The LDD factor relates to the depreciation of luminaire lumen output due to dirt deposits on lenses
or refractors and dirt on reflectors. LDD must be
considered
in calculating
maintained luminance
values specified for the service life of the lighting
system. Details about LDD can be found in the
IESNA Lighting
Handbook,
8th edition and in
ANSI/IESNA RP-8.
12

The value of the LDD factor is dependent

in
inverse proportion to the owners investment
in
quality of material and manufacture of luminaires,
and to commitment to regular cleaning of glassware/lenses and reflectors. Decisions about LDD
factor value (and its relation to the number of fixtures required to meet maintained service levels)
and the commitment of resources to regular maintenance should be considered
in life-cycle cost
analysis as discussed in Section 9.0.

10.4

Tunnel Surface Reflectance

Depreciation

10.4.1 Selection of Tunnel Surface Reflectance.

Selection of tunnel surface reflectance has a significant impact upon effectiveness of light fixtures
in meeting the lighting design criteria.
For new tunnels, the lighting designer should participate at the earliest
possible
time with the
owner/architect/structural
engineer in selecting the
material, finish, and color of tunnel surfaces. This
should include the color and, if possible, the physical configuration of walls, ceilings, and portal area.
For example, a large low reflectance portal area
with high reflectance tunnel interior surfaces can
significantly reduce the installation and annual operating cost of lighting required in the threshold zone.
For existing tunnels requiring
retrofit or reconstructed lighting, consideration should be given to
treatment of tunnel walls, especially at the portal or
in the threshold zone as part of the lighting project
design. Life-cycle economic analysis may reflect
long-term savings when appropriate treatment is
included.
The selection of tunnel surfaces as just discussed
should include the specific determination
of the
reflectance characteristics
and reflectance factor.
Reflectance characteristics (specular, diffuse, and
others) will have significant effect on the effective
use of light.
10.4.2 Reflectance Depreciation. Tunnel surfaces
will collect dirt, soot, grime, and moisture deposits
from vehicle exhaust and atmospheric and subterranean causes. This will result in depreciation
of
the surface reflectance
utilized in the lighting
design for the original surface. This should be
taken into consideration
for calculations
utilizing
surface reflectances.
Also, the lighting designer
should determine and influence, if possible, the
cleaning schedule and methods the owner plans
to use for periodically
restoring tunnel surface
reflectivity.

ANSI/IESNA RP-22-96

10.5

Luminaire Cleaning and Relamping

Prevention of accidents in tunnels and the potential secondary effect of explosion, fire, or noxious
fumes is particularly dependent on maintenance of
good lighting and visibility.
Maintenance of lighting fixtures in tunnels usually
requires lane closures which a well developed
cleaning and relamping schedule should minimize.
10.5.1 Luminaife Cleaning. Regular cleaning of
refractors,
lenses, and reflectors is particularly
important in tunnels because these components
are constantly subjected to atmospheric pollutants.
Periodic cleaning of both external and internal surfaces is required. The internal cleaning requirements will vary depending
on fixture specifications. Proposed cleaning schedules and the initial

cost of higher quality fixtures should be included in

the life-cycle
economic
analysis discussed
in
Section 9.0. Cleaning schedules should be coordinated with relamping
schedules
as much as
possible to minimize lane closures.
10.5.2 Relamping. Consideration of group relamping is more critical in tunnel lighting maintenance
programs than for most other lighting systems
because of traffic restrictions required in tunnels.
Easy, quick relamping (as well as internal cleaning) is affected by the construction, latching, and
accessibility
of fixtures. These factors should be
thoroughly considered in design. Poor designs relative to location, accessibility to the fixture, or ability of workmen (with gloves) to open, service, and
close fixtures will significantly
affect operating
costs which should be considered in Section 9.0.

13

ANSIIIESNA

RP-22-96

References
(These references are not part of the American
National Standard ANSI/IESNA RP-22-1996).
National
Standard
Practice
for
1. American
Roadway Lighting, RP-8-83. New York: Illuminating Engineering Society of North America,
1983 (Reaffirmed 1993).
2. An Informational Guide for Roadway Lighting
Code G-5, American
Association
of State
Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), 444 N. Capital Street, N.W., Suite 225,
Washington, DC 20001, 1984.
3. Guide for the Lighting of Road Tunnels and
Underpasses.
International
Commission
on
Illumination, Publication CIE No. 88, 1990.*
4. Tunnel Entrance Lighting: A Survey of Fundamentals for Determining the Luminance in the
Threshold
Zone. CIE Publication
No. 61,
1984.*
5. Guide de IEclairage des Tunnels. Ministere
de IUrbanisme,
du Logement et des Transports. (CETU-LYON-FRANCE-MAI),
1985.
6. Code of Practice for the Lighting of Tunnels.
British Standard Institution, BS5489 Part 7.
Beleuchtung
Strassen tunnels,
7. Offentliche
Galeries und Unterfiirungen.
Leitsatze der
Schweizerische
Lichttechuischen
Gesellschaft
(SLG), SN 418915, 1983.
Luminance
when
8. Adrian, W.K. Adaptation
Approaching
a Tunnel in Daytime. Lighting
Research and Technology, No. 3-1987.
Lighting, A Proven
9. Blaser, P. Counterbeam
Alternative
for the Lighting of the Entrance
Zone of Road Tunnels. TRB National Conference, Washington, DC, 1990.
10. Schreuder, D.A. Dr. Practical Determination of
Tunnel Entrance Lighting Needs. TRB National Conference, Washington, DC, 1991.
F. and Peviser,
11. Novellas,
Method for Road Tunnels.
2, 1985.*

J. New Lighting
CIE Journal 4, No.

12. Ketvirtis A., P. Eng. FIES. Visibility Study for

Long Vehicular Tunnels. Journal of the IESNA,
Jan. 1975.
14

A., P. Eng. FIES. Counterbeam

13. Ketvirtis
Lighting offers Cost-effective
Tunnel Illumination. Toronto: Electrical Systems Engineer,
Spring 1990.
14. Walthert,
national
1977b.

R. Tunnel Lighting
Lighting
Review,

Systems. InterVol. 4, p. 112,

W.
15. Gallati, E., Muller, E. and Riemenschneider,
Lighting Values in the Access-Entrance-Zone
of a Tunnel. CIE 20th Session, 1983.*
16. Narisada, K. Latest Research in Tunnel Lighting in Japan. Highway Research Circular
No. 137, TRB, 1972.
17. Rinalducci,

E. Transitional
Tunnel Lighting. TRB, 1972.

Adaptation

in

18. Zwahlen,

H.T. Drivers
Eye Scanning
Behaviour of Tunnel Approaches.
Conf. on Eye
Movement and Psychological
Process, U.S.
Army HEL, Monterey, CA, 1977.

Basics to
19. Adrian and Fleming. Psychological
the Lighting Levels in the Transition Zone of
Tunnels. LRI Research Project 88 SPL REF3,
Feb. 1990.
R. V. Luminance
20. Lewin, I. and Heinisch,
Calculations
for Tunnel Lighting Systems.
Journal of the IESNA, Winter 1988, pp. 74-79.
I. and Heinisch,
R. V. Further
21. Lewin,
Developments
in Tunnel Lighting
Computations. Journal of the IESNA, Winter 1991,
pp. 100-107.
for .Quality
22. Committee on Recommendations
and Quantity of Illumination
of the IESNA.
1973. RQQ Report no. 5. The Predetermination of Contrast Rendition Factors for the
Calculation of Equivalent Sphere Illumination.
Journal of the IESNA, Vol. 2, No. 2, p. 149,
January 1973.
23. Adrian, W. Lighting
pp. 151-159.

Res. Technol.,

14, 1982,

24. Nakamichi, F., Narisada, K., and Yoshikawa K.

Journal Illuminating
Engineering
Institute
of Japan, Vol. 54, No. 10, 1967, pp. 566-581.

*CIE Publications
may be ordered from the United States
National Committee
of CIE, c/o T. Lemons, TLA Lighting
Consultants, Inc., 7 Pond Street, Salem, MA 01970-4819.

ANSI/IESNA RP-22-96

candlepower,

Glossary

candelas.
(This glossary is not part of the American
Standard ANSVIESNA RP-22-1996.)

National

candlepower

accommodation

the process by which the eye

changes focus from one distance to another.

adaptation the process by which the visual system becomes accustomed to more or less light or
light of a different color than it was exposed to during an immediately preceding period. It results in a
change in the sensitivity of the eye to light.
approach the external roadway area leading to the
tunnel.

ballast a device used with an electric discharge

lamp to obtain the necessary circuit conditions
[voltage, current, and waveform] for starting and
operating.
bidirectional
reflectance-distribution
function,
BRDF the ratio of the differential luminance of a
ray reflected in a given direction to the differential
luminous flux density incident from a given direction of incidence, which produces it.

brightness

see luminance

and subjective

bright-

ness.

candela, cd the SI unit of luminous

candela is one lumen per steradian.
dle. (See Figure below.)

cp luminous intensity expressed in

It is no indication of the total light output.

intensity. One
Formerly can-

distribution curve a curve, generally polar, representing

the variation of luminous
intensity of a lamp or luminaire in a plane through
the light center.
central [foveal] vision the seeing of objects in the
central or fovea1 part of the visual field, approximately two degrees in diameter. It permits seeing
much finer detail than does peripheral vision.
Color

Rendering

Index,

CRI measure

of the
degree of color shift objects undergo when illuminated by the light source as compared with the
color of those same objects when illuminated by a
reference source of comparable color temperature.

contrast sensitivity

the ability to detect the presence of luminance differences. Quantitatively, it is

equal to the reciprocal of the contrast threshold.

contrast see luminance contrast.

contrast threshold the minimal perceptible contrast for a given state of adaptation of the eye. It
also is defined
as the luminance
contrast
detectable
during some specific fraction of the
times it is presented to an observer, usually 50
percent.
diffuse reflectance

the ratio of the flux leaving a

surface or medium by diffuse reflection to the incident flux.

diffuser a devise to redirect or scatter the light

from a source, primarily by the process of diffuse
transmission.
directional reflectance coefficient the reflectance in a particular direction for incident ray leaving a direction of incidence defined by angles p
and y. Also called bidirectional reflectance-distribution function.
candela per square meter, cd/m* the SI unit of

disability

glare glare resulting in reduced visual

performance and visibility. It often is accompanied
by discomfort. See veiling luminance.

luminance equal to the uniform luminance of a perfectly diffusing surface emitting or reflecting light
at the rate of one lumen per square meter or the
average luminance
of any surface emitting or
reflecting light at that rate. The unit is sometimes
called a nit.

discomfort

glare glare producing discomfort. It

does not necessarily interfere with visual performance or visibility.
15

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

equivalent luminous intensity [of an extended

source at a specified distance] the intensity of a
point source which would produce the same illuminance at that distance. Formerly, apparent luminous intensity of an extended source.

intensity a shortening of the terms luminous intensity and radiant intensity. Often misused for the
level of illumination or illuminance.
interior

zone area within

adaptation

the tunnel
has been completed.

after eye

footcandle, fc the unit of illuminance

when the foot

is taken as the unit of length. It is the illuminance
on a surface one square foot in area on which
there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen,
or the illuminance
produced
on a surface, all
points of which are at a distance of one foot from a
directionally uniform point source of one candela.

footlambert,

fL a unit of luminance [photometric

brightness] equal to l/n candela per square foot,
or to the uniform luminance of a perfectly diffusing
surface emitting or reflecting light at the rate of one
lumen per square foot, or to the average luminance of any surface emitting or reflecting light at
that rate. Use of this unit is deprecated.
glare the sensation produced

by luminance within
the visual field that is sufficiently greater than the
luminance to which the eyes are adapted to cause
annoyance , discomfort, or loss in visual performance and visibility. See disability glare, discom-

isocandela

line a line plotted on any appropriate

coordinates
source of
same. For
in a closed
illuminance

to show directions in space, about a

light in which the candlepower
is the
a complete exploration the line always
curve. A series of such lines for various
values is called an isolux diagram.

isolux line one plotted on any appropriate coordinates to show all the points on a surface where the
illuminance
is the same. For a complete exploration the line is a closed curve. A series of such
lines for various illuminance values is called an
isolux diagram.
isoluminance line a line plotted on any appropriate set of coordinates to show all the points on a
surface where the luminance is the same. A series
of such lines for various luminance values is called
an isolumiriance diagram.

fort glare.

lamp a generic term for an artificial source of light.

illuminance,

lamp lumen depreciation factor, LLD the multiplier to be used in calculations

to relate the initial
rated output of light sources to the anticipated
minimum rated output based on relamping program to be used.

E = d@/dA the density of the luminous flux incident on a surface; it is the quotient of
the luminous flux by the area of the surface when
the latter is uniformly illuminated.
illuminance [lux or footcandle] meter an instrument for measuring the illuminance
on a plane.
Instruments
which accurately
respond to more
than one spectral distribution are color corrected,
i.e., the spectral response is balanced to V[3L] or
V[h]. Instruments
which accurately
respond to
more than one spatial distribution of incident flux
are cosine corrected,
i.e., the response
to a
source of unit luminous intensity, illuminating the
detector from a fixed distance and from different
directions decreases as the cosine of the angle
between the incident direction and the normal to
the detector surface. The instrument is comprised
of some form of photodetector, with or without a filter, driving a digital or analog readout through
appropriate circuitry.
illumination

the
being illuminated.
density of luminous
and such use is to
16

act of illuminating
or state of
This term has been used for
flux on a surface [illuminance]
be deprecated.

light center [of a lamp] the center of the smallest

sphere that would completely
contain the light
emitting element of the lamp.
light center length [of a lamp] the distance from
the light center to a specified
the lamp.

reference

point on

light loss factor, LLF a factor used in calculating

illuminance or luminance after a given period of
time and under given conditions.
It takes into
account temperature and voltage variations, dirt
accumulation
on luminaire and room surfaces,
lamp depreciation,
maintenance procedures and
atmospheric
conditions. Formerly called maintenance factor.

lumen, Im SI unit of luminous flux. Radiometrically,

it is determinedfrom
the radiant power. Photometrically, it is the luminous flux emitted within a

ANSIIIESNA

RP-22-96

unit solid angle [one steradian] by a point source

having a uniform luminous intensity of one candela.

luminaire a complete lighting unit consisting of a

lamp or lamps together with parts designed distribute the light, to position and protect the lamps
and to connect the lamps to the power supply.
luminaire dirt depreciation factor, LDD the multiplier to be used in the illuminance
or luminance
calculations to relate the initial illuminance or luminance provided by clean, new luminaires to the
reduced illuminance
or luminance that they will
provide due to dirt collection on the luminaires at
the time at which it is anticipated that the cleaning
procedures will be instituted.
luminance, L = dW/(dw dA co&) [in a direction
and at a point of real or imaginary surface] the
quotient of the luminous flux at an element of the
surface surrounding the point, and propagated in
directions defined by an elementary cone containing the given direction, by the product of the solid
angle of the cone and the area of the orthogonal
projection of the element of the surface on a plane
perpendicular to the given direction. The luminous
flux may be leaving, passing through, and/or arriving
at the surface. Formerly, photometric brightness.

Note: in common usage the term brightness usually refers to the strength of the sensation which
results from viewing surfaces or spaces from
which light comes to the eye. This sensation is
determined in part by the definitely measurable
luminance defined above and in part by conditions
of observation such as the state of adaptation of
the eye. In much of the literature, the term brightness, used alone, refers to both luminance and
sensation. The context usually indicates which
meaning is intended.
Previous usage notwithstanding, neither the term brightness
nor the
term photometric
brightness should be used to
denote the concept of luminance.
luminance contrast the relationship between the
luminances of an object and its immediate background. It is equal to [L1-Lz]/L,, [LrL,]/L,,
or AL/L,
where L, and L2 are the luminances of the background and object, respectively. The form of the
equation must be specified.
The ratio AL/L, is
known as Webers fraction.

By introducing the concept of luminous intensity,

luminance may be expressed as L = dl/(dA ~093).
Here, luminance at a point of a surface in a direction is interpreted
as the quotient of luminous
intensity in the given direction produced by an element of the surface surrounding the point by the
area of the orthogonal projection of the element of
surface on a plane perpendicular
of the given
direction.
[Luminance
may be measured
at a
receiving surface by using L = dE/(dA case). This
value may be less than the luminance of the emitting surface due to the attenuation of the transmitting media.]

Note: see last paragraph of the note under luminance. Because of the relationship among luminance, illuminance,
and reflectance
when only
reflecting surfaces are involved. Thus, contrast is

equal to ~I-P~IIPI or [P~-PIIIPI~where PI and p2

are the reflectances of the background and object,
respectively.
This method of computing contrast
holds only for perfectly diffusing surfaces; for other
surfaces it is only an approximation
unless the
angles of incidence and view are taken into consideration.
17

ANSMESNA

RP-22-96

luminous efficacy of a source of light the quotient of the total luminous flux emitted by the total
lamp power input. It is expressed in lumens per
watt.

degree horizontal end [street side] of the luminaire

clockwise is a positive angle. See rotation and tilt.

photometric

brightness

a term formerly used for

luminance.

luminous flux, cpthe time rate of flow of light.

luminous

flux density

at a surface, dcp/dA the

luminous flux per unit area at a point on a surface.

Note: this need not be a physical surface;

equally well be a mathematical plane.

it may

point of fixation a point or object in the visual field

at which the eyes look and upon which they are
focused.
portal the plane of entrance into the tunnel.
primary line of sight the line connecting

luminous

intensity,

I = dq/do the luminous

flux
per unit solid angle in a specific direction. Hence,
it is the luminous flux on a small surface normal to
that direction,

dians]

divided

by the solid

angle

[in stera-

that the surface

subtends at the source.

a solid angle must have a
point as its apex: the definition of the luminous
intensity,
therefore,
applies strictly to a point
source. In practice, however, light emanating from
a source whose dimensions are negligible .in comparison with the distance from which it is observed
may be considered
as coming from a point. For
extended
sources,
see equivalent
luminous

of observation

the point

and the point of fixation.

R-table a table for a particular pavement type

which provides reduced luminance coefficients in
terms of the variable j3 and tarry.

Note: mathematically,

intensity.
Iux, lx the SI unit of illuminance.

It is the illuminance on a surface one square meter in area on

which there is uniformly distributed
flux of one
lumen, or the illuminance produced at a surface all
points of which are at a distance of one meter from
a uniform point source of one candela.

maintenance factor, MF a factor formerly used to

denote the ratio of the illuminance on a given area
after a period of time to the initial illuminance of the
same area. See light loss factor.
mean lamp lumens the mean lumen output of a
lamp is calculated
by determining
the area
beneath the lumen maintenance
characteristic
curve of that source over a given period of time
and dividing that area by the time period in hours.

reaction time the interval between the beginning

of a stimulus and the beginning of the response of
an observer.
reduced luminance

coefficient, r the value at a

point on the pavement defined by angles j3 and y
which when multiplied by the appropriate luminous
intensity from a luminaire
and divided by the
square of the mounting height, will yield the pavement luminance
at that point produced
by the
luminaire.
reference line either of two radial lines where the
surface of the cone of maximum candlepower
is
intersected by a vertical plane parallel to the curb
line and passing through the light center of the
luminaire.
reflectance of a surface or medium the ratio of
the reflected flux to the incident flux. Note: measured values of reflectance
depend upon the
angles of incidence and view, and on the spectral
character
of the incident flux. Because of this
dependence,
the angles of incidence and view,
and the spectral characteristics
of the source be
specified.

mounting

reflector a device used to redirect the luminous

flux from a source by the process of reflection.

orientation

refractor a device used to redirect the luminous

flux from a source, primarily by the process of
refraction.

height, MH the vertical

distance
between the roadway surface and the center of the
apparent light source of the luminaire.

the angular position of the luminaire

around an axis through the light center and along
the O-180 degree vertical angle. When the zero
degree horizontal angle is directed, north orientation is zero degrees. Displacement
of the zero
18

rotation the angular position of the luminaire

around the axis through the light center that is an

ANSMESNA RP-22-96

extension of the O-180 degree horizontal angle.

When viewed from the 180 degree angle [mast
arm end] rotation clockwise is a positive angle.
See orientation and tilt.

Safe-Stopping-Sight-Distance
(SSSD) estimated
values assume that the average prevailing speeds
in a straight and level tunnel approach roadway
are at, or near, the posted speed limit. For accurate calculation of stopping sight distance, refer to
the American Association
of State Highway and
Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), A -Policy on
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 1990.
Systeme Internationale, SI a measurement system used throughout the world, commonly referred
to as the metric system. Public Law loo-418 designated the metric system as the preferred system
of weights and measures for the United States.
threshold zone the area inside the tunnel where a
transition is made from the high natural lighting
level outside the tunnel to the beginning
of the
transition zones.
tilt the angular position of the luminaire around an
axis through the light center and along the 90-270
degree horizontal angle. When the luminaire is
level the tilt is zero degrees. Displacement of the
zero degree horizontal end [street side] of the
luminaire upward is a positive angle. See orientation and rotation.

transition

zone(s) areas which allow motorists to

achieve appropriate eye adaptation by incrementally reducing the level of luminance required in
the threshold zone to the luminance level of the
interior zone.

veiling luminance a luminance superimposed on

the retinal image which reduces its contrast. It is
this veiling effect produced by bright sources or
areas in the visual field that results in decreased
visual performance and visibility.
visibility

the quality or state of being perceivable

by the eye: In many outdoor applications,visibility
is defined in terms of the distance at which an
object can just be perceived by the eye. In indoor
applications
it usually is defined in terms of the
contrast or size of a standard test object, observed
under standardized
view conditions,
having the
same threshold as the given object.

visibility index, VI a measure closely related to

visibility level, used in connection with road lighting applications.
visibility
level, VL a contrast multiplier to be
applied to the visibility reference function to provide the luminance contrast required at different
levels of task background
luminance to achieve
visibility for specified conditions relating to the task
and observer.
visual acuity a measure

of the ability to distinguish fine details. Quantitatively, it is the reciprocal

of the angular separation in minutes of two lines of
width subtending one minute of arc when the lines
are just resolvable as separate.

visual angle the angle subtended

detail at the point of observation.
sured in minutes of arc.

by an object or
It usually is mea-

19

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

ANNEX A
Calculation

Method

(This annex is not a part of the American

Standard ANWIESNA RP-22-1996.)
A.1

Calculation

A.1 .I

General

National

Procedure

Methods for assessing the quantity of light coming

directly from a luminaire
to a given point are
described
in Appendix
B of ANSVIESNA RP-8.1
The light level in a tunnel will be higher than what
is indicated by direct calculations because of the
contribution
of light reflected and interreflected
from the tunnels surfaces. The degree that the
reflected light contributes to the luminance of the
interior tunnel surfaces varies with the surfaces
maintained reflectance,
location, and geometry.
This appendix
describes
a process suitable for
calculating direct and reflected light contributions
to the luminance of tunnel surfaces for straight tunnel sections.
Before the design calculations
lowing should be determined:
l

are started, the fol-

Luminances required in the threshold zone, transition zone, and tunnel interior. (See Table 3,
Figure 2, and Figure 3).
Acceptable
uniformity
ratios. (See Section
6.4.6).
Lightsources
and lamp sizes to be used. (See

Section 8.1).
l

Luminaire types and photometric

characteristics.

The standard methodology

for tunnel analysis is
based on finite element techniques.
In order to
develop a methodology
for handling luminance
calculations
in tunnels, several factors and relationships must be investigated:
l

The surface of the walls and ceiling must be split

into flat finite zones which closely or exactly
match the tunnel geometry, a process known as
discretization.
A given zone will have a luminance directly from a given luminaire. This luminance will be dependent upon luminaire candlepower, luminaire/tunnel
surface zone geometry,
surface zone reflectance, and direction of reflection, This can be referred to as the first reflection
luminance.

20

The points on the roadway at which pavement

luminance must be calculated will receive light
both directly from the luminaires and indirectly
from the walls and ceiling, and thus, the computation algorithms will be more accurate if they
include the additional indirect contribution.
. An important variable will be the tunnel crosssection, which may be rectangular, or a variety of
other shapes incorporating sloped or curved surfaces.
l The
surface area luminance will be increased
above the first reflection luminance because of
light received from other surface areas that are
also receiving light. Thus there is a surface area
luminance because of the second and subsequent reflections,
that is, the interreflection
of
light flux between all of the various discrete
zones.
l

Calculation of the horizontal illuminance or pavement luminance at a point on the roadway requires
the following seven steps:
1. Calculate the direct component
from the first
luminaire using the Inverse Square and Cosine
Laws, and the existing methodology.2
2. Repeat for all other luminaires and sum the values to calculate the total direct component from
the entire lighting system.
the walls and ceiling into zones.
3. Subdivide
These zones will reflect light from each luminaire
to the pavement observation point. Identify the
size and centerpoint location of each zone.
4. Calculate the illuminance in the plane of the first
zone at the zone centerpoint
by summing the
contributions
from each luminaire. Repeat for
each zone.
5. By applying the zone reflectance function, calculate the intensity reflected by the zone to the
pavement observation point.
6. Treat each zone as a luminaire by using the calculated intensities to determine the pavement
observation
point illuminance
and luminance
using the existing methodology,
summing for
all zones.
7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 to determine the total
indirect component
for the first reflection for
each pavement observation point required.
Details of these steps are outlined in the next section.

A.2.1

Computation of the Direct Component

The illuminance or pavement luminance created

by direct light received from a luminaire can be
computed in accordance with the existing method-

ANSI/IESNA

ology,2 i.e., in a manner identical to that used for

roadway lighting. Point-by-point
tabulations thus
can be produced. In this procedure, y and $ are
the horizontal and vertical photometric angles of I,
the luminous
intensity.
These are measured
respectively from nadir, and from a lateral reference line perpendicular
to the curb. Figure Al
illustrates a level ceiling mounted tunnel luminaire,
showing identical coordinate convention to reference 20, Figure Bl. Figure A2a is derived from
Figure Al, to be compared to Figure A2b which
represents the photometric angles applicable to a
vertically-positioned
wall mounted luminaire. The
reference zero vertical angle is always the nadir
direction extending vertically down from the luminaire, but it must be ensured that the luminaire has
been photometered
in this mounting orientation
before the photometric data tables can be used
directly.

A.2.2

Discretization

RP-22-96

of the Tunnel Surfaces

Subdividing,
or discretizing, the tunnel walls and
ceiling into zones allows calculation of the interreflected components by treating each zone as a
receiver of light from the luminaires and a reflector
of light to the pavement computation points.
In the simplest case of a tunnel with a rectangular
cross-section, vertical zones can be developed by
subdividing
each wall horizontally and vertically,
and horizontal zones are formed on the ceiling by
subdividing laterally and longitudinally.
In the case
of a tunnel with angled or curved surfaces, the surfaces likewise can be subdivided and approximated by a series of flat zones with differing slope
angles.

Figure Al.
The reflectance
angles for a ceilingmounted luminaire
(from reference 2).

(a)
Figure A2. The photometric

angles for a ceiling-mounted

luminaire (a) and,a wall-mounted

luminaire (b).

21

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

The size of zones, both widths and lengths, must

be chosen in developing
the inter-reflection
sctieme. The use of a very large number of small
zones will provide a high degree of accuracy, but
may require excessive
time in performing
the
reflected
light calculations.
Conversely,
large
zones may provide less accuracy, but can reduce
computation time.
Ideally, zone sizes will be chosen which are small
enough not to compromise computational accuracy, but large enough not to entail computer time
unnecessarily.
The sizes of the wall and ceiling
zones required for accurate
computation
vary
depending on tunnel geometry and the form of the
lighting system. The use of luminaires with asymmetric photometrics
tends to require smaller
zones. It is recommended that calculations be performed on an iterative basis until the improvement
in accuracy obtained by going to smaller zones is
negligible.

A.2.3

Computation of the Indirect Component

of llluminance

Figure A3 illustrates the geometry of a reflecting

wall or ceiling surface zone, receiving a light ray of
intensity I($,$ from a luminaire L. Figure A4 shows
the identical reflecting zone and additional construction lines, indicating
that it lies at a slope
angle from the vertical, S. The value of S isgeneral, and therefore can be used to represent zones
on the left wall, ceiling, or right wall. (Slope angles
for right wall zones are negative.)

To perform the required computation, X, Y, and Z

coordinates
must be known for the luminaire,
reflecting zone centerpoint, and the pavement computation point. From these coordinates, X0, YO, Z,,,
X1, Y,, and Z, are determined, defined as follows:
X0 = X coordinate
of the luminaire minus the X
coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
YO = Y coordinate
of the luminaire minus the Y
coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
ZO = Z coordinate
of the luminaire minus the Z
coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
X1 = X coordinate of the pavement computation
point minus the X coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
Y, = Y coordinate of the pavement computation
point minus the Y coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
Z, = Height of the zone centerpoint
above the
pavement computation point.
Given these dimensional quantities,
angles 4 and y are computed:

the values of

@= tan-1 (Y, / X0)

y = tan-l (G$

(1)

/ ZO)

(2)

The value of S, the slope angle of the reflecting

zone measured from the surface normal to the
downward
vertical, will be known from tunnel
geometry. For the general case of any given luminaire location, and a known location and slope

AC Is h~rizonlfd and parallel

to the X axis
/

Figure A3. The general geometry for a

reflecting

22

surface zone.

Figure A4. The luminaire (L) and surface zone

geometry that defines 0.

ANSVIESNA RP-22-96

angle of a defined reflecting zone, the illuminance

at the center of the zone and in the plane of the
zone, EC,,is given by:

E. = 21C&r)case
Do
where:
Do = distance from the luminaire
terpoint
E. can be calculated using:
Do=dx;+

(3)

to the zone cen-

Y:+z:

(4)

dence and reflection, Lo will represent the zone

luminance as viewed by an observer from the particular direction of reflection. E. is assumed to be
uniform over the zone, although it is normally calculated for the centerpoint. (More rigorous calculations can be made where Eo is calculated by the
same above-described
manner at numerous
points over the zone surface and the values then
may be averaged.)
Equation 8a can be used to determine the wall
luminance at any point, using equation 3 to calculate E. at that point.
Determination
of the diffuse
component
of
reflectance is normally sufficient for tunnel lighting
computations, and the relationship then becomes:

and:

e = cos- X0-Zocot s 1
( csc S - Do

(5)
Lo=

where: 0 < S < 90

Information concerning the derivation of the formula for 8 is provided in reference 21. The above formula is a reduction of the expression provided in
equation 9 of this reference.
In the case of a horizontal zone, the slope angle S
= O, and the cosecant and cotangents are indeterminate. 8 then reduces to:
O= cos-1

go

forS=O

(6)

In the case of a vertical zone, the slope angle S =

90 and 0 is then is given by:
e = cos-f

The value of 8 should

cases.

A.2.4

2% for S = 900
( Do1
compute

g-E0

where:
p = diffuse reflectance
n = pi
Lo is in cd/m2
E. is in Iux

factor

Use of the diffuse reflectance

provides another
simplification: The luminance pattern on the tunnel
surface will be independent of the location of an
observer viewing the zone directly, unlike the case
where the BRDF is applied. Later practices, however, may incorporate the use of BRDF.
To determine
reflected intensity in a specified
direction, the intensity perpendicular
to the zone
surface first is found:
I = Lo - A0

to be <90 in all

Computation of Zone Luminance and

Reflected Intensity

By applying the reflectance function of the zone

surface, the zone luminance can be obtained.
From this, the reflected intensity from the zone in
any particular direction can be found. If L, is the
zone luminance:
Lo = f(r) - E.

@b)

(9)

where:
I = Perpendicular reflected intensity in cd
Lo = Zone luminance in cd/m*
A0 = Zone size in m2

Figure A5 illustrates the geometrical relationships

between the zone and a pavement observation
point. If 6 is the angle between the normal to the surface (direction of intensity I) and the line from the
zone center to the roadway observation point, then:
I)j = I cos 6

(10)

(84

If f(r) is the Bidirectional

Reflectance Distribution
Function (BRDF) for the appropriate angles of inci-

where:
I6 is the intensity reftected by the zone to the pavement observation point.
23

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

A.2.5

Computation of the Indirect Component

of Veiling Luminance

Tunnel surfaces which are highly reflective may

contribute to the level of veiling luminance. The
contribution to the veiling luminance at the eye can
be determined for each wall and ceiling zone.
Quantities X2, Yp, and 22 are defined as follows:

Figure A5. The surface zone and pavement observation point geometry that defines 6.

If D, is the distance from the zone centerpoint to

the pavement observation
point, cos 6 may be
expressed as:

cos6= xi + zi cots
csc S * D,

for00 < S-c 90

(,,)

Information concerning the derivation of the formula for cos 6 is provided in reference 21. The above
formula is a reduction of the cos 6 expression of
equation 18 of the reference.
In the case of a horizontal
functions are indeterminate.
be found from:

X2 = X coordinate of the observers eye minus the

X coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
Y2 = Y coordinate of the observers eye minus the
Y coordinate of the zone centerpoint.
Z2 = Height of the zone centerpoint
above the
observers eye.
These quantities are shown in Figure A6. If E is
angle between the perpendicular to the zone and
the line to the observers eye:
I, = I cos E

(14)

where:
IE= the intensity
reflected
by the zone to the
observers eye in cd
I = the perpendicular reflected intensity in cd

zone, S = O, and the

The value of cos 6 can

(12)
AF is perpendicular
the surface zone

If the zone is vertical, S = 90 and cos 6 becomes:

AJ Is horizontal
to the X axts

to

and parallel

cos6=XforS=90
Q
Substituting
the value of cos 6 in equation IO,
along with the value of I as calculated from equations 8a, 8b, and 9, 16is found. The zone center is
treated as a luminaire with known coordinates and
intensity I&, and thus the illuminance
and luminance of the pavement observation point can be
found by the conventional
method as described
for roadway lighting in ANSVIESNA RP-8.1 This
procedure is applied to all zones and the values
are summed to determine the total indirect component due to the first reflection for pavement illuminance and luminance.
24

Figure A6. The surface zone and observer location

point geometry that defines E.

If D2 is the distance from the zone centerpoint to

the observers eye, cos E may be expressed as:

cosE= x2 +z2 cots

csc S - 4
In the case of a horizontal
functions are indeterminate.
be found from:

for0 < s< 90

(,5)

zone, S = 0 and the

The value of cos E can

ANSI/IESNA

COS&= ~forS=OO
4

RP-22-96

(16)

If the zone is vertical, S = 90 and cos E becomes:

COS&= ~forS=90
4

(17)

Substituting
the value of cos E in equation 14,
along with the value of I as calculated from equations 8 and 9, I, is found. The zone center is treated as a luminaire with known coordinates
and
intensity I,, and computation of veiling luminance
at the observers eye location is found by conventional methods (refer to Appendix appearing in reference 19). The procedure is applied to all zones
and values are summed to determine the total veiling luminance created by the first reflections from
the tunnel walls and ceilings.

25

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

B.1.2

ANNEX B
Method of Computing Luminance Levels in the
Threshold Zone
(This annex is not a part of the American
Standard ANSVIESNA RP-22-1996.)

National

B.l

Computation

Methods

B.l .l

Luminance in the Threshold Zone and

Adaptation Luminance

The luminance to which the approaching

drivers
eyes are adapted determines the required luminance in the threshold zone.
The most accurate way for deriving the adaptation
luminance from the nonuniform distribution of the
luminances that surround the central field is the
use of the equivalent veiling luminance Lseq. The
actual adaptation of the perceptual area in center
of the visual field is found as a composite of the
average L in the center field of approximately 2 in
size and the Lseq of the surround LA = La + Lseq.
In practice, however, it is not always possible to
determine the equivalent veiling luminances or the
luminance around the central field accurately-if,
for example, the tunnel is still in the design stage.
In this case the common approximation
is to use
the set of average luminances, which are based
on practical measurements. These luminances can
be applied to a drawing or a photograph on which
the structural outline of the tunnel is entered or to a
computer simulation of the scene as seen from
160 m (525 ft.) distance. The veiling luminance
produced
by the surrounding
field can be
obtained by applying a special graph paper* that
has to be superimposed on the picture.

Method to Obtain the Equivalent Veiling

Luminance, Lseq

The calculation of the equivalent veiling luminance

is based on a modified version of the HolladyStiles formula:

L s-7 =9.2

EGli
t:
i=l
:

where:
Lseq = equivalent veiling luminance in cd/m2
Eeli = illuminance
at the eye produced
by glare
source i in Iux
8i = angle between fixation line and glare source
i in degrees
This formula serves as a basis for the polar diagram as shown in Figure Bl.
This polar diagram has to be superimposed on the
tunnel scene. The tunnel opening is to be located
in the center of the graph which represents the
visual field. The height of the opening usually
appears under an angle of approximately
2 if
seen from a distance of 160 m (525 ft.).
The peripheral field around 2 is subdivided
into
sections that are considered as individual glare
sources i producing stray light in the eye media
proportional to (Eeli)/(O
The size of the sections
is chosen in a way that the average luminance
occurring
in them always produces
the same
amount of straylight.

Under identical daylight conditions,

tunnels with
different approaches and surroundings can lead to
considerably
different luminance values required
in the entrance zone.
For the design of the tunnel lighting installation one
needs to know the highest values of Les that frequently occur during the year.
The equivalent
veiling luminance
Lseq can be
assessed directly by means of measurements
at
the tunnel site with special luminance
meters
equipped with a glare lens measuring
Lseq or
with Glare Evaluation Meters.
26

Figure Bl. Example of a polar diagram showing

zones in which the luminance
produces
equal
amounts of straylight at the center.

ANSI/IESNA

By summation over all sections of the visual field

the total amount of the equivalent
veiling luminance that is created by the luminances in the field
surrounding
the tunnel is obtained. The central
fovea1 area of about 2 in angular size should fall in
the tunnel opening and will not need to be included in the evaluation of Lseq.
The luminance in the 2 center, however, affects
the fovea1 adaptation. This luminance can be higher than the lighting level in the threshold zone (Lth)
in the case when the bright exit of the tunnel is visible, and partially covers the fovea1 area. This
demands a higher threshold contrast of targets
that should be visible and masks objects in the
tunnel unless they are seen as silhouettes against
the bright exit. This effect decreases upon entering
the tunnel lighted to the above specifications.

Figure Bl shows a polar diagram with sections

that eventually have to be superimposed on a tunnel scene. The average luminances in the different
sections have to be added. The total equivalent
veiling luminance is found from:
L seq = (0.5131)

103

RP-22-96

(In case no measured luminances

of the tunnel
environment
are available the reference data in
Table B3 should be used.)
The value Lseq occurring at a tunnel site can also
be directly measured with a luminance meter, that
can be equipped with a glare lens.

8.1.3

Lighting Level in the Threshold Zone, Lth

The average road surface luminance needed in

the threshold zone Lth can be determined from the
equivalent veiling luminance Lseq according to the
following formula:*4
Lth

L-7
C
0.1677 -

L
=

(5.9637-

where:
Lth = average road surface luminance needed in
the threshold zone in cd/m2
Lseq= veiling luminance in cd/m2
C = photometric contrast of a small target which
has to be visible and that is used to express
the visual task
The relationship between the necessary luminance
in the entrance Lrh and Lseq to maintain the visibility
of small targets of different contrast is shown in
Figure 82. This shows that the luminance in the
threshold zone has to increase with brighter surrounds resulting in higher Lseqto keep a target with
a given contrast visible.

c Lo

where:
Lseq = the total equivalent
veiling luminance
in
cd/m2
Lij = the average luminance of the sections in cd/m2

SRN = safety rating number

C = target contract

Figure 82. The

luminance in the
threshold zone
must increase with
brighter surrounds
to keep a target
with a given
contrast visible.

300

200
entrance

luminance

400

500

L2 (cd/ml)

27

ANSI/IESNA

RP-22-96

B.1.4

In the same way Lt,, can also be calculated from

experimental results of subjective safety ratings
of the light level Lth using9
Lt,, = 10 (sRN-4.1)/6

Recommended Lth Levels

The determination of the luminance of the threshold zone Lth can be obtained from the ratio Lrh/Lseq
given in Table 82 for different traffic speeds.

(Lseq)

where:
Lth = average road Surface luminance needed in
the threshold zone in cd/m2
Lseq = veiling luminance in cd/m2
SRN = Safety Rating Number value (from Table Bl)

The minimal level Lth to be recommended

is
obtained by using SRN = 5 which equals the visibility of the critical target with a photometric contrast of C = 0.286 and relates to the subjective criterion Fair, just sufficient for a safe entry.

The SRN values describe the subjective evaluation

of the lighting level in the threshold zone when
approaching
the tunnel. The findings
are displayed in Figure B2 as dashed lines. The related
subjective criteria to the SRN numbers are shown
in Table Bl.

The values obtained for the Lth level apply regardless of the lighting system that produces them.
The decreasing
level of Lrh for shorter stopping
distances result from the course of Lseq when measured from various distances to the tunnel. The

TABLE Bl
Safety Rating Numbers (St?Ns)-Relative

Subjective Criteria

Criterion

SRN
1

Black hole

Inadequate,

Fair, just sufficient for a safe entry

Good, driver feels safe when entering

Excellent

entrance too dark

A strong relation between the visibility of targets and the subjective rating was found. According
the target-contrast criteria can be converted into SRNs as shown in Figure 82 and Figure B3.

to that relation

TABLE B2
Recommended LtAses ratios

WLq
Recommended ratios Lth/Lseq
between the threshold zone
luminance and the equivalent
veiling luminance

28

Traffic
Speed

100 km/h
80 km/h
60 km/h

SRN=5

SRN = 4.7

1.41
1.26
1.04

1.26
1.09
0.93

ANSVIESNA

RP-22-96

reason being that is that the normally darker tunnel

opening occupies larger areas of the visual field
when moving towards the tunnel.

the table, a linear interpolation

The data used here are average values obtained

from measurement at 22 tunnel sites. The strong
relation between the visibility of targets and the
subjective rating can be converted into SRNs as
shown in Figure 82 and Figure B3.

A sample calculation of Lseq is performed for the

tunnel shown in Figure 64. Ring Number 1 is the
most inner ring surrounding the 2 center field. The
sections are counted clockwise starting on the
right from the upper vertical and the average luminance over each ring section is summarized
in

For traffic speed values in between those given in

Table B4.

B.2

Calculation

is permitted.

Example

Figure B3. Conversion

of just perceptible
entrance zone target
contrast readings into
Safety Rating Numbers
(SRNs).

92

53

.24

25

.26

.27

.2a

-30

.2y

Contrast of the target in the entrance

zone that is just perceptible.

TABLE B3
Typical Luminances at Tunnel Portals
LE (environment)

Driving
Direction
(Northern
hemisphere)

LFI
(road)
kctim2

E-W
S

8
9

rocks

3
4
5

Values were obtained by applying daylighting

techniques
Handbook 8th Edition to diffuse surfaces of specific reflective
depending on solar position, surface reflective characteristics,
for Lc, Ls, and Ls kcd/m* = (103)cd/mz.

4
1
1

buildings
11
3
2

kcd/mz
snow

meadows

20
5
4

2
1
1

discussed
in Section 8 of the lESNA Lighting
values. Actual values can be considerably higher
and atmospheric conditions. Note: in the columns

29

ANSVIESNA RP-22-96

TABLE 84
Average Luminance Over Each Ring Section
Section

Ring Number
1

1.4

1.4

4.45

6.2

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.8

2
3

0.83
0.25

1.4
0.25

1.92
0.94

4.1
1.4

6.2
2.75

6.2
3.84

6.0
4.45

5.8
4.80

5.8
4.53

38.25
23.21

0.25

0.25

2.14

3.33

3.68

3.91

3.91

3.91

3.91

25.29

5
6

2.88
5.5

5.5
5.5

5.0
5.5

5.5
5.5

5.5
5.5

5.5
5.0

5.0
5.0

5.0
5.0

5.0
not contributing

44.88
42.50

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.5

5.0

5.0

5.0

not contributing

42.50

8
9
10

2.88
0.25
0.25

5.5
0.25
0.25

5.5
2.17
0.83

5.5
3.04
1.4

5.5
3.04
1.33

5.3
4.08
2.44

5.0
4.94
4.34

5.0
4.80
4.88

5.0
4.40
4.94

45.18
26.97
20.66

11

0.83

1.4

1.92

3.68

5.36

6.2

6.0

5.8

5.8

36.99

12

1.4

1.4

4.45

6.2

6.2

6.2

5.8

5.8

9
not contributing

not contributing

SUM
37.25

37.45

Total = 421 .I3 kcd/mz

Making ring and section summations

Ii
j=j
Obtaining

based on Table B4 above:

5
i=j

Lii= 421.13 kcd/nP

the second equation for total equivalent

veiling luminance from Section B.1.2:

Lses = (0.5131) 10-3 c

Putting the Table B4 data into the veiling luminance

equation:

Lseq= (0.5131) lo-s(421.13)

Combining

Ljj

kcd/m~

terms and solving:

L,,

= 216.1 cd/m2

31