Solid Mechanics

1. Shear force and bending moment

diagrams
Internal Forces in solids

Sign conventions
1
and Vz
2
The couple moment along the axis of the member is
given
M x = T = Torque
M y = M z = bending moment.

Shear forces are given a special symbol on Vy

Solid Mechanics

We need to follow a systematic sign convention for

systematic development of equations and reproducibility of
the equations
The sign convention is like this.
If a face (i.e. formed by the cutting plane) is +ve if its outward
normal unit vector points towards any of the positive coordinate
directions otherwise it is ve face
A force component on a +ve face is +ve if it is directed
towards any of the +ve coordinate axis direction. A force
component on a ve face is +ve if it is directed towards any of
the ve coordinate axis direction. Otherwise it is v.

Thus sign conventions depend on the choice of coordinate

axes.

Shear force and bending moment diagrams of beams

Beam is one of the most important structural components.
Beams are usually long, straight, prismatic members and
always subjected forces perpendicular to the axis of the beam

Two observations:
(1) Forces are coplanar

Solid Mechanics

(2) All forces are applied at the axis of the beam.

Application of method of sections

What are the necessary internal forces to keep the segment of
the beam in equilibrium?
Fx = 0

Fy = 0

Fz = 0

The shear for a diagram (SFD) and bending moment

diagram(BMD) of a beam shows the variation of shear

Solid Mechanics

force and bending moment along the length of the

beam.
These diagrams are extremely useful while designing the
beams for various applications.

Supports and various types of beams

(a) Roller Support resists vertical forces only

(b) Hinge support or pin connection resists horizontal and

vertical forces

Hinge and roller supports are called as simple supports

(c) Fixed support or built-in end

Solid Mechanics

The distance between two supports is known as span.

Types of beams
Beams are classified based on the type of supports.
(1) Simply supported beam: A beam with two simple supports

(2) Cantilever beam: Beam fixed at one end and free at other

(3) Overhanging beam

(4) Continuous beam: More than two supports

Solid Mechanics

Differential equations of equilibrium

[ Fx = 0 + ]
Fy = 0 +
V + V V + Px = 0

V = Px
V
= P
x
V dV
lim x = dx = P
x 0
P x 2
=0
[ M A = 0 ] V x M + M + M
2

Px 2
V x + M
=0
2
M
Px
+V
=0
x
2

Solid Mechanics

M dM
lim x = dx = V
x 0
From equation

dV
= P we can write
dx

VD VC =

XD

Pdx

XC

From equation

dM
= V
dx
MD MC = Vdx

Special cases:

Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics

0 x 2 ( 1) ( 1)
2 x 6 (2 (2)
6 x 8 ( 3) ( 3)
8 x 10 ( 4 ) ( 4 )

0 x 2 ( 1) ( 1)
V 5=0
V =5
VA = 5 ; VB = 5
2 x 6 (2) (2)
V 5 + 30 7.5 ( x 2 ) = 0
V = 5 30 + 7.5 ( x 2 )
VB = 25 ; VC = 5

25 + 7.5 ( x 2 ) = 0
x = 5.33

6 x 8 ( 3) ( 3)
V 5 + 30 30 10 = 0
V = +15
VC = +15 ; VD = +15
8 x 10 ( 4 ) ( 4 )
V 5 + 30 30 10 + 20 = 0
V +5=0
V = 5
VD = 5 ; VE = 5

Solid Mechanics
0 x 2 ( 1) ( 1)
M 10 + 5x = 0
M = 5x + 10
M A = +10 ; M B = 0

2 x 6 (2) (2)
7.5 ( x 2 )2
M 10 + 5x 30 ( x 2 ) +
=0
2
7.5 ( x 2 )2
M = 10 5x + 30 ( x 2 )
2
ME x =5.33 = 41.66 +
MC

x =6

= 40

6 x 8 ( 3 ) ( 3 ) [C D]
M 10 + 5x 30 ( x 2 ) + 30 ( x 4 ) + 10 ( x 6 ) + 20 = 0
MC

x =6

= 20 +

MD x =8 = 10

8 x 10 [ D E] ( 4 ) ( 4 )
M 10 + 5x 30 ( x 2 ) + 30 ( x 4 ) + 10 ( x 6 ) + 20 20 ( x 8 ) = 0
M E x =8 = 0
Problems to show that jumps because of concentrated force
and concentrated moment

Solid Mechanics

We can also demonstrate internal forces at a given section

using above examples. This should be carried first before
drawing SFD and BMD.
0 x 2 [ A B]

Solid Mechanics
V 5=0
V =5
VA = 5

M 10 + 5x = 0
M = 10 5x
M A = 10 ; MB = 0

VB = 5
2 x 6 [B C ]

V 5 + 30 7.5 ( x 2 ) = 0 M 10 + 5x 30 ( x 2 ) + 7.5
V = 7.5 ( x 2 ) + 5 30
VB = 25 ; VC = 5

25 + 7.5 ( x 2 ) = 0

x = 5.33
6 x 8 [C D]

x=6
MC = 40

( x 2 )2
2

ME x = 5.33 = 41.66
x=2
MB = 0

V 5 + 30 10 30 = 0
V = 15
VC = 15 , VD = 15

=0

Solid Mechanics
8 x 10 [ D E]

V 5 + 30 10 30 + 20 = 0
V = 5
VD = 5 , VE = 5

Solid Mechanics

Fx + = 0 ]

R Ax = 0

Fy + = 0

R Ay + 60 90 = 0
RAy = 30 kN

M = 0]

M + 60 90 4.5 = 0
M = 285 k m

30 + V + 60 30 ( x 3 ) = 0
V = 30 ( x 3 ) 90
= 30 3 90
= 90 90
=0
M B M A = ( 60 )
M B = 60 + M A = 60 285
= 225

Solid Mechanics
MC M B = ( 90 )
MC = MB + 90 = 225 + 90
= 135
MD MC = ( 135 )
MD = MC + 135 = 135 + 135 = 0
Fy + = 0
R Ay + RCy 200 240 = 0
R Ay + RCy = 440

( 1)

M A = 0]
200 3 240 4 + RCy 8 = 0
RCy = 195 kN
RAy = 245 kN

V + 245 200 30 x = 0
V = 30 x 45
V = 30 8 45 = 240 45
V = 195

Solid Mechanics

M 245 3 + 90 1.5
M = 245 3 90 1.5

M = 600

RAy + RBy = 32

M A = 0 ] 32 2 + 18 + 8 + 4 RBy = 0

64 + 16 + 4 RBy = 0
RBy = 12 kN
RAy = 20 kN

Solid Mechanics

V + 20 8x = 0
V = 8x 20
8x 20 = 0
x = 20 / 8 = 2.5
MC M A = ( 50 )
MC = M A + 50 = 8 + 25 = 17

Problem:

Fx + = 0 ]

RAx = 0
Fy = 0 + R Ay + RDy 60 50 = 0

R Ay + RDy = 110

M A = 0 ] 60 1.5 50 4 + RDy 5 = 0
290
= 58 kN
5
= 52 kN

RDy =
RAy

( 1)

Solid Mechanics

Fy = 0 +

V + 52 20 x = 0

V = 20 x 52

( B)

0 x 3m

[ M = 0]
20 x 2
M+
52 x = 0
2
20 x 2
M = 52 x
( 0 x 3m )
2
Fy = 0 +
V + 52 60 = 0
V = 8 kN

3 x 4m

[ M = 0] M 52 x + 60 ( x 1.5 ) = 0
M = 52 x 60 ( x 1.5 )

3 x 4m

Solid Mechanics

Fy = 0 +
V + 52 60 50 = 0
V = 58 kN

( 4 x 5)

[ M = 0] M 52 x + 60 ( x 1.5 ) + 50 ( x 4 ) = 0
M = 52 x 60 ( x 1.5 ) 50 ( x 4 ) ( 4 x 5 )
dM
= V
dx
dV
= P
dx
20 52 = 0

x = 52 / 20 = 2.6 m

M B ME = 1.6
M B = 1.6 + 67.6

Solid Mechanics
M B M A = Vdx
dM
= V
dx
dV
= P
dx

20 52 = 0
x = 52 / 20 = 2.6
MB ME = 1.6
MB = 1.6 + ME = 1.6 + 67.6
= 66
MC MB = 8
MC = 8 + MB
= 8 + 66 = 58
MD MC = 58
MD = MC + 58
= 58 58 = 0

Solid Mechanics

2. Concept of stress
Traction vector or Stress vector
Now we define a quantity known as stress vector or
traction as

Tn =

FR
lim A units Pa N / m2
A0

and we assume that the quantity

MR
lim A 0
A 0
(1) Tn is a vector quantity having direction of FR
(2) Tn represent intensity point distributed force at the point
"P" on a plane whose normal is n
(3) Tn acts in the same direction as FR

Solid Mechanics

(4) There are two reasons are available for justification of the
MR
assumption that lim
0
A 0 A
(a) experimental
(b) as A 0, FR becomes resultant of a parallel
force distribution. Therefore M R = 0 for force
system.
(5) Tn varies from point to point on a given plane
(6) Tn at the same point is different for different planes.
(7) Tn = Tn will act at the point P
(8) In general

Components of Tn

FR = Fnn + vtt + vss

Solid Mechanics
Tn =

FR
Fn
vt
vs

=
n
+
t
+
lim A lim A lim A lim A s
A0
A0
A0
A0
Tn = nnn + ntt + nss

where

Fn dFn
lim A = dA = Normal stresscomponent
A0
v dv
nt = lim t = t = Shear stresscomponent
A0 A dA
v dv
ns = lim s = s = Another shear componet
dA
A0 A
nn =

NormalStress
Shear stress
dFn = nn dA

dVt = nt dA

Notation of stress components

The magnitude and direction of Tn clearly depends on the
plane m-m. Therefore, stress components magnitude &
direction depends on orientation of cut m-m.
(a) First subscript- plane on which is acting
(b) Second subscript- direction

Solid Mechanics

Rectangular components of stress

Cuts to the coordinate planes will give more valuable
information than arbitrary cuts.

Tx =

vy
FR
Fx
v
=
i
+
lim A lim A lim A j + lim Az k
A0
A0
A0
A0
Tx = xxi + xy j + xz k

where

Fx
lim A = Normal stress
A0
vy
v
= lim
= Shear stress; xz = lim z = Shear stress
A0 A
A0 A

xx =
xy

Solid Mechanics

dvy = xy dA

dFx = xx dA

dvz = xz dA

Similarly,

Fy
FR
vx
vz
j +
Ty = lim
= lim
i + lim
lim A k
A
A
A

A0
A0
A0
A0
Ty = yxi + yy j + yz k
Tz = zxi + zy j + zz k

xx and xy will act only on x-plane. We can see x and xy

only when we take section to x-axis.

The stress tensor

Components a point P on the x-plane in x,y,z
directions

xx
jj = yx
zx

xy

xz

yy yz Rec tan gular stresscomponents

zy

zz

This array of 9 components is called as stress tensor.

It is a second rank of tensor

because of two indices

Solid Mechanics

These 9 rectangular stress components are obtained by

taking 3 mutually planes passing through the point
P
Stress tensor is an array consisting of stress
components acting on three mutually perpendicular
planes.

Tn = nxi + ny j + nz k

What is the difference between distributed loading & stress?

FR
A0 A

q = lim

q = yy can also be called.

No difference!
Except for their origin!

Solid Mechanics

Sign convention of stress components.

A positive components acts on a +ve face in a +ve coordinate
direction

or
A positive component acts on a negative face in a negative
coordinate direction.

Say

x = 20 ; Pa xy = 10 Pa and xz = 30 Pa at a point P

means.

Solid Mechanics

State of stress at a point

The totality of all the stress vectors acting on every possible plane
passing through the point is defined to be state of stress at a point.

State of stress at a point is important for the designer in

determining the critical planes and the respective critical
stresses.
If the stress vectors [and hence the component] acting
on any three mutually perpendicular planes passing
through the point are known, we can determine the
stress vector Tn acting on any plane n through that
point.

The stress tensor will specify the state stress at point.

xx xy

xz

ij = yx yy yz
zx

zy

zz

can also represent state of

stress at a point.

Solid Mechanics

The stress element

Is there any convenient way to visualize or represent the
state of stress at a point or stresses acting three mutually
perpendicular planes say x- plane , y-plane and z-plane.

ij

+ xx

+ xy

+ xz

= + yx

+ yy

+ yz

+ zx

+ zy

+ zz

xx = xx ( x,y ,z )

yy = yy ( x ,y ,z )

Continuous functions of x,y ,z

Let us consider a stress tensor or state of stress at a point in a

component as

Solid Mechanics

ij =

10

30

50

60

30 60 100

Equilibrium of stress element

y
dz

xy
xz

dy

x
x

dx
z

Fx = 0 + ]

x dydz + yx dxdz + zx dydx x dydz yx dxdz zx dxdy = 0

Similarly, we can show that

Fy = 0 and

Fz = 0 is satisfied.

Solid Mechanics

M zP = 0
C.C.W + ve

( xy dydz ) dx ( yx dxdz ) dy = 0
xy yx = 0

xy = yx
Shearing stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes
are equal.

MxP = 0

yz = zy and

MyP = 0

zx = xz

Cross-shears are equal- a very important result

Since xy = yx , if xy = ve

yx is also ve

Solid Mechanics
The stress tensor

xx
ij = yx = xy

xy

xz

xy

yz is sec ond rank symmetric tensor

zx = xz zy = yz yz
Differential equations of equilibrium

Fx + = 0 ]

x +

yx
x

x yz + yx +
y xz + zx + zx z yx
x
y
z

x yz xy xz zx yx + Bx xyz = 0
yx
x
2
xyz +
yxz + zx xyz + Bx xyz = 0
x
y
z
Canceling

xy

and
lim

x 0
y 0
z0

terms and taking limit

x yx zx
+
+
+ Bx = 0
x
y
z

Similarly we can easily show that

Solid Mechanics
x yx zx
+
+
+ Bx = 0
x
y
z
xy yy zy
+
+
+ By = 0
x
y
z
xz yz zz
+
+
+ Bz = 0
x
y
z

Fx = 0 ]
Fy = 0

Fz = 0 ]

If a body is under equilibrium, then the stress

components must satisfy the above equations and must
vary as above.
For equilibrium, the moments of forces about x, y and z axis
at any point must vanish.

M zp = 0

xy +

xy
x

x yz

yx
y
x
x
+ xy yz
yx +
y xz
2
2
2
y
yx xz

y
=0
2

Solid Mechanics

2 xy yxz

xy x 2 yz 2 yx xyz yx xy 2 z
+

=0
x
2
2
y
2

xy +

xy x
yx y
yx
=0
x 2
y 2

Taking limit
xy x
yx y
lim xy +
yx
=0
x 2
y 2
x 0
y 0
z0

xy yx = 0

xy = yx

Relations between stress components and internal force

resultants

Solid Mechanics
Fx = xx dA ; Vy = xy dA ; Vz = xz dA
A

y xz dA xy dAz = dMx
Mx =
A

( y xz xy z ) dA

M y = xz dA ; M z = xy dA
A

Solid Mechanics

3. Plane stress and Plane strain

Plane stress- 2D State of stress

3D State of stress

xy

xz

ij = yx yy yz 6 components
zx

zy

zz

2 D State of stress

x xy 0
ij = xy
0

y
0

0 =
0

xy

yx = xy

Stresscomponents in plane xy

If

ij =

x ( x,y ) xy ( x,y )

xy ( x,y ) yy ( x,y )

plane stress-is a --- state of stress

All stress components are in the plane x y i.e all stress

components can be viewed in x y plane.

Solid Mechanics
This type of stress-state (i.e plane stress) exists in bodies
whose z - direction dimension is very small w.r.t other
dimensions.

Stress transformation laws for plane stress

The state of stress at a point P in 2D-plane stress problems
are represented by

ij =

x xy
xy

nn nt
nt tt

Solid Mechanics
* We can determine the stress components on any plane n
by knowing the stress components on any two mutually
planes.

Stress transformation laws for plane stress

In order to get useful information we take different cutting

planes passing through a point. In contrast to 3D problem,
all cutting planes in plane stress problems are parallel to x-

Solid Mechanics
axis. i.e we take different cutting plane by rotating about zaxis.

As in case of 3D, the state of stress at a point in a plane stress

domain is the totality of all the stress. If we know the stress
components on any two mutually planes then stress
components on any arbitrary plane m-m can be determined.
Thus the stress tensor

ij =

x xy
xy

is sufficient to tell about the state of stress

at a point in the plane stress problems.

dA = Area of AB
dACs = Area of BC
dASin = Area of AC

Fn

+=0

nn dA x dACos Cos xy dACos Sin xy dASin Cos

yy dASin Sin = 0
nn xCos 2 2 xy Sin Cos yy Sin 2 = 0

Solid Mechanics

nn = xCos 2 + y Sin2 + 2 xy Sin Cos

nn =
Fn

x +y
2

x y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

+=0

nt dA x dACos Sin xy dACos Cos + xy dASin Sin

y dASin Cos = 0

nt = xCos Sin + y Sin Cos + xy Cos 2 Sin2

(
)
x y )
(
=
Sin2 +

nt = Cos Sin x y + xy Cos 2 Sin 2

nt

xyCos 2

We shall now show that if you know the stress components

on two mutually planes then we can compute stresses on
any inclined plane. Let us assume that we know that state of
stress at a point P is given

ij =
This also means that

x xy
xy

Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics
If = we can compute on AB
If = +

we can compute on BC

If = + we can compute on CD
If = +

3
we can compute on DA
2

nn and nt equations are known as transformation

laws for plane stress.
They are not only useful in determination of stresses on
any plane but also useful in transforming stresses from
one coordinate system to another
Transformation laws do not require an equilibrium state
and thus are also valid at all points of the body under
accelerations.
These laws are true for any point P of a body.

Invariants of stress tensor

Any quantity for which its 2D scalar components
transform from one coordinate system to another
according to nn and nt is called a two dimensional

Solid Mechanics
symmetric tensor of rank 2. Here in particular the tensor
is a stress tensor.
Moment of inertia if x = I xx , y = I yy ; xy = I xy

By definition a tensor is a mathematical quantity that

transforms according to certain laws, such that certain
invariant properties are maintained for all coordinate
systems.
Tensors, as governed by their transformation laws,
possess several properties. We now develop those
properties for 2D second vent symmetric tensor.

nn =

t =

x +y x y
+

x +y
2

nt =

x y
2

x y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

Cos 2 xy Sin2

Sin2 + xyCos 2

Solid Mechanics

n + t = x + y = x + y = I 1
I 1 = First invariant of stress in 2D
2
2
n t nt
= x y xy
= x y xy = I 2

I 2 = Second invariant of stress in 2D

I 1 ,I 2 are invariants of 2D symmetric stress tensor at a
point.
Invariants are extremely useful in checking the
correctness of transformation
Of I 1 and I 2 , I 1 is the most important property : the
sum of normal stresses on any two mutually planes
( directions) is a constant at a given point.
In 2D we have two stress invariants; in 3D we have
three invariants of stresses.

Solid Mechanics

Solid Mechanics

Problem:
A plane-stress condition exists at a point on the surface of a
loaded structure, where the stresses have the magnitudes
and directions shown on the stress element. (a) Determine
the stresses acting on a plane that is oriented at a 15 w.r.t.
the x-axis (b) Determine the stresses acting on an element
that is oriented at a clockwise angle of 15 w.r.t the original
element.

Solution:

x = 46
y = 12
xy = 19
Q = 15

it is in C.W.

Solid Mechanics

x +y
2

x y
2

46 + 12 34
=
= 17 MPas
2
2

46 12 58
=
= 29 MPa
2
2

Sin 2 = Sin 2 ( 15 ) = 0.5 ; Cos 2 = Cos 2 ( 15 ) = 0.866

n = 17 29 0.866 + 19 0.5

n =

x +y
2

x y
2

Cos 2 + xySin2

n1 = 32.6 MPas
Substituting = 15 in nt equation

nt =

x y
2

Sin2 + xyCos2

n1t1 = 29 0.5 19 0.866

n1t1 = 31 MPa

Solid Mechanics

t = n2 = nt =75
t = 17 29 cos 150 19 sin 150

t = 1.4 MPa
tn = n2t2 = nt =75

tn = +29 Sin150 19 Cos150

Now = 145

= 31 MPa

n = 17 29Cos 2 165 19Sin2 165

= 32 MPa

nt = 0.29Sin330 19Cos 3300

nt = 31 MPa
As a check

n + t = x + y = 32.6 1.4 = 34 MPa = 46 + 12s

Solid Mechanics

4. Principal Stresses
Principal Stresses
Now we are in position to compute the direction and
magnitude of the stress components on any inclined plane at
any point, provided if we know the state of stress (Plane
stress) at that point. We also know that any engineering
component fails when the internal forces or stresses reach a
particular value of all the stress components on all of the
infinite number of planes only stress components on some
particular planes are important for solving our basic
question i.e under the action of given loading whether the
component will ail or not? Therefore our objective of this
class is to determine these plane and their corresponding
stresses.
(1) n = n ( ) =

n + y
2

n y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

(2) Of all the infinite number of normal stresses at a point,

what is the maximum normal stress value, what is the
minimum normal stress value and what are their

Solid Mechanics
corresponding planes i.e how the planes are oriented ? Thus
mathematically we are looking for maxima and minima of
( Q ) function..
n

(3) n =

n +y
2

n y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

For maxima or minima, we know that

d n
= 0 = x y Sin2 + 2 xyCos 2
d

tan 2 =

2 xy

x y

(4) The above equations has two roots, because tan repeats
itself after . Let us call the first root as P1

tan 2 P1 =

2 xy

x y

tan 2 P2 = tan 2 P1 + =

2 xy

x y

Solid Mechanics

P2 = P1 + s
2

(5) Let us verify now whether we have minima or minima at

P1 and P2

d 2 n
= 2 x y Cos 2 4 xy Sin2
2
d

d 2 n

d 2 =

= 2 x y Cos 2 P1 4 xy Sin2 P1
P1

We can find Cos 2 P1 s and Sin2 P1 s as

x y

Cos 2 P1 =

x y

2 xy

Sin2 P1 =
2

x y
2

=
2
+ xy

Substituting Cos 2 P1 and Sin2 P1

2
+ xy

xy
x y
2

2
+ xy

Solid Mechanics

d 2 n
d 2 =

=
P1

)(

2 x y x y
2

x y

x y

2
=

x y

d 2 n

= 4
d 2

P2 =P1 +
2

4 xy xy

x y

2
+ xy

2
+ xy

x y
2

2
+ xy

x y
2

) (

2
+ xy

2
4 xy

x y
2

4
2

d2n
d 2 =

x y

2
+ xy

2
+ xy

2
+ xy

(-ve)

= 2 x y Cos 2P1 + 4 xySin 2P1 +

= 2 x y Cos2P1 + 4 xySin2P1
Substituting Cos 2 P1 & Sin2 P1 m we can show that

d 2 n

d 2 =

= 4
P2

x y
2

2
+ xy
s

(+ve)

Solid Mechanics
Thus the angles P1 s and P2 s define planes of either
maximum normal stress or minimum normal stress.
(6) Now, we need to compute magnitudes of these stresses
We know that,

n =

x +y
2

n =

P1

x y

= 1 =

x +y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

x y
2

Cos 2 P1 + xy Sin2 P1

Substituting Cos 2 P1 s and Sin2 P1

1 =

x +y
2

x y

2
+ xy

Max.Normal stress because of + sign

Similarly,

n =

P2 = P1 =
2

= 2 =

x +y

xy Sin ( 2 P1 + )
=

x +y
2

x y
2

x y
2

Cos 2 P1 xy Sin2 P1

Substituting Cos 2 P1 and Sin2 P1

Cos 2 P1 + +

Solid Mechanics

x +y
2

x y
2

2
+ xy

Min.normal sress because of ve sign

We can write

1 or 2 =

x +y
2

x y

2
+ xy

(7) Let us se the properties of above stress.

(1) P2 = P1 +

s - planes on which maximum normal stress

2
and minimum normal stress act are to each other.

(2) Generally maximum normal stress is designated by 1

and minimum stress by 2 . Also P1 1 ; P2 2

1 > 2 alg ebraically i.e.,

0
1
1000 2

Solid Mechanics
(4) maximum and minimum normal stresses are collectively
called as principal stresses.
(5) Planes on which maximum and minimum normal stress
act are known as principal planes.
(6) P1 and P2 that define the principal planes are known as
principal directions.
(8) Let us find the planes on which shearing stresses are zero.

nt = 0 = x y Sin2 + xyCos2
tan 2 =

2 xy

x =y

= directions of principal plans

Thus on the principal planes no shearing stresses act.
Conversely, the planes on which no shearing stress acts are
known as principal planes and the corresponding normal
stresses are principal stresses. For example the state of stress
at a point is as shown.
Then

and

are

principal stresses because

no shearing stresses are
acting on these planes.

Solid Mechanics
(9) Since, principal planes are to each other at a point P,
this also means that if an element whose sides are parallel to
the principal planes is taken out at that point P, then it will
be subjected to principal stresses. Observe that no shearing
stresses are acting on the four faces, because shearing
stresses must be zero on principal planes.

(10) Since 1 and 2 are in two

say that

directions, we can easily

x + y = 1 + 2 = x + y = I 1

Solid Mechanics

5. Maximum shear stress

Maximum and minimum shearing stresses
So far we have seen some specials planes on which the
shearing stresses are always zero and the corresponding
normal stresses are principal stresses. Now we wish to find
what are maximum shearing stress plane and minimum
shearing stress plane. We approach in the similar way of
maximum and minimum normal stresses

x y

(1) nt =

Sin2 + xyCos 2

d nt
= x y Cos 2 + xyCos 2
d

For maximum or minimum

d nt
= 0 = x y Cos 2 2 xy Sin2
d

tan 2 =

x y
2 xy

This has two roots

tan 2S1

x y )
(
=
2 xy

s stan ds for shear stress

p stan ds for principal stresses.

Solid Mechanics

tan 2S2 = tan 2S1 + =

S2 = S1 +

x y
2 xy

Now we have to show that at these two angles we will have

maximum and minimum shear stresses at that point.
Similar to the principal stresses we must calculate

d 2 nt
= 2 x y Sin2 4 xyCos 2
2
d

d 2 nt
d 2 =

= 2 x y Sin2S1 4 xyCos 2S1

S1

2 xy

Cos 2S1 =
2

x y

x y

Sin2S1 =
2

x y
2

2
+ xy

)
2
+ xy

Substituting above values in the above equation we can

show that

Solid Mechanics

d 2 nt
d 2 =

- ve

S1

Similarly we can show that

d 2 nt
d 2 =

= + ve

S2 =S1 +
2

Thus the angles S1 and S2 define planes of either maximum

shear stress or minimum shear stress. Planes that define
maximum shear stress & minimum shear stress are again
to each other.. Now we wish to find out these values.

nt

x y )
(
=
Sin2 +
2

nt =

S1

xyCos 2

x y )
(
=
Sin2
2

S1

+ xyCos 2S1

Substituting Cos 2S1 and Sin2S1 s , we can show that

max = +

nt =

S2 =S1

x y
2

x y )
(
=
Sin ( 2S
+
2
2

2
+ xy

Substituting Cos 2S1 and Sin2S1

min =

x y
2

+ + xyCos 2S1 +

2
+ xy

Solid Mechanics

max

is algebraically > min , however

magnitude is same. Thus we can write

max or min =

x y
2

their

absolute

2
+ xy

Generally

max S1
min S2

Q. Why max and min are numerically same. Because S1 &

S2 are planes.

(2) Unlike the principal stresses, the planes on which

maximum and minimum shear stress act are not free from
normal stresses.

Solid Mechanics

x + y x y

n =

n =

S1

x +y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2 s

x y
2

Cos 2S1 + xy Sin2S1

Substituting Cos 2S1 and Sin2S1

= n =

n =

S2 =S1 +
2

+ xy Sin 2S1 +

S1

x +y

=
+

x +y
2

x y
2

Cos 2S1 +

Simplifying this equation gives

= n =

S2

x +y
2

Therefore the normal stress on maximum and minimum

shear stress planes is same.
(3) Both the principal planes are to each other and also the
planes of max and min are also to each other. Now let us
see there exist any relation between them.

Solid Mechanics

6. Mohrs circle
Mohrs circle for plane stress
So far we have seen two methods to find stresses acting on
an inclined plane
(a)
(b)

Wedge method
Use of transformation laws.

Another method which is purely graphical approaches is

known as the Mohrs circle for plane stress.
A major advantage of Mohrs circle is that, the state of the
stress at a point, i.e the stress components acting on all
infinite number of planes can be viewed graphically.

Equations of Mohrs circle

n =

We know that,

x + y x y
+

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

This equation can also be written as

x +y
2

nt =
n

x y
2

x y
2

x +y

(x

a)

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

Sin2 + xyCos 2

2
+ nt
=

x +y
2

y2 =

R2

2
+ xy

Solid Mechanics
The above equation is
clearly an equation of
circle with center at ( a, 0 )
on

plane
it
represents a circle with
x +y
, 0 and
center at
2
having radius

R=

x y
2

2
+ xy

This circle on planeMohrs circle.

From the above deviation it
can be seen that any point P
on the Mohrs circle
represents stress which are
acting on a plane passing
through the point.
In this way we can
completely visualize the
stresses acting on all
infinite planes.

Solid Mechanics
(3) Construction of Mohrs circle
Let us assume that the state of stress at a point is given

A typical problem using Mohrs circle i.e given x , y and

xy on an inclined element. For the sake of clarity we

assume that, x , ys and xy all are positive and x > y

Solid Mechanics
Since any point on the circle represents the stress
components on a plane passing through the point.
Therefore we can locate the point A on the circle.

The coordinates of the plane A = + x , + xy

Therefore we can locate the point A on the circle with

coordinates + x , + xy s
Therefore the line AC represents the x-axis. Moreover,
the normal of the A-plane makes 0 w.r.t the x-axis.
In a similar way we can locate the point B
corresponding to the plane B.

Solid Mechanics

The coordinates of B = + y , xy s
Since we assumed that for the sake of similarity y < x s .
Therefore the point B diametrically opposite to point A.
The line BC represents y- axis. The point A corresponds
to Q = 0 , and pt. B corresponds to Q = 90 (+ve) of the
stress element.
At this point of time we should be able to observe two
important points.
The end points of a diameter represents stress
components on two planes of the stress element.
The angle between x- axis and the plane B is 90 (c.c.w)
in the stress element. The line CA in Mohrs circle
represents x- axis and line CB represents y-axis or plane
B. It can be seen that, the angle between x-axis and yaxis in the Mohrs circle is 180 (c.c.w). Thus 2Q in
Mohrs circle corresponds to Q in the stress element
diagram.

Stresses on an inclined element

Point A corresponds to Q = 0 on the stress element.
Therefore the line CA i.e x-axis becomes reference line
from which we measure angles.
Now we locate the point D on the Mohrs circle such
that the line CD makes an angle of 2Q c.c.w from the xaxis or line CA. we choose c.c.w because in the stress
element also Q is in c.c.w direction.

Solid Mechanics
The coordinates or stresses corresponding to point D on
the Mohrs circle represents the stresses on the x - face or
D on the stress element.

x = avg + RCos
xy = RSin
y = avg RCos
Since D& D are planes inthe
stress element ,thenthey become
diametrically opposite point s on
thecircle, just likethe planes A& Bdid

Calculation of principal stress

The most important application of the Mohrs circle is
determination of principal stresses.
The intersection of the Mohrs circle --- with normal stress
axis gives two points P1 and P2 . Thus P1 and P2 represents
points corresponding to principal stresses. In the current
diagram the coordinates the of
P1 = 1 , 0s
P2 = 2 , 0

1 = avg + R
2 = avg R
The principal direction corresponding to 1 is now equal to
2 p1 , in c.c.w direction from the x-axis.

Solid Mechanics

p2 = p1

We can see that the points P1 and P2 are diametrically

opposite, this indicate that principal planes are to each
other in the stress element. This fact can also be verified from
the Mohrs circle.

In- plane maximum shear stress

What are points on the circle at which the shearing stress are
reaching maximum values numerically? Points S1 and S2 at
the top and bottom of the Mohrs circle.
The points S1 and S2 are at angles 2 = 90 from
points P1 P2 and, i.e the planes of maximum shear stress
are oriented at 45 to the principal planes.
Unlike the principal stresses, the planes of maximum
shear stress are not free from the normal stresses. For
example the coordinates of
S1 = + max , avg s
S2 = max , avg

max = R

= avg
Mohrs circle can be plotted in two different ways. Both the
methods are mathematically correct.

Solid Mechanics

Finally
Intersection of Mohrs circle with the -axis gives
principal stresses.
The top and bottom points of Mohrs circle gives
maximum ve shear stress and maximum +ve shear
stress.
Do not forget that all these inclined planes are obtained
by rotation about z-axis.

Solid Mechanics

Mohr circle problem

Solution:

x +y
2

15000 + 5000
= 10000 MPa
2

A - (15000,4000)
B - (5000,-4000)
R=

x y
2

2
+ xy

= 5000 2 + 4000 2

(a)

R = 6403 MPa
x y
= 5000
2

15000 5000
2

+ 4000 2

Solid Mechanics
Point D : x = 10000 + 6403Cos 41.34 = 14807 MPa

xy = 6403Sin 41.34

= 4229 MPa

Point D : n = y = 10000 6403Cos 41.34 = 593 MPa

nt = xy = 6403Sin 41.34
b)

1 = 16403 ; P1 =

= 4229

38.66
= 19.33
2

2 = 3597 MPa

c)

max = 6403 MPa S1 = 25.67 = 25.67

Solid Mechanics
(2) = 45
Principal stresses and principal shear stresses.

Solution:

x +y
2

R=

50 + 10
= 20
2

x y

A ( 50 , 40 )
B ( 10 , 40 )

2
+ xy

50 10
2

p1 = 1 =
p2 = 2 =

x +y
2
x +y
2

+ ( 40 )2 = 50 MPa
+ R = 20 + 50 = 30s
R = 20 50 = 70

Solid Mechanics

2Qp1 = 233.13
Qp1 = 116.6
Qp2 = 206.6
2Qs1 = 143.13
Qs1 = 71.6
Qs2 = 161.6

Solid Mechanics
Q. x = 31 MPa, y = 5 MPa and xy = 33 MPa
Stresses on inclined element = 45
Principal stresses and maximum shear stress.

Solution:

avg =
R=

x +y
2

x y
2

=
2

31 5
= 13 MPa
2
2
+ xy
= 37.6 MPa

A ( 31 , 33 )
B ( 5 , 33 )

x = RCos + avg s
= 37.6 Cos 28.64 + 13 = 46 MPa

xy = RSin = 37.6 28.64 = 18.02

y = RCos avg
= 20 MPa

Solid Mechanics

1 = 50.6 MPa

2 = 24.6 MPa
p1 = 30.68

max = 37.6 MPa s1 = 14.32

min = 37.6 MPa
= avg = 13 MPa

Solid Mechanics

7. 3D-Stress Transformation
3D-stress components on an arbitrary plane

Basically we have done so far for this type of coordinate

system

n x x

n x y

n x z D i r . c o s i n e s o f x

i = n x x i + n x y j + n x z k
nyx nyy nyz
j = nyxi + nyy j + nyz k
nzx nzy nzz
k = nzxi + nzy j + nzz k

Solid Mechanics

Tn = Txxi + Txy j + Txz ks

Tn = xxi + xyj + xz k
ABC dA
PAB dAnxx
PAC dAnxx
PBC dAnxz

Fx + = 0 ]

Txx da = x dAnxx + yx dAnxy + zx dAnxz

Txx = x nxx + yx nxy + zx nxz

xy yz

Txy = xy nxx + y nxy + zy nxz

xy

yz

Txz = xznxx + yznxy + znxz

zx yz

x , xy , xz

)(
)
xy = Tn j = (Txxi + Txy j + Txz k ) . ( nyxi + nyy j + nyz k )
xz = Tn k = (Txxi + Txy j + Txz k ) . ( nzxi + nzy j + nzz k )
x = Tni = Txxi + Txy j + Txz k . nxxi + nxy j + nxz k

(1)
(2)
(3)

Tyx = x nyx + yx nyy + zx nyz

Tyy = xy nyy + y nyy + zy nyz
Tyz = xznyy + yznyy + znyz

(
)(
)
z = (Tzxi + Tzy j + Tzz k )( nzxi + nzy j + nzz k )
y = Tyxi + Tyy j + Tyz k nyxi + nyy j + nyz k

(4)
(5)

Solid Mechanics

)(

yz = Tyxi + Tyy j + Tyz k nzxi + nzy j + nzz k

nxx = Cos
nxy = Sin

nyx = Sin
nyy = Cos

nzx = 0
nzy = 0

nxz = 0

nyz = 0

nzz = 1

(6)

z = 0 : xz = 0 : yz = 0
=z

x xy 0

x = xCos 2 + y Sin 2 + 2 xy Sin Cos

y = xSin2 + yCos 2 2 xy Sin Cos

xy = x y Sin Cos + xy Cos Sin

Principal stresses

nx ,ny ,nz

Tn = n = nxi + ny j + nz k

Tn = Tnxi + Tny j + Tnz k

Where
Tnx = x nx + yx ny + zx nz
Tny = xy nx + y ny + zy nz
Tnz = xznx + yzny + znz

Tnx = nx Tny = ny Tnz = nz

xy

Solid Mechanics

( x ) nx + yx ny + zx nz = 0

yx nx + y ny + zy nz = 0 Syst.of linear hom og.eqns.

xznx + yzny + ( z ) nz = 0
nx = ny = nz = 0 : nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1

xy

zx

xy

zy

zx

yz

For non trivial solution

ny = ( 0 )
nz

must be zero.

nx

2
2
2
3 x + y + z 2 + x y + y z + z x xy
yz
zx

2
2
2
x y z + 2 xy yz zx x yz
y zx
z xy
=0

This has 3- real roots 1 , 2 , 3

( x 1 ) nx + yx ny + zx nz = 0

yx nx + y 1 ny + zy nz = 0
and

nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1

nx ,ny ,nz 1

1 > 2 > 3
Stress invariants

3 I 1 2 + I 2 I 3 = 0

(1)

Solid Mechanics
I1 = x + y + z
2
2
2
I 2 = x y + y z + x z xy
yz
zx

stress inv ar iants

2
2
2
I 3 = x y z + 2 xy yz zx x yz
y zx
z xy

3 I 1 2 + I 3 = 0
I 1 = x + y + z I 2 = x y + x z + yz x2y y2z x2z
I 1 = I 1 ;

I 2 = I 2 ; I 3 = I 3

3D

2D

I1 = 1 + 2 + 3
I 2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1
I 3 = 1 2 3

I1 = 1 + 2
I 2 = 1 2
I3 = 0

Principal planes are orthogonal

Tnn = Tn .n
n = nxi + ny j + nz k
n = nxi + nyj + nz k
Tn = Tnxi + Tny j + Tnz k
Tn = Tnxi + Tny j + Tnz k

Solid Mechanics

Tnn = Tnn

xy

= yx

Tnn = Tnn

( 1n ) n = ( 2 n ) n

1 nx nx + ny ny + nznz = 2 nx nx + ny ny + nznz

1 2
nx nx + ny ny + nznz = 0
n .n must be to each other.

The state of stress in principal axis

Tnx = 1nx

Tny = 2 ny
Tnz = 3nz

n = 1nx2 + 2 ny2 + 3nz2

2

Tn = Tn2x + Tn2y + Tn2z s

= 12 nx2 + 22 ny2 + 32 nz2
2

2 = Tn n2

Solid Mechanics

8. 3D Mohrs circle and Octahedral stress

3-D Mohrs circle & principal shear stresses

x xy
ij = xy
0

z
Once if you know 1 and 2

1 =

2 3

2
+3
1 = 1
2
3
2 = 1
2
+2
2 = 1
2
2
3 = 1
2
2
3 = 1
2

1 > 2 > 3

max = max

1 2 2 3 3 1
2

Solid Mechanics

The maximum normal stress and maximum shear

stress max and their corresponding planes govern the
failure of the engineering materials.
1

It is evident now that in many two-dimensional cases

the maximum shear stress value will be missed by not
considering 3 = 0 and constructing the principal circle.

Solid Mechanics

Problem:
The state of stress at a point is given by

x = 100 MPa, y = 40 MPa, z = 80 MPa and

xy = yz = zx = 0
Determine in plane max shear stresses and maximum shear
stress at that point.
Solution:

1 = 100 MPa, 2 = 80 MPa 3 = 40 MPas

12 =
13 =
23 =

1 2

100 80
= 10 MPa
2

1 3

100 + 40
= 70 MPa
2

2 3

80 + 40
= 60 MPa
2

1 +2

= 90

12 =

2
= 30 MPa

13
23 = 20 MPa
max = max 12 , 13 , 23

max = 70 MPa This occurs in the plane of 1-3

Solid Mechanics

1 , 2 , 3 Principal shear stress in 3D

max = max ( 1 , 2 , 3 )

Solid Mechanics

Plane stress

1 >
3 = z = 0

=
max =

x y

1 3
2

2
+ xy

1
2

---- in plane principal shear stresses.

Solid Mechanics

Problem
At appoint in a component, the state of stress is as shown.
Determine maximum shear stress.

Solution:

ij =

100

50

- plane stress problem

100

We can also write the matrix as aij =

1 = 100
2 = 50
1 2 100 50
2

max = 25 MPa

= 25

50 0

Solid Mechanics
Now with 1 = 100 , 2 = 50 , 3 = 0

max =

1 3
2

= 50 MPa

Occurs in the plane 1-3 instead of 1-2

Solid Mechanics

Some important states of stresses

(1) Uniaxial state of stress: Only one non-zero principal
stress.

1 0 0
0

0 0 =

0 0

1 0
0

- plane stress.

(2) Biaxial state of stress: two non-zero principal stresses.

1
0
0

1 0 =
0

1
0

- plane stress

(3) Triaxial state of stress: All three principal stresses are

non zero.

0
0 3D stress

(4) Spherical state of stress: 1 = 2 = 3 (either +ve or ve)

0
0

0
0 3D stress-special case of triaxial stress.

Solid Mechanics

(5) Hydrostatic state of stress

+P

+P

+P

hydrostatic tension

hydrostatic compression.

(6) The state of pure shear

x xy xz
ij = xy

y yz

zx zy

ij = xy

xy xz
0

zx zy

yz
0

Then we say that the point P is in state of pure shear.

I 1 = 0 is necessary and sufficient condition for state of pure
shear

Solid Mechanics

Octahedral planes and stresses

If nx = ny = nz w.r.t to the principal planes, then these planes
are known as octahedral planes. The corresponding stresses
are known as octahedral stresses.

Eight number of such planes can be identified at a given point --Octahedron

= 1nx2 + 2 ny2 + 3nz2

2

Tn = 12 nx2 + 22 ny2 + 32 nz2

nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1
nx = ny = nz =

oct = 1
=

1
3

+1

1 +2 +3
3

1
= 54.730
3
1
3

+1

1
3

Solid Mechanics

1 +2 +3
3

I1
= meanstress
3

oct = canbe int erpreted meannormal stress at a pt.

2
oct = Tn 2 oct

oct =

1
3

( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 3 1 ) 2

Therefore, the state of stress at a point can be represented

with reference to
(i) stress components of x,y,z coordinate system
(ii) stress components of x,yz coordinate system
(iii) using principal stresses
(iv) using octahedral shear and normal stresses
We can prove that:

oct is smaller than max (exist only on 4 planes) but can exist on 8
planes at a point.

Solid Mechanics

Decomposition into hydrostatic and pure shear stress

x xy xz
ij = yx

z yz

zx zy
Mean stress P =

x xy xz
yx

zx zy

x +y +z

yz = 0 P 0 +
z

Hydrostatic
stat of stress
Dilitational stress

I1
3

x P

xy

xz

yx

y P

yz

zx

zy

z P

State of pure shear

Deviatoric state of stress
Stress deviator

Thus the state of the stress at a point can alos be represented

by sum of dilational stress and stress deviator

Solid Mechanics

P=

1 +2 +3

0 = 0

0 +

I1
3

1 P

2 P

3 P

1 = mean stress + deviation from the mean

The deviatoric and octahedral shear stresses are the answer
for the yielding behavior of materials which is a type of
failure of materials.

Solid Mechanics

9. Deformation and strain analysis

u = u ( x,y ,z ) i + v ( x,y ,z ) j + w ( x,y ,z ) k

u = u ( x ,y ,z )
v = v ( x,y ,z )

( x,y ,z) is the point in the undeformed geometry

w = w ( x,y ,z )

Two types of deformation have been observed for an

infinitesimal element.
Deformation of the whole body = Sum of deformations of

Deformation is described by measuring two quantities.

(1)Elongation or contraction of a line segment
(2)Rotation of any two lines.
Measure
of
deformations
element is known as strain.

of

an

infinitesimal

The strain component that measures elongation or

construction normal strain -
The strain component that measures rotation of any two
lines is shearing strain-

Solid Mechanics

Normal strain - Account for changes in length between two

points.
P* Q* PQ
s* s
n ( P ) = lim
= lim
PQ
s
s0
s0

We can also define the same point x ,y ,z

(1) By definition x is + if s* > s
*

x is - if s > s

lim as s 0

s* = ( 1+ n ) s
s*

( 1+ n ) s if

s n s

s 0

s =n s

(2) It is immaterial how P* Q* is oriented finally. However for

n we must consider PQ in the direction of n in the
undeformed geometry
(3) In general n =n ( x ,y ,z ) s

Mm/mm,0.5%=0.005;

(4) No units.

= 10 6 , 1000

(5) Meaning of nn

= 1000 10 6 = 0.001 mm / mm

Shearing strain Accounts the change in angle

Yn+ ( P ) Change in angle between

lines in n & t direction.

Ynt ( P ) lim

x 0
y 0

nt = lim +
x 0
y 0

Solid Mechanics

(1)We must select two lines in the undeformed geometry.

(2)Units of Ynt radius.
(3)By deflection Ynt = Ytn
(4)Two subscripts are required for

- to show directions of initial

infinitesimal line segments.

(5) Ynt is +ve if angle is decreased
Ynt is -ve if angle is more.

By taking two lines

We can define n ,t &Ynt

Rectangular strain components

x ,y andYxy PQRS
z ,y andYyz QABS
x ,z andYxz RSCD

Yxy

Yxz

Eij = Yxy

Yyz

Yxz

Yyz

- Rectangular strain components .

- We then say that we have strain
computer associated with x ,y ,z
coordinate system.

They represent the state of strain at a point , since we can

determine strain along any direction n

Solid Mechanics

Strain displacement relations: Strains are due to

deformation as displacement so there must be some relation
between deformational displacements and strains. So let us
consider the side of the element PQRS . We shall demonstrate
that w has no impact. So it can be neglected.
P u,v
Q u+

u
v
x ; v + x
x
x

PQ = x
P* Q* = x*

( 1+ x ) x

x*

lim x* = ( 1+ x ) x

x 0
*

x =
=

u
1 + x
x

v
+
x
x

u u
1+ 2 +
x
x

v
+
x

w
+
x
x

w
+
x

Solid Mechanics

x* x
x = lim
x
x 0
= lim

x 0

u u
1+ 2 +
x
x

u u
x = 1 + 2 +
x
x
v
u
y = 1 + 2 +
y
y
w u
z = 1 + 2
+
z
z

v
+
x

v
+
x
v
+
y
v
+
z

w
+
x

w
+
x
w
+
y
w
+
z

1
2

So far no assumption has been made except for size of

x, y & z
*
=
Cosxy

1+

u x u y
x x* y y*
v y
y y*

v x
x x*

1+

w x
x x*

w y
y y*

Yxy = lim

x 0 2
y 0
z0

*
xy

Solid Mechanics
*
SinYxy = lim Cosxy
x 0
y 0
z0

SinYxy = lim

x 0
y 0
z0

1+

u u
v v w w xy
+ 1+
+
x y
y x x y x* y*

x* = ( 1+ x ) x

y* = 1+ y y

SinYxy = lim

u v u u v v w w
+ +
+
+
y x x y x y x y

x 0
y 0
z0

Sin 1
Yxy =

Yyz = sin 1

Yxz = sin 1

( 1+ x ) ( 1+ y )

u v u u v v w w
+ +
+
+
y x x y x y x y

( 1+ x ) ( 1+ y )

u v u u v v w w
+ +
+
+
y x x y x y x y

( 1+ x ) ( 1+ y )

w u w w u u v v
+
+
+
+
x w x z x w x z
( 1+ x )( 1+ z )

All bodies after the application of loads under go small

deformations

Solid Mechanics

Small deformations :
(1) The deformational displacements u = ui + vj + wk are

infinitesimally small.
(2) The strains are small
(a) Changes in length of a infinitesimal line segment are
infinitesimal.
(b) Rotations of line segment are also infinitesimal.

u u u v
, ,
,
x u w x

1 x

negligible compare to

1 ; y < 1 ; z

u v
,
quantities.
x x
u
1
x
2 u
1
= 1 + x
2

x = 1 + 2

u
x
v
y =
y
x =

z =

w
z

SinYxy Yxy

u
1;
x

u v
are
x y

Solid Mechanics
Yxy =

u v
+
y x

( 1+ x + y )

v u
+
x y

w u
+
x z
v w
Yyz = +
z y
Yxz =

Another derivation : Let us take plane PQRS in xy plane.

Also assume that u = u ( x ,y ) & v = v ( x ,y ) only.

Small deformation
Displacements are small
Strains are small
P* Q* PQ x* x
x = lim
=
PQ
x
x 0
x*

P* Q* = 1 +

x = lim

1+

x 0

1+
y = lim

y 0

y
x
x

y
x x
u
x
=
x
x
v
y y
y
v
=
y
y

Strains<0.001
Y < 0.06
s* = 0.2002
s = 2 10 4 mm

Solid Mechanics
Yxy = lim

x 0
y 0

*
xy
= lim +
x 0
y 0

v
v
x
x
tan =
= x
y
y
1+
x 1 +
x
x

tan
v
=
x
u
=
y

Yxy =

u v
+
y x

u u v v
, , ,
x y y x
u
x

u
,
y

1
v
,
yx

We can define the state of strain at point by six components

of strains
x , y , z, Yxy , Yxz , Yyz

Yyx Yzx Yzy

State of strain
x Yxy

Yxz

Eij = Yxy

Yyz

Yxz

Yyz

- Engineering strain matrix

- We can find n in any
direction we can find Ynt for
any two arbitrary directions.

Solid Mechanics

2D- strain transformation

Plain strain: In which

Yxy

Yxy

z = 0
Yyz = 0
Yzx = 0

x =x ( x,y )

y =y ( x,y )
Yxy = Yxy ( x ,y )
implication
of
these
equation is that a point in
a given plane does not
leave that plane all
deformations are in to
plane of the body.

Solid Mechanics
Given x ,y & Yxy what are n ,t & Ynt .
We can always draw PQRS for given n
If x ,y & Yxy

As in case of stress we call these formulae as transformations

laws.
dxSin
1 = x
ds
dx
=x sin
ds
=x sin cos

2 =y cos

dy
=y cos sin
ds

dy
ds
= Yxy sin sin

3 = Yxy sin

Solid Mechanics

dL =x dx cos + y dy sin + Yxy dy cos

dy
dy
dL
dx
=n =x
cos + y
sin + Yxy cos
dS
ds
ds
ds
=x cos cos + y sin2 + Yxy sin cos
n =

x + y
2

x y
2

cos 2 +

Yxy
2

sin 2

= x sin cos + y sin cos Yxy sin2

= x cos ( sin ) + y cos ( sin ) Yxy cos 2
=x cos sin y cos sin Yxy cos 2

x y
Yxy
Ynt
=
sin 2 +
cos 2
2
2
2

Yxy

Yxy

x
Yxy
2

Yxy
2

- state of strain at a point

x xy
- strain tensor

xy

xy

Replace

xy

- stress tensor

xy =

Yxy
2

x x
y y
xy xy =

Yxy
2

Solid Mechanics

Principal shears and maximum shear

In plane- principal strains

tan 2Qp =

2 xy xy / 2

x y

p1 p2 to each other
1 ,2
tan 2s

1 >2
x y )
(
=
2 xy

s = p1 / 4
s1 s2 to each other

x + y = I1

max or min = R =

x + y = J I
2
x y xy
= I2
2
y xy
= J2

xy

Yxy
2

= J2

Ymax
=max s1
2
Ymin
=min s2
2

x y
2

+ 2xy

Solid Mechanics

Mohrs Circle for strain

x ,Yxy ,y

3D-strain transformation

x x ; y y ; z z ; xy =xy =

(x )

xy

xy

(y )

xz

yz

Yxy
2

xz
yz

=0

(z )

1 ,2 ,3 - 1 >2 >3

s 2 = x 2 + y 2
*2

* 2

=P Q

* * 2

+P R

u
1+
x
x

v
1+
y
x

x 2 + y 2

Solid Mechanics
y
n = 1 +
x
u
= 1+
x

u
1+
x

.x
v y
1+
x x

x 2 x 2 y 2

u
v
+2
x 2 + 1 +
x
y
y
1+
x

1+2

+2
2

u
v
x 2 + 1 + 2
y 2 x 2 + y 2
x
y
y
1+
x

Transformation

x = x nx2x + y ny2y + znz2z + xy nxx nxy

+ yznxy nxz + zx nxznxx
x =x nx2x + y nx2y + z nx2z + xy nxx nxy
+ yz nxy nxz + zx nxznxx

xy xy

v
y 2 x 2 y 2
y

Yxy
2

x x xy xy
y y yz yz
z zx zx zx

Solid Mechanics

Principal strains:

(x ) nx + xy ny + xz nz = 0

System of linear
homogeneous
equations

xy nx + y ny + yz nz = 0
xz nx + yz ny + (z ) nz = 0

(x )

xy

xy

(y )

xz

yz

xz
yz

= 0

(z )

3 J 1 12 + J 2 J 3 = 0

J 1 =x + y + z
2
J 2 =xy + xz + y z xy

yz

yz

xz

xz

2yz

2zx

xy

xy

2
J 3 =xy z + xy yzzx x2yz y xz

x
z2xy yx

xy xz
y

yz

zx zy

1 >2 >3

Solid Mechanics

(x 1 ) nx + xy ny + zx nz = 0

xy nx + y 1 ny + zy nz = 0
nx2 + ny2 + nz2 = 1

nx ,ny & nz unique

J 1 =1 + 2 + 3
J 2 =12 + 23 + 31
J 3 =123

Decomposition of a strain matrix into state of pure shear +

hydrostatic strain
x xy xz
x xy
xz
0 0
ij = yx y yz = yx y yz + 0 0
zx zy
where =

x + y + z
3

zx

zy

State of pure shear

0 0

Hydrostatic

Solid Mechanics

Plane strain as a special case of 3D

3 = 0 is also a principal strain

z

is a principal direction

if 1 >2 ; 1 =2 +ve
if 1 +ve, 2 -ve.

if 1 +ve, 2 -ve
P1 & z will come closer

to the maximum extent,

so that the included angle
is

max

Solid Mechanics

Transformation equations for plane-strain

Given state of strain at a point P.

Eij =

xx Yxy
Yxy yy

This also means that

deformation

Now what are the strains associated with x ,y i.e

Eij =

xx Yxy
Yxy yy

This also means that

Solid Mechanics

Assume that xx ,yy and Yxy are +ve

Applying the law of cosines to triangular P * Q* R *

( P * R * )2 = ( P * R * )2 + ( Q * R * )2 2 ( P * R * )(Q * R * )
cos

+ Yxy

x ( 1+ x )

y 1+ y

= x ( 1+ x )

cos

+ y 1+ y

2 x ( 1+ x )

+ Yxy

2
x = x cos and y = x sin

cos 2 + Yxy = sinYxy Yxy

2

x2 ( 1+ x ) = x2 cos 2 ( 1+ x ) + x2 sin2 1+ y

)(

2 x2 sin cos ( 1+ x ) 1+ y Yxy

Solid Mechanics

( 1+ x )2 = cos 2 ( 1+ x )2 + sin2 ( 1+ y )

2 sin cos ( 1+ x ) 1+ y

)( Yxy )

1+ x2 +2 x = cos 2 1+ x2 +2 x + sin 2 1+ 2y +2 y

+ sin 2 Yxy 1+ x + y + xy

1 + 2 x = cos 2 ( 1 + 2 x ) + sin2 1 + 2 y

)
= cos 2 ( 1 + 2 x ) + sin 2 ( 1 + 2 y )

+ Yxy sin 2 1+ x + y

+ Yxy sin 2
1 + 2 x = 1 + 2 x cos 2 + 2 y sin2 + Yxy sin 2
2

x =x cos + y sin +
x =
If

x + y
2

=Q+
x =
y =

sin 2

cos 2 +

Yxy
2

sin 2

x + y
2
x + y
2

x y

Yxy

+
+

x y
2
x y
2

cos 2 +
cos 2

Yxy
2
Yxy
2

sin 2
sin 2

x + y =x + y = J 1 = first invariant of strain.

Solid Mechanics

x Q= =OB =

x + y
2

Yxy
2

2 OB =x + y +Yxy

Yxy = 2 OB x + y
2 OB =x + y +Yxy

Yxy = 2 OB x + y

= 2 OB x + y

x Q=Q+ =OB =

x + y

x y
2

sin 2 +

Yxy
2

)
( 3)

cos 2 -

(4)

Substituting (4) in (3)

) (
)
Yxy = (x y ) sin 2 + Yxy cos 2

Yxy = x + y x y sin 2 + Yxy cos 2 x + y

(5)

tensorial normal strain xx = engineering normal strain

=xx ,yy ,z

( )

tensorial shear strain xy

Engineering shear strain Yxy

=
2
2

Solid Mechanics
xx xy
ij = xy yy
zx zy

y =

Yxz
2

Components.

yz

(zz =zz )

x + y

x =

xy

xz =

2
x + y
2

- Strain tensors

x y
2
x y
2

cos 2 + xy sin 2
cos 2 xy sin 2

x y )
(
=
sin 2 +
2

xy

cos 2

Solid Mechanics

Problem:
An element of material in plane strain undergoes the
following strains
x = 340 10 6 y = 110 10 6

Yxy = 180 10 6

Show them on sketches of properly oriented elements.

Solution:

x = 340 10 6

x = 340 10 6 ; y = 110 10 6 ; Yxy = 180 10 6

Solid Mechanics

Problem:
During a test of an airplane wing, the strain gage readings
from a

45

rosette are as follows gage A, 520 10 6 ; gage B

360 10 6 and gage C 80 10 6

Determine the principal strains and maximum shear strains
and show them on sketches of properly oriented elements.

Solution:
x = 520 10 6
OB = 360 10 6
y = 80 10 6

Yxy = 2 OB x + y

= 2 360 10 6 520 10 6 80 10 6

= 280 10 6 rad

(1)

x + y
2

520 10 6 80 10 6
=
= 220 10 6
2

Solid Mechanics
x y
2

520 10 6 + 80 10 6
=
= 300 10 6
2

e 140 10 6
tan 2 p =
=
x y
300 10 6
2 xy

280 10 6
xy =
=
= 140 10 6
2
2
Yxy

2 p = 25.02

p = 12.51
1 or 2 =

x + y
2

= 220 10 6

p = 102.51

x y
2

2
+ xy

300 10 6

) (
2

+ 140 10 6

= 220 10 6 331.06 10 6

1 = 551.06 10 6
2 = 111.06 10 6

x =12.51
=

x + y
2

x y
2

Cos 2 + xy Sin2

= 220 10 6 + 300 10 6 cos ( 2 12.51 ) + 140 10 6 Sin ( 2 12.51 )

= 551.06 10 6

Solid Mechanics

p1 = 12.51

p2 = 102.51

and

(b) In- plane maximum shear strains are

xy
max

or

xy
min =

x y
2

2
+ xy

= 331.06 10 6

(xy )max = 331.06 106

(xy )min = 331.06 106
tan 2Qs

x y ) 300 10 6
(
=
=
2. xy

140 10 6

2Qs = 64.98
Qs = 32.5
xy

Q = 57.5

Qs = 57.5

x y )
(
=
Sin2 ( 57.5 ) +
2

xy

Cos 2 ( 57.5 )

= 271.89 10 6 59.17 10 6 = 331.06 10 6

Solid Mechanics

s1 = 32.5 and s2 = 32.5

Ymin = 662.11 10 6
Ymax = 662.11 10 6

x + y
2

= 220 10 6

Solid Mechanics

10. Stress strain diagrams

Bar or rod the longitudinal direction is considerably
greater than the other two, namely the dimensions of
cross section.
For the design of the m/c components we need to
understand about mechanical behavior of the
materials.
We need to conduct experiments in laboratory to
observe the mechanical behavior.
The mathematical equations that describe the
mechanical behavior is known as constitutive
equations or laws
Many tests to observe the mechanical behavior- tensile
test is the most important and fundamental test- as we
gain or get lot of information regarding mechanical
behavior of metals
Tensile test Tensile test machine, tensile test specimen,
extensometer, gage length, static test-slowly varying
loads, compression test.

Stress -strain diagrams

After performing a tension or compression tests and
determining the stress and strain at various magnitudes of
load, we can plot a diagram of stress Vs strain.

Solid Mechanics
Such is a characteristic of the particular material being tested
and conveys important information regarding mechanical
behavior of that metal.
We develop some ideas and basic definitions using
curve of the mild steel.
Structural steel = mild steel = 0.2% carbon=low carbon steel
=

L f Lo
Lo

Region O-A
(1) and linearly proportional.
(2) A- Proportional limit

p - proportionality is maintained.
(3) Slope of AO = modulus of elasticity E N/m2,Pa
(4) Strains are infinites ional.

Solid Mechanics

Region A-B
(1) Strain increases more rapidly than
(2) Elastic in this range
Proportionality is lost.

Region B-C
(1) The slope at point B is horizontal.
(2) At this point B, increases without increase in further
load. I.e no noticeable change in load.
(3) This phenomenon is known as yielding
(4) The point B is said to be yield points, the corresponding
stress is yield stress ys of the steel.
(5) In region B-C material becomes perfectly plastic i.e
which means that it deforms without an increase in the
applied load.
(6) Elongation of steel specimen or in the region BC is
typically 10 to 20 times the elongation that occurs in region
OA.
(7) s below the point A are said to be small, and s above A
are said to be large.
(8) s <A are said to be elastic strains and >A are said to
be plastic strains = large strains = deformations are
permanent.

Solid Mechanics

Region C-D
(1)The steel begins to strain harden at C . During strain
hardening the material under goes changes in its crystalline
structure, resulting in increased resistance to the
deformation.
(2)Elongation of specimen in this region requires additional
load,

diagram has + ve slope C to D.

(3) The load reaches maximum value ultimate stress.

(4)The yield stress and ultimate stress of any material is also
known as yield strength and the ultimate strength .
(5) u is the highest stress the component can take up.

Region-DE
Further stretching of the bar is needed less force than
ultimate force, and finally the component breaks into two
parts at E.

Solid Mechanics

Look of actual stress strain diagrams

C toE >BtoC >Oto A

(1) Strains from O to A are
so small in comparison to the
strains from A to E that they
cannot be seen.
(2) The presence of well defined
yield point and subsequent large
plastic strains are characteristics of mild steel.
(3) Metals such a structural steel that undergo large
permanent strains before failure are classified as ductile
metals.
Ex. Steel, aluminum,
magnesium, lead etc.

copper,

nickel,

brass,

bronze,

Aluminum alloys Offset method

(1) They do not have clear cut yield point.
(2) They have initial straight line portion with clear
proportional limit.
(3) All does not have obvious
yield point, but undergoes
large permanent strains after
proportional limit.
(4) Arbitrary yield stress is

Solid Mechanics
determined by off- set method.
(5) Off-set yield stress is not material property

Elasticity & Plasticity

(1) The property of a material by which it (doesnt) returns to
its original dimensions during unloading is called (plasticity)
elasticity and the material is said to be elastic (plastic).

(2) For most of the metals proportional limit = elastic limit.

(3) For practical purpose proportional limit = elastic limit =
yield stress
(4 )All metals have some amount of straight line portion.

Solid Mechanics

Brittle material in tension

(1) Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of

strain are classified or brittle materials.
(2) Brittle materials fail with only little elongation (elastic)
after the proportional limit.
(3)Fracture stress = Ultimate stress for brittle materials
(4)Up to B, i.e fracture strains are elastic.
(5)No plastic deformation in case of brittle materials.
Ex. Concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ceramics

Ductile metals under compression

Solid Mechanics
(1) curves in compression differ from in tension.
(2)For ductile materials, the proportional limit and the initial
portion of the
curve is same in tension and
compression.
(3)After yielding starts the behavior is different for tension
and compression.
(4)In tension after yielding specimen elongates necking
and fractures or rupture. In compression specimen bulges
out- with increasing load the specimen is flattened out and
offers greatly increased resistance.

Brittle materials in compression

(1)Curves are similar both in tension and compression

(2)The proportional limit and ultimate stress i.e fracture
stress are different.
(3)In case of compression both are greater than tension case
(4)Brittle material need not have linear portion always they
can be non-linear also.

Solid Mechanics

11. Generalized Hookes Law

(1) A material behaves elastically and also exhibits a linear

relationship between and is said to be linearly elastic.
(2) All most all engineering materials are linearly elastic up
to their corresponding proportional limit.
(3) This type of behavior is extremely important in
engineering all structures designed to operate within this
region.
(4) Within this region, we know that either in tension or
compression

= E
Stress in particular direction = straininthat dir.X E

E = Modulus of elasticity Pa,N / m2

= Youngs modulus of elasticity.
(5) x = E x or y = E y
(6) = E is known as Hookes law.
(7) Hookes law is valid up to the proportional limit or
within the linear elastic zone.

Solid Mechanics

Poissons ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension the axial
elongation is accompanied by lateral contraction.
Lateral contraction or lateral strain
=

d f do
do

this comes out to be ve

Poisson's ratio = ( nu ) =

lateral strain
=
axial strain

is perpendicular to
If a bar is under tension +ve, -ve and = +
If a bar is under compression -ve, +ve and = +

= always +ve = material constant

For most metals

= 0.25 to 0.35s

Concrete = 0.1 to 0.2

Rubber

= 0.5

is same for tension and compression

is constant within the linearly elastic range.

Solid Mechanics

Hooks law in shear

(1)To plot ,Y the test is twisting
of hollow circular tubes

Yield point
Proportional limit
G
1

(2) ,Y diagrams are (shape of them) similar in shape to

tension test diagrams ( Vs ) for the same material,
although they differ in magnitude.
(3)From Y diagrams also we can obtain material
properties proportional limit, modulus of elasticity, yield
stress and ultimate stress.
(4)Properties are usually of the tension properties.
(5)For many materials, the initial part o the shear stress
diagram is a st. line through the origin just in case of tension.

= GY - Hookes law in shear

G = Shear modulus of elasticity or modulus of rigidity.

= Pa or N / m2 s
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Yield stress
Ultimate stress

Material properties

Solid Mechanics

E,v, and G material properties elastic constants - elastic

properties.

Basic assumptions solid mechanics

Fundamental assumptions of linear theory of elasticity are:
(a) The deformable body is a continuum
(b) The body is homogeneous
(c) The body is linearly elastic
(d) The body is isotropic
(e) The body undergoes small deformations.

Continuum
Completely filling up the region of space with matter it
occupies with no empty space.
Because of this assumption quantities like
u = u ( x,y ,z )

= ( x ,y ,z )

= ( x,y ,z )

Homogeneous
Elastic properties do not vary from point to point. For nonhomogenous body
E = E ( x ,y ,z )
v = v ( x,y ,z )

G = G ( x,y ,z )

Solid Mechanics

Linearly elastic
Material follows Hookes law

= E
= GY
v = Constant

Isotropic
Material properties are same in all directions at a point in the
body

E = C1
= C2
G = C3

for all
for all
for all

The meaning is that

x = E x
y = E y
The material that is not isotropic is anisotropic
E = E ( )

= ( )
G = G ( )
The meaning is that

x = E1 x
y = E2 y
E1 E2

Solid Mechanics

Small deformations
(a) The displacements must be small
(b) The strains must also be small

Generalized Hookes law for isotropic material

We know the following quantities from the tension and
shear testing.

= E
Tensiletest
v=

= GY - Shear test or torsion test.

What are the stress strain relation for an element subjected
to 3D state of stress. i.e what is the generalized Hookes law.
Hookes law when only one stress is acting
Generalized Hookes law when more than one stress acting
We assume that
Material is linearly elastic, Homogeneous, Continuum,
undergoing small deformations and isotropic.
For an isotropic material the following are true
(1)Normal stress can only generate normal strains.
- Normal stresses for reference xyz cannot produce Y of this
reference

Solid Mechanics
(2)A shear stress say xy can only produce the corresponding
shear strain Yxy in the same coordinate system.

Principal of superposition:
This principle states that the effect of a given combined loading on
a structure can be obtained by determining separately the effects of
the various loads individually and combining the results obtained,
provided the following conditions are satisfied.
(1)Each effect is linearly related to the load that produces it.
(2)The deformations must be small.

Solid Mechanics

Let us know consider only x is applied to the element.

From Hookes we can write

x =

x
E

y = v
z = v

x
E

x
E

Solid Mechanics
Only y applied

y =

y
E

x = v
z = v

y
E

y
E

Similarly, z alone is applied

z =

z
E

x = v
y = v

z
E

z
E

Contribution to x due to all three normal stresses is

x v y v 3
x =

E
E
E
Therefore

1
x v y +z
E
1
y = y v ( x + z )
E
1
x = z v x + y
E

x =

Normal strains are not affected by shear stresses

Solid Mechanics
Now let us apply only xy

Yxy =

xy
G

Similarly because of yz and xz

Yyz =
Yxz =

yz
G

xz
G

Therefore, when all six components of stresses and strains

are acting on an infinitesimal element or at a point then the
relation between six components of stresses and strains is

1
x v y +z
E
1
y = y v ( x + z )
E
1
x = z v x + y
E

x =

Yxy =
Yyz =
Yxz =

xy
G

yz
G

xz
G

These six equations are known as generalized Hookes law for

isotropic materials.

Solid Mechanics
Matrix representation of generalized Hookes law for
isotropic materials is therefore,

x
y
z

Yxy

1
E
v
E
v
E

v
E
1
E
v
E

v
E
v
E
1
E

0
0

Yyz
Yxz

1
G

z
xy

1
G

xz

x
y

yz

1
G

Stress components in terms of strains

1
2v
x +y +z
x +y +z s
E
E
1 2v
e = x +y +z
E

x + y + z =

x + y + z = e
x =
=
=

1
x v x v y + z
E

1
x v x + y + z + v x
E

1
x (1 + v) v x + y + z
E

Solid Mechanics

=
=

1
veE
x (1 + v)
E
(1 2v)

(1 + v)
E

x = x +
E
= (mu)
1+ v

where

ve
(1 2v)

ve
E
1 2v 1 + v

Ev
( 1 + v )( 1 2 v )

, are Lames constants

x = e + x
y = e + y
z = e + z
xy = YxyG = 2 Yxy
xy = YyzG = 2 Yyz
xy = YzxG = 2 Yzx
Lames constants have no physical meaning

Stress-strain relations for plane stress

Solid Mechanics

x = x ( x,y )
y =y ( x,y )

xy = xy ( x,y )
z = yz = zx = 0

1
x v y
E
1
y = y v x
E
v
v
z = x + y =
x + y
E
1 v
x =

Yxy =

xy

G
Yyz = Yxz = 0
Stress- strain relations for plane strain

x =x ( x,y )

x = e + x = x ( x ,y )

Yxy = Yxy ( x ,y )

z = v x + y = z ( x ,y )

y =y ( x,y )
3 = Yxz = Yyz = 0
e =x + y

y = e + y = y ( x,y )

= v ( 2 e + e )
= ve ( 2 + )

= v ( 2 + ) x + y

xy = GYxy
xz = yz = 0

Solid Mechanics

Therefore, the stress transformation equations for plane

stress can also be used for the stresses in plane strain.
The transformation laws for plane strain can also be
used for the strains in plane stress. z does not effect
geometrical relationships used in derivation.

Example of Generalized Hookes law

1
x v y
E
x = e + x

x =

y =

1
y v x
E

y = e + y
x =

1
x v e v y
E

x = y

1
x + v y
E
1+ v
= x
E

x =

Principal stress and strain directions of

isotropic materials
is
zero
along
those
planes,
therefore Y is also zero along these planes
i.e normal strains of the element are
principal strains. For isotropic materials the
principal
strains
and
principal stresses occurs in the same direction.

x = 2 y

Solid Mechanics

12. Volumetric strain and Bulk modulus

Relation between E, and G

1
( 1 v 2 )
E
1
2 = ( 2 v 1 )
E

1 = xy

1 =

2 = xy
1 =
2 =

xy ( 1 + v )
1
xy + v xy =
E
E
xy ( 1 + v )

1 =xy =
2 =

xy

E
Yxy
2

xy
2G

2G

xy ( 1 + v ) xy
=

E
G=

2G

E
2 (1 + v)

Only two elastic constants are independent.

Solid Mechanics

Volumetric strain-dilatation
Consider a stress element size dx,dy ,dz

dv = dxdydz
After deformations

dx* = ( 1+ x ) dx

dy* = 1+ y dy
dz* = ( 1+ z ) dz
In addition to the changes of length of the sides, the element
also distorts so that right angles no longer remain sight
angles. For simplicity consider only Yxy .
The volume dv* of the deformed element is then given by

(
)
Area ( OA* B* C* ) = dx* ( dy* CosYxy )
dv* = Area OA* B* C* dz*

= dx* dy* CosYxy

dv* = dx* dy* dz* CosYxy

For small Yxy CosYxy 1

dv* = dx* dy* dz* Volumechange doesn't depend onY

= ( 1+ x ) 1+ y ( 1+ z ) dxdydz
dropping all second order infinitesimal terms

Solid Mechanics

dv* = 1+ x + y + z dxdydz
Now, analogous to normal strain, we define the measure of
volumetric strain as

Volumetric strain =

final volume-initial volume

initialvolume

dv* dv
e=
dv

e =x + y + z
e = volumetric strain = dilatation. This expression is
valid only for infinitesimal strains and rotations
e =x + y + z = J 1 = first in variance of strain.
Volumetric strain is scalar quantity and does not
depend on orientation of coordinate system.
Dilatation is zero for state of pure shear.

Bulk modulus of elasticity

x + y + z =

(1 2v)
E

Mean stress = =

e=

( x + y + z )

1
x +y +z
3

3(1 2v)

= Ke

Solid Mechanics
Where K =

E
bulk modulus of elasticity.
3(1 2v)

Bulk modulus is widely used in fluid mechanics.

From physical reasoning E > 0 ,G > 0 ,K 0
Steel :

E = 200 Gpa
v = 0.3

Al :

E = 70 Gpa
v = 0.33

Copper:

E = 100 Gpa
v = 0.35
G=

E
SinG E and G > 0
2 (1 + v)

( 1 + v ) > 0 v > 1
Similarly SinG E > 0 & K 0

K=

E
1 2 v 0 v 0.5
3(1 2v)

Theoretical bounds on v are

1 < v 0.5
as v 0.5 K and

C 0

material is incompressible.

Solid Mechanics

13. Axially loaded members

Solid Mechanics

Geometry, locating and material properties

A prismatic bar is subjected to axial loading
A prismatic bar is a st. structural member having
constant cross-section through out it length.
Bar or rod length of the member is
dimensions.

cross sectional

Axial force is a load directed along the axis of the member

can create tension or compression in the member.

Typical cross sections of the members

- Solid Sections

- Hollow Sections

Solid Mechanics
- Other sections

Material properties: The member is homogenous linearly

elastic and isotropic material.

Stresses, strains and deformations

Consider a prismatic bar of constant cross-sectional area A
and length L, with material properties A & v. Let the rod be
subjected to an axial force p, which acts along x-axis.

F=P
Mx = M y = M z = 0
Vy = Vz = 0
The right of the section m-m exerts elementary forces or
stresses on to the left of the section to maintain the
equilibrium. Sum of all these elementary forces must be
equal to the resultant F.

Solid Mechanics

x dA = F
A

M y = x zdA = 0
M z = x ydA = 0
Above equation must be satisfied at every cross-section,
however, it does not tell how is distributed in the crosssection.
x

The distribution cannot determine by the methods of static

or equations of equilibrium- statically indeterminate

To know about the distribution of x in any given section, it is

necessary to consider the deformations resulting from the
application of loads.
Since the body needs to develop only x component in order
to maintain equilibrium, therefore the state of stress at any
point of prismatic rod is

x 0 0

ij = 0

0 0

0 0

Solid Mechanics
We make the following assumptions on deformation based
on experimental evidence
(1)The axis of the bar remains straight after
deformation
(2)All plane cross-sections remain plane and
perpendicular to the axis of the bar

Key
kinematical
assumptions

As a result of the above kinematic assumptions all

points in a given y-z plane have the same displacements
in the x-direction.
Any line segment AB undergoes same strain therefore
cannot be a function of y or z, but at most is a function
of x- only.
x

In the present case situation is same at all cross-sections of

the prismatic bar, therefore
x = Constant

at all points of the body i.e x is also no a function of x.

Solid Mechanics
Since we are studying a homogenous, linearly elastic and
isotropic prismatic bar

1
x v y z
E
1
y = y v ( x z )
E
1
z = z v x y
E
x =

x =

E
V
y = x
E
V
z = x
E

In the present case, x is independent of y and z coordinates,

therefore x is also independent of y and z coordinates i.e

x is uniformly distributed in a cross-section

Moreover x = E x = Constant throughout the bar.

We know that internal resultant force

F = x dA
A

Since x is a independent of y & z

Solid Mechanics
F = da = A
A

F P
=
A A

M y = x .zdA = 0

zdA = 0

M z = x .ydA = 0

ydA = 0

(1)

Eq. (1) indicates that moment are taken about the centroid of
the cross-section.

Elongation or Contraction

x =

x
E

P
AE

Total elongation of the rod

L

u ( L ) u ( 0 ) = = x da =
0

P
PL
dx =
AE
AE
0

Solid Mechanics
P
A
PL
=
AE
AE = Axial rigidity

x =

If A,E and P are functions of x then

P (x)
dx
A(x) E(x)
0

Stiffness and flexibility

P = kS
S = fP
k=

1
f

AE
L
f =
L
AE
These are useful in computer analysis of structural members.
k=

Solid Mechanics

Extension of results: Non-uniform bars (non-prismatic)

For a prismatic bar

x =

P
PL
& =
A
AE

This is exact solution for prismatic bar.

x =
S=

P(x) F (x)
=
A(x ) A(x)

P(x)
dx
A
x
E
x
(
)
(
)
0

Approximate exp ression

The above formula becomes a good approximation for
uniformly varying cross-sectional area A ( x ) member.
Above formula is quite satisfactory if the angle of taper is
small
Plane sections remain plane and perpendicular to the x- axis
is no longer valid for the case of non-prismatic rods.

Solid Mechanics

Fx = 0

x ( by ) yx ( bx ) = 0

xy = yx = x ( x ) .

y
s
x

y
0 i.e at the
x
slope of the upper surface of the rod tends to zero.

Taking x 0 , we note that yx 0 only if

Solid Mechanics

Case2

PL ( PA + PB ) L2
=
AE
A2 E2
PL PAL1
AB =
=
AE A1E1

BC =

BC =

( PA + PB )

A2
AB = PA / A1

CA = SBC + S AB
This method can be used when a bar consists of several
prismatic segments each having different material, each
having different axial forces, different dimensions and
different materials. The change in length may be obtained
from the equation

Pi Li
i =1 Ai Ei

and

i =

Pi
Ai

Solid Mechanics

Statically indeterminate problems

Equilibrium

Fy = 0
Fa1 + Fa 2 + Fs P = 0

[ MC = 0]
bFa1 bFa 2 = 0
Fa 1 = Fa 2

(1)

2 Fa + Fs = P

For statically indeterminate problems we

must consider the deformation of the
entire system to obtain compatibility
equation

The rigid plate must be horizontal

after deformation

s = A
s =

geometric compatibility equation

Fs Ls
As Es

and

A =

FAL A
E A AA

Then using the geometry compatibility

s = A

FAL A Fs L As
=
EA AA Es As

(2)

Solid Mechanics
By solving (1) & (2) we can obtain internal forces Fs & FA

Stresses in axially loaded members

Uniaxial state stress is a special case of plane stress

ij =

x 0
0

1 = x

max = 1 = x
2

Occurs at 45 to x y or x z planes.

Solid Mechanics

A Principal stress elements

B,C maximum shear stress elements.

Ductile material are weak in shear. They fail along max

planes.

Brittle materials weak in normal tensile stresses. They fail

along 1 planes.

Limitations of analysis

x =

P
PL
& S=
A
AE

(1)They are exact for long prismatic bars of any cross-section,

when axial force is applied at the centroid of the end crosssections.

Solid Mechanics
P
) at
A
concentrated loads and in the regions of geometric
discontinuity.
(2)They should not be employed (especially x =

(3)They provide good approximation if the taper is small.

(4)Above equations should not be applied for the case of
relatively short rods.
(5)They are exact for relatively short members under
compressive loading.

Solid Mechanics

Stress concentrations
High stresses are known as stress concentrations
Sources of stress concentrations- stress raisers
Stress concentrations are due to :
(1)Concentrated loads
(2)Geometric discontinuities

Stress concentration due to concentrated loads

Stress concentration factor=K =

nom =

P
bt

max
ave

Solid Mechanics

Stress concentration due to hole

Discontinuities of cross section may result in high localized
or concentrated stresses.

max
nom

P
dt
K = Stressconcentration factor
K=

nom =

Solid Mechanics

Stress Concentration due to fillet

K=

max
ave

ave =

P
dt

Solid Mechanics

14. Torsion of circular bars

Geometry, loading and Material properties
A prismatic bar of circular cross- section subjected to equal
and opposite torques acting at the ends.

Whenever torques act on a member, then it will be twisted.

Torsion refers to the twisting of a straight bar when it is
loaded by torques.
Material: Homogeneous, linearly elastic, and isotropic
undergoing small deformations.
Presently theory is valid only for

Stresses and strains in polar coordinates

Stresses, strains and displacements in polar coordinates.

Since we are dealing with a circular member it is preferable
to use polar coordinates

Solid Mechanics

ij

r r rx
= r x
xr x x

1
x v ( r + )
E
1
r = r v ( x + )
E
1
x = v ( r + x )
E
x =

Yr =

rQ
G

; Yx = Y x =

x
G

; Yxr = Yrx =

rx
G

Equilibrium and elementary forces

Fx = Vy = Vz = M y = M z = 0
Mx = T = T0
Since every cross-section of the bar is identical and since every
cross-section is subjected to the same internal torque T, then the
bar is said to be under pure torsion
To
keep
the
body
under
equilibrium, elementary forces
dF = x dA are only forces that are
required to be exerted by the other
section, so that

Solid Mechanics

dT = dF r = x rdA
(1)

T = x rdA
A

T = T0
Direction of z can be obtained from the direction of
internal torque T at that section.
The state of stress in pure torsion is therefore
0 0
0 0
0 x

x
0

While the relation in (1) express an important condition that

must be satisfied by the shearing stresses xQ in any given
cross-section of the bar it does not tell how these stresses are
distributed in the cross-section.
The actual distribution of stresses under a given load is
statically indeterminate. So we must know about the
deformation of the bar.
Presence of x in polar coordinates means, presence of

xy = xQCos
xz = xQSin

Solid Mechanics
Therefore the state of stress in case pure torsion in terms of
rectangular stress components is then
0

xy xz

yx

0 - state of pure shear.

zx

We must then ensure that

Vy = xy dA = 0
Vz = xz dA = 0
Deformation in pure torsion

Following observations can be made from the deformation of

a circular bar subjected to equal and opposite end torques.
(1)The cross-sections of the bar do not change in shape i.e
they remain circular.
(2)A line parallel to the x- axis or longitudinal line become a
helical curve.
(3)All cross-sections remain plane.
(4)All cross-sections rotate about the axis of the bar as a solid
rigid slab.

Solid Mechanics
(5)However, various cross-sections along the bar rotate
through different amount.
(6)The radial lines remain radial lines after deformation
(7)Neither the length of the bar nor the length of radius will
change.
These are especially of circular bars only. Not true for noncircular bars.

Assumptions on deformation for pure torsion

(1)All cross sections rotate with respect to the axis of the
circular bar i.e x-axis.
(2)All cross-sections remain plane and remain perpendicular
to the axis of the bar.
(3)Radial lines remain straight after the deformation.
(4)Neither the length of the bar nor its radius will change
during the deformation.
These assumptions are correct only if the circular bar
undergoes small deformations only.

Variation of shear strain ( Yx )

Because of T0 , the right
end will rotate through
an infinitesimal angle

- angle of twist.

Solid Mechanics
* - varies along the axis of the bar.
d
= rate of twist angle of twist per unit length.
dx

YxQ is independent of x and

YxQ dx = Ydx = rd

Y =r

d
dx

Solid Mechanics
In case of pure torsion the shear strain Y varies linearly with
r
Maximum shear strain
circular bar i.e., r = R

Y occurs

at the outer surface of the

Ymax = R

d
dx

Shear strain is zero at the center of the bar.

d
is strictly valid to circular bars having
dx
small deformations.

The equation Y = r

If the material is linearly elastic

= GY
Therefore, variation of shear stress xQ in pure torsion is
given by

= xQ = GYxQ = GY

d
dx

Shear stress is only function of r and varies linearly with

radius r of the circular bar.

max = xQmax = RG

d
dx

Solid Mechanics

The torsion formula

Relation between internal torque T and shear stress

T = rdA
A

T = Gr
Since G &

T =G

d
rdA
dx

d
are independent of area A then
dx

d 2
r dA
dx A
I P = r 2 dA
A

Polar moment of inertia of across sec tion

IP =

For solid circular bar,

T = GI P

d
dx

d
=
dx

Gr

32

= Gr

But

T
GI P

D4

T
GI P

d
dx

Tr
IP
Torsion formula

IP =

R4

Solid Mechanics

This is the relation between shear stresses xQ and torque T

existing at the section.
Torsion formula is independent of material property.

max = xQmax =

TR
IP

16T
D3
for solid circular bars

max =

Angles of twist
We now determine the relative rotation of any two crosssections

d
T
=
dx GI P

B / A = B A =

xB
xA

T
dx
GI P

Solid Mechanics

In case of prismatic circular bar subjected to equal opposite

torques at the ends

B / A = B A =
if xB x A = L

TL
n
GI P

puretorsion

Direction of at a section is same as that of T

Since

TL T0L
=
GI P GI P

d
T
=
then, in case of pure torsion.
dx GI P
=

d
= = constant
dx L

Thus in case of pure torsion ( x ) varies linearly with x

In case of torsion

=
displacement
k=

The product

TL
GI P

Load

GI P
L
; f =
L
GI P

GI P Torsional rigidity

Solid Mechanics

xy = xQCos
xz = xQSin

We should ensure that distribution of xQ should also gives

Vy = Vz = 0
Vy = xy dA = x Cos dA
Vy =

A
2 R

T
=
IP

Tr
Cos drd
I
0 P

2 R

rCos drd = 0

0 0

Vy = 0
T
Vz =
IP

2 R

rSin drd = 0

0 0

Vz = 0
Hollow circular bars: The deformation of hollow circular
bars and solid circular bars are same. The key kinematic
assumptions are valid for any circular bar, either solid or
hollow. Therefore all equations of solid circular bars can be
employed for hollow circular bars, instead of using

Solid Mechanics

4
D Soild
32

IP =
Do 4 Di4 hollow
32
IP =

TRo
IP
TR
= i
IP

max =
min

Hollow bars are move efficient than solid bars of same A.

Most of the material in soild shaft is stressed below the
maximum stress and also have smaller moment arm r.
In hollow tube most of the material is near the outer
boundary, where is maximum values and has large
moment arms r.

Tr
IP

4
D solid
32

Do4 Di4 hollow

=
32

IP =

Solid Mechanics
TR TRo
;
IP
IP
TR
= i
IP

max =
min

Y=

G
,Y f ( r )
=

d
T
=
dx GI P

B / A = B A =
L = xB x A

TL
GI P

= constant

= linearly with x
(4) If weight reduction and savings of materials are
important, it is advisable to use a circular tube.
(5) Ex large drive shafts, propeller shafts, and generator
shafts usually have hollow circular cross sections.

Extension of results
Case-I Bar with continuously varying cross-sections and
continuously varying torque
Pure torsion refers to torsion of prismatic bar subjected
to torques acting only at the ends.

Solid Mechanics
All expressions are developed based on the key
kinematic assumptions, these are therefore, strictly valid
only for prismatic circular bars.

(x) =

T (x)r
IP (x )

(x) =

T (x)
d
=
dx GI P ( x )

B A = B / A =

xB
xA

T (x)
dx
GI P ( x )

The above equations yield good approximations to the exact

solution, provide if R ( x ) doesnt vary sharply with x.

Solid Mechanics

Some special cases

(x) =

(x) =

Tr
IP (x )

(x) =

T (x)r
IP

(x) =

GI P ( x )

Case II

i =

B / A =

Ti ri
I Pi
n

Ti Li
i =1 Gi I Pi

T (x)
GI P

Solid Mechanics

Statically indeterminate problems

[ Mx = 0]

TA + TC + T = 0

(1)

AB, T = TA and

We note that within

BC T = TC

within

To solve the problem we must consider geometry of

deformation to formulate the compatibility equation.
Clearly the rotation of section B with respect to A must
be same as that with respect to C i.e

B / A = B / C
Compatibility equation

B / A =

TAL AB
T L
; B / C = C BC
G AB I PAB
GBC I PBC
TAL AB
T L
= C BC
G AB I PAB GBC I PBC

(2)

Solid Mechanics

Stresses in pure torsion

If a torsion bar is made up of brittle material, which is

generally weak in tension, failure will occur in tension along
a helix inclined at 45 to the axis.
Ductile materials generally fail in shear. When subjected to
torsion, a ductile circular bar breaks along a plane
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis or x axis.

Solid Mechanics

x =

P
A

Torsion testing m/c

Solid Mechanics

Combined loading or combined stress

Principal of
superposition

max =

TR
IP

x =

P
A

Solid Mechanics

Stress concentrations in torsion

Stress concentration effect is greatest at section B-B

max = K avg = K nom

avg = nom = K 1 = K

16T
D13

Solid Mechanics

Tr
,
IP

T
TL
d
; =
;Y = r
GI P
GI P
dx

Limitations of torsion formulae

(1)The above solutions are exact for pure torsion of circular
members (solid or hollow section)
(2)Above equations can be applied to bars (solid or hollow)
with varying cross-sections only when changes in R ( x ) are
small and gradual.
(3)Stresses determined from the torsion formula are valid in
regions of the bar away from stress concentrations, which are
high localized stresses that occur whenever diameter
changes abruptly and whenever concentrated torque are
applied.
(4)It is important to recognize that, the above equation
should not be used for bars of other shapes. Noncircular bars
under torsion are entirely different from circular bars.

Solid Mechanics

15. Symmetrical bending of beams

Some basics

Transverse loads or lateral loads: Forces or moments

having their vectors perpendicular to the axis of the bar.
Classification of structural members.
Axially loaded bars :- Supports forces having their
vectors directed along the axis of the bar.
Bar in tension:- Supports torques having their moment
vectors directed along the axis.
Beams :- Subjected to lateral loads.
Beams undergo bending (flexure) because of lateral
loads.

Solid Mechanics

Roughly speaking, bending refers to a change in shape from

a straight configuration to a non straight configuration.
Bending moments i.e M z and

M y are responsible for

bending of beams.
The loads acting on a beam cause the beam to bend or flex,
thereby deforming its axis into a curve-known as
deflection curve of the beam.

If all points in x y plane remain in the xy plane after

deformation i.e after bending then xy plane is known as
plane of bending.
If a beam bend in a particular plane, then the deflection
curve is a plane curve lying in the plane of bending.

Solid Mechanics

The y direction displacement [i.e. v component] of any

point along its axis is known as the deflection of the
beam.
Pure bending and non-uniform bending
If the internal bending moment is constant at all sections
then beam is said to be under pure bending.

dM
= V
dx
Pure bending (i.e., M=constant) occurs only in regions of a beam
where the shear force is zero.

If M = M ( x ) it is non- uniform bending

Solid Mechanics

Curvature of a beam
When loads are applied to the beam, if it bends in a plane
say xy plane, then its longitudinal axis is deformed into a
curve.
O

Center of curvature

R Radius of curvature

k=

1
= Curvature
R

in general R = R ( x ) and k = k ( x ) .
RdQ = dS

k=

1 dQ
=
for any amount of R
R dS

The deflections of beams are very small under small

deformation condition. small deflections means that the
deflection curve is nearly flat.

k=

1 dQ
under small deformations.
=
R dX

Solid Mechanics

It is given that deflections at A and B should be zero.

Symmetrical bending of beams in a state of pure bending

Geometry, loading and material properties

A long prismatic member possess a plane of symmetry
subjected to equal and opposite couples M0 (or bending
moments) acting in the same plane of symmetry.

Solid Mechanics

Initially we choose origin of the coordinate system O is

not at the centroid of the cross-section.
The y axis passing through the cross-section is an axis of
symmetry. The XY plane is the plane of symmetry.

Material is homogeneous, linearly elastic and isotropic

undergoing small deformations.

Stresses in symmetric member in pure bending

Fx = Vy = Vz = 0
Mx = My = 0
M z = M = M0

Solid Mechanics

M = y x dA

Therefore, x dA are the only elementary forces that are

required to be developed by right of the section on to the left
of the section.
The distribution of X any section should satisfy

Fx = 0

x dA = 0

My = 0

z x dA = 0

Mz = M

y x dA = M

Actual distribution of stresses - cannot by statics - statically

indeterminate - deformations should be considered.
Thus, the state of stress at any point within a prismatic beam
(cross-section having an axis of symmetry) subjected to pure
bending is a uniaxial state of stress.

ij

x 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0

Solid Mechanics

Deformations in a symmetric member in pure bending

Since the member is subjected to bending moments, it will
bend under the action of these couples.

Since, the prismatic member possessing a plane of symmetry

(i.e xy- plane) and subjected to equal and opposite couples
M0 acting in the plane of symmetry, the member will bend
in the plane of symmetry (i.e xy plane).
The curvature k at a particular point on the axis of the beam
depends on the bending moment at that point. Therefore a
prismatic beam in pure bending will have constant
curvature.
The line AB, which was originally a straight line, will be
transformed in to a circle of center O and so the line AB .

Solid Mechanics

Decrease in length of AB and increase in length of AB in

positive bending.
Cross-sections which are plane and to the axis of Kinematic
the undeformed beam, remain plane and remain to assumption
the axis of the deformed beam i.e to the deflection
curve.

Variation of strain and M relation

Elementary theory of bending or Euler-Bernoulli theory

Under the action of M0 , the beam deflects in the xy plane

(plane of symmetry) and any longitudinal fibers such as SS
bent into a circular curve. The beam is bent concave upward
(due to +ve bending) upon which is a +ve curvature.

Solid Mechanics

Cross-sections mn and pq remain plane and normal to the

longitudinal axis of the beam. Cross-sections mn and pq
rotate with respect to each other about z-axis.
Lower part of the beam is intension and upper part is in
compression.
The x- axis lies along the neutral surface of undeformed
beam

Variation of strain and M-k relations (contd.)

Initial length of fiber ef = dx

Final length of ef = e* f * = ( R y ) dQ
The distance dx between two planes is unchanged at the
neutral surface,

RdQ = dx

k=

1 dQ
=
R dx

Solid Mechanics

Therefore, the longitudinal strain i.e x at a distance y

from the neutral axis is

e* f * ef ( R y ) dQ dx y
x =
=
=
ef
dx
R
x =

y
R

x = ky

In case of pure bending x x ( x and z ) ,x =x ( y )

The preceding equation shows that the longitudinal strains
(x ) in the beam (in pure bending) are proportional to the
curvature and vary linearly with the distance y from the
neutral axis or neutral surface.

x = 0 at the neutral surface

Maximum compressive x =

y1
R

x =

+ y2
R

Maximum tensile

However, we still do not know the location of neutral axis or

neutral surface.

Solid Mechanics

Stresses in beams in pure bending :- For linearly elastic and

isotropic beam material

x =

1
x v y +z
E

1
y = y v ( x + z )
E
z =

1
z v x +y
E

Yxy =
Yyz =
Yxz =

xy
G

yz
G

zx
G

The state of the stress at any point within a prismatic beam

in pure bending is

ij

x 0 0
= 0 0 0
0 0 0

x = E x =

Ey
= Eky
R

V
y = x = V x
E
V
z = x = V x
E
From the above equation

x ( x ,z )
x = ( y ) x =x ( y )
x = linear f ( y )

x = linear f ( y )
i.e.,var y linearly with the distance y from the neutral surface

Solid Mechanics

x at y = 0 i.e on the neutral surface = 0

Maximum compressive x =
Maximum tensile

x =

EC 1
R

EC 2
R

Maximum normal stress x occurs at the points farthest

from the neutral axis.
In order to compute the stresses and strain we must locate
the neutral axis of the cross-section.

Solid Mechanics

Location of neutral axis

We must satisfy the following equations at any given section
m-m
x dA = 0

x ydA = M = M0 = M z

x zdA = M y = 0

Considering first equation

Ey
x dA =
=0
R
A
A

ydA = 0
A

The above equation shows that the distance y between

neutral axis and centroid C of a cross-section is zero.
In other words, the neutral axis i.e z-axis pass through
the centroid of the cross-section, provided if the
material follows Hookes law.

Solid Mechanics

The origin O of coordinates is located at the centroid of the

cross-sectional area.
Thus, when a prismatic beam of linearly elastic material is
subjected to pure bending, the y and z (neutral axis) axes are
principal centroidal axes.

Moment Curvature relationship

M = x ydA
A

M=+
M=

Ey
ydA
R
A

E
y 2 dA
RA

y 2 dA = I zz = Moment of inertia of
A
cross-sectional area about
neutral axis

M=
k=

k=

EI
R

1 M
=
R EI

1 M0
=
R EI

Moment-Curvature relation

Solid Mechanics

Curvature k is directly proportional to M- internal bending

moment and inversely proportional to EI- flexural rigidity of
the beam.
Flexural rigidity is a measure of the resistance of a beam to
bending.

Relation between x and M - Flexure formula

x = Eky
and k =

M
EI

My
- flexure formula.
I
Stresses evaluated from flexure formula are called bending
stresses or flexural stresses.
x =

Solid Mechanics

The maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses

occur at points located farthest from the neutral axis.
The maximum normal stresses are

1 =

MC1
M
=
I
S1

S1 =

I
I
and S2 =
C1
C2

2 =

MC 2 M
=
I
S2

-Section moduli

S = Section modulus

Cross- sectional properties of some common shapes

z axis neutral axis

Solid Mechanics

I zz

bh 3
=
12

I zz = d 4
64

bh 2
S=
6

d3
S=
32

bh 3
I zz =
36
h = 3 b / 2 for eqilateral triangle

I zz = 0.1098r 4

Solid Mechanics

Distribution x on various cross-sections

max =
S=

M
S
I

ymax

M = alllowS

Ssquare
Scircle

= 1.18

Solid Mechanics
This result shows that a beam of square cross-section is
more efficient in resisting bending then circular beam of
same area.
A circle has a relatively larger amount of material
located near the neutral axis. This material is less highly
stresses.
I - Section is more efficient then a rectangular crosssection of the same area and height, because I - section
has most of the material in the flanges at the greatest
available distance from the neutral axis.

Extension of results
Long prismatic beam under pure bending, and symmetrical
bending.

M M (x)
M = Constant

x (y) =
I = I zz
1 M
k= =
R EI

My
I

x =

x
E

y = v x
z = v z

Elementary theory of bending

Solid Mechanics

Bending of beams due to applied lateral loads

dM
= V
dx

Consider now a beam subjected to typical arbitrary

transverse loads acting. In this case the interval bending
moment M = M ( x ) and V ( x ) 0, and thus we have nonuniform bending.
Non-uniform bending is a result of presence of transverse shear
force V ( y ) . If V ( y ) = 0 then M = constant.

It can be shown that the above results can also be used for
non-uniform bending problems.
M (x ) y
I
M (x)
1
k=
=
R (x)
EI

x ( x,y ) =

x ( x,y ) =
y = x
z = x

x ( x,y )
E

Solid Mechanics

The above results can also be used for non-uniform bending

problems provided if they satisfy the following conditions.

The cross-sections should have y-axis of symmetry

All applied transverse or lateral loads should lie in the
x-y plane of symmetry and all applied couples act about
z-axis only.
L

h long slender beams

Bending that conforms to conditions (i) and (ii) is called

symmetrical bending.

If these three conditions are satisfied then one can employ

the following expressions for non-uniform bending as-well

Solid Mechanics

x ( x,y ) =
I = I zz
k(x) =

M (x) y
I

M (x)
1
=
R(x)
EI

x ( x,y ) =

x
E

y ( x ,y ) = v x
z ( x,y ) = v z

Application of above equations to the non-uniform bending

problems is equivalent to the following two assumptions.
(a)That even under such loading conditions, plane sections
still remain plane after deformation and they remain to
the deformed longitudinal axis or neutral surface.

Bending stresses in a non-prismatic beam

The above equation can also be applied to the case of nonprismatic beam subjected to either pure or non-uniform
bending, provided cross-sectional properties do not vary
sharply.

x =

M (x) y
I (x)

k (x) =

M (x)
1
=
R ( x ) EI ( x )

Solid Mechanics

Problem
Determine the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in
the beam due to the uniform load.

Solution
Centroid :-

A mm2

yA mm3

1 20 90 = 1800 50 90 10 3
2 40 30 = 1200 20 24 10 3
3
A = A = 3000 yA = 114 10

Ay = yA

y 3000 = 114 10 3

y = 38 mm

I zz = I = I + Ad 2 s
bh 3
=
+ Ad 2
12
=

1
1
90 20 3 + 1800 12 2 + 30 40 2 + 1200 182
12
12

I zz = I = 868 10 3 mm4 = 868 109 m4

Solid Mechanics

C1 = 22 mm and C 2 = 38 mm
My
I
M
I
=
:S=
S
ymax

x =
max

At maximum +ve bending moment i.e at (D)

I 868 10 9
6
S1 =
=
=
.

39
45
10
C1 22 10 3
I
868 10 9
S2 =
=
= 22.84 10 6

3
C 2 38 10
at D:
t

max

M
1.898
=
s2 22.84 10 6

= 83.1 MPa

max

max

max

M
1.898
=
s1 39.45 10 6

= 48.11 MPa

At maximum -ve moment i.e at (B)

max

max

M
3.375
=
= 85.55 MPa
s1 39.45 10 6

M
3.375
=
= 147.8 MPa
6
s2 22.84 10

tmax = 85.55 and Cmax = 147.8 MPa

Solid Mechanics

Problem
a wooden member of length L = 3m having a rectangular
cross-section 3 cm 6 cm is to be used as a cantilever with a
load P = 240 N acting at the free end. Can the member carry
this load if the allowable flexural stress both in tension and
in compression is allow = 50 Mpa ?

Solution

Mmax = 720 N-m

1 0.06 0.033
SA =
= 9 10 6 m 3
12
0.015

tmax = Cmax =

M PL
=
SA SA

tmax = Cmax = allow

Palow =

allow S A

= 150 N
L
1 0.03 0.06 3
SB =
= 1.8 10 5 m3
12
0.03

S
Palow = allow B = 300 N
L

The beam can carry P = 240 N only when oriented as in (B)

Solid Mechanics

Limitations
(1)The flexure formula is exact for a prismatic beam in pure
bending.
(2)It provides very good approximation of x for long
slender beams (L >> h) under symmetrical bending.
(3)The flexure formula can be employed for any shape of the
cross-section, provided the cross-section has y-axis of
symmetry.
(4)It should not be employed in regions close to geometric
discontinuities and concentrated loads.

Solid Mechanics

16. Shear Stresses in Beams

Vy ( x ) = xy dA
A

It is reasonable to assume that

(1)The shear stresses acting on the cross-section are parallel
to the shear force Vy ( x ) i.e to the line PQ
(2)It is also reasonable to assume that the shear stresses xy
are uniformly distributed across the width of the beam, so
that M x = T = 0 for symmetrical bending

xy = xy ( x,y )

such thats

Vy ( x ) = xy ( x,y ) dA
A

Solid Mechanics

Thus, there are horizontal shear stresses (or longitudinal

shear stresses) acting between horizontal layers of the
beam as well as vertical shear stresses acting on the
cross-sections.
At any point of the beam xy = yx
Pattern of distribution of xy = pattern of distribution of

yx

Since xy = yx , it follows that the vertical shear stresses

h
2

xy must vanish at y = , if the beam is subjected only

lateral loads.

Solid Mechanics

Derivation of shear stress formula

Beam under non-uniform bending i.e M = M ( x )

t = width

or thickness of the beam at y = y1

t = width or thickness of the beam at y = y1

Solid Mechanics
We now wish to satisfy equilibrium in the x- direction.
Taking [ Fx + = 0 ] we have then

x ( x + x,y ) dA + x ( x,y ) dA + yxtx = 0

A

yxt =

1
x

x ( x + x,y ) dA x ( x,y ) dA
A

x ( x ,y ) =
yxt =

1
1
1

M ( x + x ) ydA +
M ( x ) ydA
x I A
IA

yxt =
yx =

M (x ) y
I

1
M ( x + x ) M ( x ) ydA
xI
A

1 M ( x + x ) M ( x )
x
It

ydA
A

taking limit as x 0

yx =
yx =

M ( x + x ) M ( x )
1
lim
ydA
It x0
x
A

1 dM
ydA
It dx A

dM
= Vy ( x )
dx
Vy ( x )
yx =
ydA
It A

Solid Mechanics
The above integral is by definition the first moment of are
about the z-axis, we denote it by symbol Q.

Q = ydA
A

yx = xy = =

VyQ

shear formula

It

(1)

in the above equation I = I zz stands for the moment of

inertia of the entire cross sectional area around the neutral
axis.

From (1)

yxt = f =

VyQ
I

VQ
I

The quantity f is known as the shear flow.

Shear flow is the horizontal shear force per unit distance
along the longitudinal axis of the beam.

Solid Mechanics

Distribution of shear stresses in a Rectangular beam

An example of application of equations
Q = udA = b
A

h
y
2

y+

h / 2y
s
2

b h2
Q=
y2
2 4
I=

1 3
bh
12

xy = yx
at y =

h
2

VQ V h 2
=
=
y2
It 2 I 4

xy = yx = 0

The shear stresses in a rectangular beam vary quadratically

with the distance y from the neutral axis.
Maximum value of shear stress occurs at the neutral axis
where Q is maximum.

xymax = yxmax

Vh 2 3 V
=
=
8I
2A

Solid Mechanics
Thus max in a beam of rectangular cross-section is 50%
V
larger than the average shear stress
A

It is always possible to express the maximum shear stress xy

as

xymax = K

V
A

for most of the cross-sectional areas

K=

3
2

Rec tan gular

K=

4
3

Circular

K=

3
2

Triangular

For most of the cross-section max occurs at the neutral axis.

This is not always true.

Solid Mechanics

Stress elements in non-uniform bending

Solid Mechanics

Problem
A wood beam AB is loaded as shown in the figure. It has a
rectangular cross section (see figure). Determine the
maximum permissible value pmax of the loads if the

allowable stress is bending is allow = 11 MPa (for both tension

and compression) and allowable stress in horizontal shear is
allow = 1.2 MPa

Solution
Vmax occurs at supports and maximum BM occurs in
between the loads.
Vmax = P

Mmax = 0.5 P = Pa

bh 2
S=
A = bh
6
M
6 Pa
max = max = 2
S
bh
3 Vmax 3 P 3 P
xymax = yxmax = max =
=
=
2 A
2 A 2 bh
Therefore, the maximum permissible values of the load P in
dending and shear respectively are
Pallow b =

allowbh 2
6a

Pallow s =

2 allow bh
3

Solid Mechanics
Substituting numerical values into these formulas,

Pallow b = 8.25 kN
Pallow s = 8.25 kN
Thus bending governs the design and the maximum
allowable load is

Pmax = 8.25 kN
Problem
An I beam is loaded as in figure. If it has the cross-section as
shown in figure, determine the shearing stresses at the levels
indicated. Neglect the weight of the beam.

Solution
Vertical shear is same at all sections

Solid Mechanics

I zz = I =

( 150 )( 300 )3 ( 138 )( 276 )3

12

12

= 95.7 106 mm 4s

V 250 10 3
The ratio =
= 2.61 10 3 N / mm 4s
I 95.7 106

Level A mm2

Q = Ay

mm 10 3 mm3

mm

xy =

1-1

150

150

2-2

12 150

144

259.2

150

4.5

12

56.4

12

60.5

12

81.3

= 1800
3-3

12 150

144

259.2

= 1800

132

19.0

12 150

144

259.2

= 1800

69

114.3

12 12

278.2

= 144
4-4

12 138

373.5

= 1656

max = 81.3 MPa

VQ
MPa
It

Solid Mechanics

Warping of the cross sections due to shear stress

Plane sections will not remain plane and perpendicular to

the axis of the beam in the deformed configuration due to
the presence of shear force.
The cross-sections are wrapped with highest distortion at the
axis.
It can be shown that if L >> h then distortion of cross-sections
due to shear negligible.
Use all formulae developed so far only when L >> h - such
beams are called slender beams.
Do not apply them if L << h -- short beams.

Solid Mechanics

17. Theories of failure or yield criteria

(1) Maximum shearing stress theory
(2) Octahedral shearing stress theory

For ductile materials

(3) Maximum normal stress theory for brittle materials.

Maximum shearing stress theory or Tresca Criterion

This theory says that:

Yielding occurs when the maximum shear stress in the material

reaches the value of the shear stress at yielding in a uniaxial
tension (or compression) test.
Maximum shearing stress under general state of stress is

max = max ( 1 , 2 , 3 )
where 1 =

2 3
2

; 2 =

1 3
2

; 3 =

1 2
2

The maximum shearing stress in uniaxial tension test at the

moment of yielding is

t =

ys
2

Tresca criterion is max

ys
2

Octahedral shearing stress theory or Hencky-Von-Mises

failure criterion
This theory also known as The maximum distortion strainenergy theory

Solid Mechanics
This theory states that

Yielding occurs when the octahedral shear stress in the material is

equal to the value of the octahedral shear stress at yielding in a
uniaxial tensile test.

oct =

1
3

( 1 2 ) 2 + ( 2 3 ) 2 + ( 1 3 ) 2

Octahedral shear stress in the uniaxial tension test at the

moment of yielding i.e. y = ys = 1

t =
t =

1
3

ys 0

+ ( 0 0 )2 + ys 0

2
ys
3

Von Mises theory says that oct

von =

2
ys
3

3
oct
2

Von Mises theory says that von ys

* Excellent experimental evidence is available for
supporting maximum shearing stress and Von Mises
criterion

Maximum Normal stress criterion or Rankine Theory:

This theory is generally used for design of components made
up of brittle materials.

Solid Mechanics
According to this theory, a given structural component fails when
the maximum normal stress (tensile) in that component reaches the
ultimate strength or ultimate stress ult obtained from the tensile
test of a specimen of the same material.
Thus the structural component will fail when

1 ult
Simple application of theories

Solid Mechanics

18. Combined loading

Torsion + Direct shear

A =

Mr
I

2 =

1 =
4V
3A

Tr
Ip

Solid Mechanics

Bending + axial loading

x =
x =

P
A

x =

My
I

M zz y
P
+
A
I zz

Neutral surface is now shifted due to the application of axial

load.

Solid Mechanics

19. Elastic strain energy

Consider an infinitesimal stress element at point in a linearly
elastic body, subjected to a normal stress x

The work done by this force

1
dWint = dF dS
2
1
= x dydz x dx
2
force

distance

1
dWint = x x dV
2
This internal work is stored in the volume of the element as
the internal elastic energy or the elastic strain energy.

1
dU = x x dV
2

dV = volume of the element.

The strain energy density U0 is defined as the internal elastic
energy stored in an elastic body per unit volume of the
material.
dU x x
Strain energy density = U0 =
=
dV
2

Solid Mechanics
U0 can be interpreted as an area under the inclined line on
the stress-strain diagram. Similar expressions can developed
for y and z corresponding to strains y and z .

Elastic strain energy for shearing stresses:

1
dUshear = xy dxdz Yxy dy
2
average force

distance

1
dU shear = xy Yxy dv
2

Analogous expressions apply for the shearing stresses

xz , zx with the corresponding shear strains Yyz and Yxz

Strain energy for multiaxial states of stress

The strain energy expressions for a 3D state of stress follow
directly by addition of the energies of each stress component.

dU =
1
1
1
1
1
1
x x + y y + z z + xyYxy + yzYyz + zxYzx dV
2
2
2
2
2
2
The strain energy density for the most general case is

Solid Mechanics
U0 =

dU 1
1
1
1
= x x + y y + z z + xyYxy
dv 2
2
2
2
1
1
+ yzYyz + zxYzx
2
2

Substituting the values of strain components

generalized Hookes law, we can show that

U0 =

) (
)

1
v
x2 + y2 + z2 x y + y z + z x
2E
E
1 2
2
2
+
xy + yz
+ zx
2G

from

It is the expression for elastic strain energy per unit volume

for linearly plastic, homogeneous, isotropic materials.
In general, for a stressed body the total strain energy is
obtained by integration of U over its volume.
0

U = elastic energy ( stored ) = U 0 dV

V

Internal strain energy in axially loaded bars

x = z = xy = xz = yz = 0
1
1
1 2
U 0 = x x = x x =
x
2
2
E 2E
The

total internal energy = U = U 0 dv =

V

1 2
x dV
2
E
V

Solid Mechanics

x2

P2
P2L
U=
AL ==
.AL =
2
2E
2 EA
2 EA
P 2L
U=
2 EA

Strain energy in torsion of circular shafts

1
1
1 2
U0 = .Y = . =

2
2 G 2G
1 2
U = U 0 dv =
dv
2G
v
v

Tr
Ip

where I p =

=
R4

1 T2 2
U=
. 2 .r .2 r.dr.L
2
G
Ip
0

T 2L
U=
2GI p

Strain energy in bending

x2

M2 2
M2
U=
dv =
y dv =
y 2 dA.L
2
2
2E
2 EI
2 EI
v
v

TY
IP

Solid Mechanics
M 2L
U=
2 EI

Conclusion
P2L
Axially loaded bars U =
2 AE
Torsion of shafts

T 2L
U=
2GI P

Bending (pure) of beams

M 2L
U=
2 EI

We can use the following equations in case of non-uniform

cases
L

P2
T2
M2
U=
dx ; U =
dx ; U =
dx
2
AE
2
GI
2
EI
P
0
0
0

Solid Mechanics

Problem:
P ( x ) = Y.A ( L x )
L

P2
U=
dx
2
AE
0
L

Y 2 A2 ( L x ) 2
=
dx
2 AE
0
L

Y 2 A2 2
Y2A 2
L3
2
=
L + x 2 Lx.dx =
L L + L3
2 AE 0
2E
3
Y 2 A2 3 L3
Y 2 AL3
3
L + L =
=
2 AE
3
6E
P2L
U=
2 AE
P ( x ) = Y.A ( L x ) + P
L

Y 2 A2 ( L x )2 + P 2 + 2YA ( L x ) .P
U=
dx
2
AE
0
Y 2 AL3 P 2 L2 2YAP 2 L2
U=
+
+
L
6E
2 AE 2 AE
2
Y 2 AL3 P 2 L2 YP 2
=
+
+
6E
2 AE 2 E
Since U P 2
not be used.

or

U 2 principle of superposition should

Solid Mechanics

20. Deflection of beams

When a beam with a straight longitudinal axis is loaded by
lateral loads, the axis is deformed into a curve, called the
deflection curve or elastic-curve

Deflections: means u ,v displacement of any particle. In case

of beams deflection means v displacement of particles
located on the axis of the beam.
Deflection calculation is an important part of component
design
Deflections -- useful in vibration, analysis of various
engineering components ex. Earthquake loading.
Undesirable vibrations are due to excessive deflections.

Solid Mechanics

Approximate sketches of deflection curves

Approximate sketches of the deflection curve can be drawn
if BM diagram is available for a given loading.
We know that

+BM means
- BM means

Examples
(1)

Solid Mechanics
The objective is to find the shape of the elastic curve or
deflection curve for given loads i.e., what is the function v(x).
There are two approaches
(1) Differential equations of the deflection curve
(2) Moment-area method

Differential equations of the deflection curve

Consider a cantilever beam: The axis of the beam deforms
into a curve as shown due to load P.

Here we assume only symmetrical bending case. The xy

plane is the plane of bending.

v deflection of the beam.

v + ve and. v
To obtain deflection curve we must express v as a function
of x.

Solid Mechanics
When the beam is bent, there is not only a deflection at each
point along the axis but also a rotation.
The angle of rotation of the axis of the beam is the angle
between x axis and the tangent to the deflection curve at a
point.
For given x-y coordinate system

+ ve anticlockwise
O = Center of curvature

= Radius of curvature
d = ds

From geometry

d
ds
curvature of the deflectioncurve
k=

k - curvature - +ve when angle of rotation increases as we

move along the beam in the +ve x direction.

Slope of the deflectioncurve =

dv
= tan
dx

dv
is positive when the tangent to the curve slopes
dx
upward to the right.

Slope

The deflection curves of most beams have very small angles

of rotations, very small deflection and very small curvatures.
That is they undergo small deformations.
When the angle of rotation is extremely small, the
deflection curve is nearly horizontal

Solid Mechanics
ds dx
This follows from the fact that
2

ds = dx 2 + dv 2 = 1 + ( v ) dx
2
for small ( v ) can be neglected compared to 1

ds dx
Therefore, in small deflection theory no difference in length
is said to exist between the initial length of the axis and the
arc of the elastic curve.

k=

d
dx

Since is small tan

dv
=
dx

d d 2 v
k = =
= 2
dx dx
1

d 2
k = 2 =
dx
only insmall deformationtheory
du
=
= u
dx
If the material of the beam is linearly elastic and follows
Hookes law, the curvature is

k=

M
EI

Solid Mechanics
+ M leads to +K and so on
d2v M
2=
or
EI
dx

d2 v
EI 2 = M
dx
The basic differential equations of the deflection curve.
Sign conventions used in the above equation:
(a) The

(b)

(c) k is +

dv
and are
dx

(d) M is +ve if beam bends

Another useful equations can be obtained by noting that

dM
= V
dx
dV
= p
dx
Non-prismatic beams

d2v
EI ( x ) 2 = M ( x )
dx
( EI ( x ) v ) = v ( x )

( EI ( x ) v ) = + P ( x )

Solid Mechanics
For prismatic beams.

EIv = M ( x )

BM equation( 2 nd order )

EIv = V ( x )

Shear force equation( 3rd order )

EIv = + P ( x )

Load equation( 4th order )

Integrating the equations and then evaluating constants of

integration from boundary conditions of the beam.

Assumptions involved in the above equations

(a) Material obeys Hookes law
(b) Slope of deflection curve small small deformations
(c) Deformations due to bending only shear neglected
When sketching deflection curve we greatly exaggerate the
deflection for clarity. Otherwise they actually are very small
quantities.

Solid Mechanics

Approximate sketching
(3)

(5)

(4)

(6)

Solid Mechanics

Boundary conditions
(1)Boundary conditions
(2)Continuity conditions
(3)Symmetry conditions

Boundary conditions
Pertain to the deflections and slopes at the supports of a
beam:
(i)Fixed support or clamped support

v ( a) = 0

( a ) = v ( a ) = 0

(ii)

v ( a) = 0
M ( a ) = EIv ( a ) = 0
(iii)

v ( a ) = 0
M ( a ) = EIv ( a ) = 0
V ( a ) = EIv ( a ) = 0

Solid Mechanics

Continuity conditions
All deflection curves are physically
continuous. Therefore

v ( c ) from side AC = v ( c ) from side BC

Similarly at C

v ( c ) from side AC = v ( c ) from side BC

Symmetry conditions
v

L
= 0 because of loading
2

and beam. This we should load

in advance.
The method for finding deflection using differential
equations is known as method of successive integration.
Application of principle of superposition:
Numerous
problems with different loadings have been solved and
readily available. Therefore in practice the deflection of beam
subjected to several or complicated loading conditions are
solved using principle of superposition.
+

Solid Mechanics

Problem 1
Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a simple
beam AB supporting a uniform load of intensity of acting
through out the span of the beam. Also determine maximum
deflection max at the mid point of the beam and the angles
of rotation Q A and QB at the supports. Beam has constant EI.

Solution

V+

qL
qx = 0
2
V = qx

qL
2

(1)

qL
qx 2
M x+
=0
2
2
qLx qx 2
M=

2
2
Differential equation of deflection curve.

EIv = M ( x )
qLx qx 2
EIv =

2
2
Slope of the beam

(2)

Solid Mechanics
qLx 2 qx 3
EIv =

+ C1
4
6
BC Symmetry conditions
v x =

L
=0
2

qLL2 qL3
0=

+ C1
16
48
qL3 qL3
0=

+ C1
16 48
qL3
C1 =
24
Slope equation is

qLx 2 qx 3 qL3
EIv =

s
4
6
24
q
v =
L3 6L2 + x 3
24EI

Deflection of the beam

qLx 3 qx 4 qL3
EIv =

x + C2
12
24 24
B.C.

v(x = 0) = 0
0 = 0 0 0 + C2

C2 = 0

qLx 3 qx 4 qL3
EIv =

x
12
24 24

Solid Mechanics
q
L3 x 2 Lx 3 + x 4
24EI
q
v=
x 4 + L3 x 2 Lx 3
24EI

v =

you can check v = 0 at x = 0 and L = 0

(b) From symmetry maximum deflection occurs at the
L
midpoint x =
2

5qL4
L
v x=
=
2
384EI
-ve sign means that deflection is downward as expected.

max

5qL4
L
= v x=
=
s
2
384EI

qL3
Q A = v ( 0 ) =
24EI
-ve sign indicates clock wise rotation as expected.

qL3 qL3 qL3

QB = v ( x = L ) =
4EI 6EI 24EI
qL3
v ( L ) =
+ ve sign means anticlockwise direction.
24EI
since the problem is symmetric, v ( 0 ) = v ( L )

Solid Mechanics

Problem: 2
Above problem using third order equation

EIv = V ( x )

EIv = qx

qL
qL
=
qx
2
2

Moment equation

qLx qx 2
EIv =

+ C1
2
2
B.C.

M (x = 0) = 0
C1 = 0

EIv ( x = 0 ) = 0

qLx qx 2
EIv =

2
2

Problem 3
Above problem using fourth order differential equation

P=q
EIv = q
Shear for a equation

EIv = qx + C 1
From symmetry conditions

Solid Mechanics
L
=0
2
L
0 = q + C 1
2

V x=

EIv = qx +

EIv x =
C1 = +
qL
2

L
=0
2

qL
2

Problem 4
Determine the equation of the deflection curve for a
cantilever beam AB subjected to a uniform load of intensify
q. Also determine the angle of rotation and deflection at the
free end. Beam has constant EI.
Solution:

V + qL qx = 0
V = qx qL
qL2
qx 2
M+
qLx +
2
2

qL2 qx 2
M = qLx

2
2

Differential equation of deflection curve

EIv = M ( x )
qL2
qx 2
EIv =
+ qLx
2
2

Solid Mechanics
qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3
Slope equation: EIv =
+

+ C1
2
2
6

BC:

v ( x = 0 ) =C01 = 0

qL2 x qLx 2 qx 3
EIv =
+

2
2
6

Deflection equation
qL2 x 2 qLx 3 qx 4
EIv =
+

+ C2
4
6
24
v (x = 0) = 0

0 = 0 + 0 0 + C2

C2 = 0

qL2 x 2 qLx 3 qx 4
EIv =
+

4
6
24

q
2 2
v=
6L x + 4Lx 3
24EI

x4

v ( x = L )
qL3 qL3 qL3 qL3
+

=
EIv =
2
2
6
6
qL3
v = QB =
6EI

v(x = L)
q
3qL4
4
4
4
v=
6 L 4L + L =
24EI
24EI
qL4 -maximum deflection also.
3qL4
v=
v(x = L) =
8EI
24EI

Solid Mechanics

Problem 5
Above problem using third order equation
EIv = V ( x )
EIv = qL qx

Moment equation
qx 2
EIv = qLx
+ C1
2

B.C. M ( x = L ) = 0

EIv ( x = L ) = 0

qL2 qL2
0 = qL
=
2
2
2

qL2
4=
2

qx 2 qL2
EI v = qLx
+
2
2
qx 2 qL2
EIv = qLx
+
2
2

Problem 6
Above problem with fourth order equation

EIv = P ( x )

EIv = q
Shear force equation
EIv = qx + C 1
B.C V ( x = L ) = 0

0 = qL + C 1

EIv ( x = L ) = 0
C1 = + qL

Solid Mechanics
EIv = qx + qL

Problem 7
A simple beam AB supports a concentrated
load P acting at
EI =
distances a and b from the left-hand and right-hand supports
B
respectively. Determine the equations QofA the Q
deflection
L
max at the supports, the
curve, the angles of rotation
and
maximum deflection and the deflection at the midpoint C of
the beam. Constant EI

Solution

Pb
+x=P
L

Pb
L
Pb
V+
=0
L
Pb
V =
L
Pbx
Pb
H=
M
x=0
L
L

x=P

Pb
P=0
L
Pb
V =P
L

V+

Solid Mechanics
M + P ( x a)

Pbx
L

Pbx
P ( x a)
L
Pbx
Pxa
M=
Px + Pa =
+ Pa
L
L
M=

Differential equation of deflection curve

Pbx
0xa
L
Pxa
EIv =
+ Pa
axL
L
EIv =

Slope equations:
Pbx 2
EIv =
+ C1 o x a
2L
Px 2 a
EIv =
+ Pax + C 2 a x L
2L

B.C. v ( x = a ) AP = v ( x = a ) PB

P ( L a ) a2
Pa3
+ C1 =
+ Pa2 + C 2
2L
2L
/ 2 Pa
/ /3
/ /3
PLa
Pa

+ C1 =
+ Pa2 + C 2
2 L/
2/ L/
2/ L/
Pa2
C1 =
+ C2
2

Solid Mechanics

Deflection curve equations:

Pbx 3
EIv =
+ C 1x + C 3
6L

0xa

Px 3 a Pax 2
EIv =
+
+ C2x + C4 a x L
6L
2
B.C: v ( x = 0 ) = 0 and v ( x = L ) = 0
C3 = 0

0 = 0 + 0 + C3

PL3 a PaL2
+
+ C2L + C 4
0=
6L
2
PL2 a PaL2
+
+ C2L + C 4
0=
6
2
PaL2
=
+ C2L + C 4
3
PaL2
C4 =
C2L
3
v ( x = a ) AP = v ( x = a ) PB
P ( L a ) a3
Pa 4 Pa 3
+ C1a =
+
+ C2 a + C4
6L
6L
2
/ /4
/ / 4 Pa 3
PLa 3 Pa
Pa
+
+ C1 a =
+
+ C2 a + C 4
6L
6/ L/
6L/
2
Pa 3
Pa 3
+ C1a =
+ C2 a + C 4
6
2
Pa 3
PaL2
C1 a =
+ C2 a
C2L
3
3

Solid Mechanics
Pa 3
Pa 3
PaL2
+ C/ 2 a =
+ C/ 2 a
C2L
2
3
3
Pa 3
PaL2
=
C2L
6
3

PaL2 Pa 3
C2L =

3
6

PaL Pa 3
C2 =

3
6

Some important formulae to remember

(1)

qL4
qL3
B =
,QB =
8EI
6EI

(2)

PL3
PL2
B =
, QB =
3EI
2 EI

(3)

M0 L2
M L
B =
, QB = 0
2 EI
EI

(4)

(5)

c = max

5qL4
qL3
=
; Q A = QB =
384EI
24EI

c = max

PL3
PL2
=
;Q A = QB =
48EI
16EI

Problem 8
A simple beam AB supports a concentrated load P acting at
the center as shown. Determine the equations of the
deflection curve, the angles of rotation Q A and QB at the
supports, the maximum deflection max of the beam.

Solid Mechanics

Solution

M=

Px
2
V =
M
M=

Px
2

P
2

P
x=0
2

M=

Px
2

P
P=0
2
V=P/2

V+

Px
L
+P x
=0
2
2
Px
L
Px
PL PL Px
M=
P x
=
Px +
=

2
2
2
2
2
2

M=

PL Px

2
2

Solid Mechanics

Differential equation deflection curve

Px
0xL/ 2
2
PL Px L
EIv =

xL
2
2 2
EIv =

Slope equations
Px 2
EIv =
+ C1
4

0xL/ 2

PLx Px 2
EIv =

+ C2
2
4
v x =

L
2

= v x =
AP

L
xL
2
L
2

PB

PL2
PL2 PL2
+ C1 =

+ C2
16
4
16
PL2 PL2
PL2
C1 = C 2 +

= C2 +
4
8
8
PL2
C1 = C 2 +
8

Deflection equations:
Px 3
EIv =
+ C 1x + C 3
12

0xL/ 2

PLx 2 Px 3
EIv =

+ C2x + C4 L / 2 x L
4
12

B.C: v ( x = 0 ) = 0 and v ( x = L ) = 0

Solid Mechanics

0 = 0 + 0 + C3

C3 = 0

PL3 PL3
0=

+ C2L + C 4
4
12
PL3
=
+ C2L + C 4
6
PL3
C4 =
C2L
6
v x =

L
2

= v x =
AP

L
2

PB

PL3 C1L PL3 PL3

L
+
=

+ C2 + C 4
96
2
16
96
2
L PL3 PL3
L

+ C2 + C 4
C1 =
2 16
48
2
L PL3
L
C1 =
+ C2 + C 4
2 24
2
L/ PL3 PL3
L/ PL3
C/ 2 +
=
+ C/ 2
C2L
2/ 16
24
2/
6
PL3 PL3 PL3

= C2L
24
6
16

C2 =

( 2 8 3 ) PL2

9 PL2 3PL2
C2 =
=
48
16
3 PL2
C2 =
16

48

Solid Mechanics
3PL2 PL2
PL2
C1 =
+
=
16
8
16
PL2
C1 =
16
PL3
3 PL2
C4 =
L
6
16
PL3 3 PL3 ( 8 + 9 ) PL3
=
+
=
6
16
48
PL3
C4 =
48
Deflection curves

Px 3 PL2

EIv =
x + C3
12
16

0x

L
2

PLx 2
Px 3 3 PL2
PL3 L
EIv =
+

x+
xL
4
12
16
48 2
EIv x = L
2

PL3 PL3 PL3

=

=
96
32
48

v x= L
2

EIv x = L
2

PL3
=
48EI

PL3 PL3 3 PL3 PL3 ( 6 1 9 + 2 ) PL3

=

+
=
16
96
32
48
96

PL3
=
48

Solid Mechanics
v = PL3 / 48EI
Slope equations:

Px 2 PL2
EIv =

4
16

0x

PLx Px 2 3PL2
EIv =

2
4
16

L
2

L
xL
2

PL2
PL2
EIv ( x = 0 ) = 0
=
16
16
PL2
v ( x = 0 ) = QA =
( ) Clock wise
16EI
PL2 PL2 3 PL2 ( 8 4 3 ) PL2 PL2
EIv ( x = L ) =

=
=
2
4
16
16
16
PL2
v ( x = L ) = QB =
(+ ve, CCW from x-axis )
16EI
Problem 9
A cantilever beam AB supports load of intensity of acting
over part of the span and a concentrated load P acting at the
free end. Determine the deflections B and angle of rotation
QB at end B of the beam. Beam has constant EI. Use principle
of superposition.

Solution

B1

qa 3
=
( 4L a ) ,
24EI

B2

PL3
=
,
3EI

QB2

QB1
PL2
=
2 EI

qL3
=
6EI

Solid Mechanics

B = B1 + B2

qa3
PL3
=
( 4L a ) +
24EI
3EI

QB = QB1 + QB1

qa3 PL2
=
+
6EI 2 EI

Solid Mechanics

21. Moment- Area Method

This method is based upon two theorems related to the area
of the bending moment diagram it is called moment-area
method.

First moment area theorem

Consider segment AB of the deflection curve of a beam in
region of + ve curvature.
The equation
d 2 M
=
can be written as
2
EI
dx
d 2 d M
=
=
2
dx EI
dx
d =

M
dx
EI

The quantity

M
dx corresponds to an infinitesimal area of
EI

M
diagram. According to the above equation the area is
EI
equal to the arrange in angle between two adjacent point m1
and m2 . Integrating the above equation between any two
points A & B gives.
the

B
A

d = B A = BA =

M
dx
EI
A

Solid Mechanics
This states that the arrange in angle measured in radius
between the two tangents at any two points A and B on the
M
elastic curve is equal to the area of
diagram between A &
EI
B , If A is known then

B = A + BA
In performing above integration, areas corresponding to the
+ M are taken + ve, area corresponding to the ve M are
taken ve
If

M
dx is +ve- tangent B rotates c.c.w from A or B is
EI
A

algebraically larger than A.

If ve tangent B rotates c.w from A.

Second moment-area theorem

This is related to the deflection curve between A and B.

Solid Mechanics
We see that dt is a small contribution to tBA . Since the angles
between the tangents and x-axis are very small we can take
dt = x1d = x1
The expression x1

M
dx
EI

M
dx = first moment of infinitesimal area
EI

M
dx w.r.t. a vertical line through B.
EI
Integrating between the point A & B
B

tBA = dt = x1

M
M
dx = First moment of the area of the
EI
EI

diagram between points A & B, evaluated w.r.t. B.

tBA = x1
t AB = x
where =

if M is +ve

= +ve

if M is -ve

= -ve

M
dx
EI
A

x and x1 are always taken +ve quantities.

Sign

of tangential deviation depends on sign of M.

Solid Mechanics
A positive value of tangential deviation- point B is above A
and vice versa ve value means point B is below the point A.
In applying the moment area method a carefully prepared
sketch of the elastic curve is always necessary.

Problem:1
Consider an aluminum cantilever beam 1600 mm long with a
10 kN for a applied 400 mm from the free end for a distance
of 600 mm from the fixed end, the beam is of greater depth
than it is beyond, having

I 1 = 50 106 mm4 . For the

remaining 1000 mm of the beam I 2 = 10 106 mm4 . Find the

deflection and angular rotation of the free end. Neglect
weight of the beam and E = 70GPa
Solution:

EI = 3.5 10 24

70 109 10 6 N/mm2

= 70 10 3 N/mm2

Solid Mechanics

1
1
0.12
36
A1 = bh = 600
=
E
E
2
2
129.6
A2 = bh =
E
1
1
0.48
115.2
A3 = bh = 480
=
2
2
E
E
1
1
0.12
7. 2
A4 = bh = 120
=
2
2
E
E

QBA = QB Q A =
QB =

M
dx = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4
EI
A

36 129.6 115.2 7.2

288

=
E
E
E
E
E

Solid Mechanics

QB =

288
288
3
=
=

4
.
14

10
rad
3
E
70 10

QB = 4.14 10 3 rad

A.

from tangent at

tBA = B

x2 = 1060mm; x1 = 1400 ; x3 = 840 mm; x4 = 480 mm

tBA = B = A1x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3 + A4 x 4
36
129.6
115.2
7.2
1400 +
1060 +
840 +
480
E
E
E
E
288000
=
= 4.11 mm
E
B = 4.11 mm below the tangent at point A.

Problem 2
Find the deflection due to the concentrated force P applied as
soon as figure, at the center of a simply supported beam EI
constant.
Solution:

Solid Mechanics

M
EI
diagram is same as M
diagram.
Since EI is constant

vc = cc tCB
1
cc = t AB
2
1
1
3 Pa 3 Pa2
A1 = bh = a
=
s
2
2
4EI 8EI
1
1
3Pa 9 Pa2
A2 = bh = 3 a
=
2
2
4EI 8EI
2
x1 = a ; x 2 = 2 a
3

3 Pa2 2
9 Pa2
t AB = A1x1 + A2 x2 =
a+
2a
8EI 3
8EI
Pa3 9 Pa3 10 Pa3 5 Pa3
=
+
=
=
( + ve )
4EI 4EI
4EI
2 EI

Solid Mechanics
1
Pa
2a
Pa 3
tCB = 2 a

=
s
2
2 EI
3
3EI
cc = t AB / 2

5 Pa 3
=
4EI

5 Pa 3 Pa 3 ( 15 4 ) Pa 3 11Pa 3
vc =

=
=
4EI 3EI
4EI
12 EI
11Pa 3
vc =
12 EI
The +ve sign of t AB & tCA indicate points A & C above the
tangent through B.
(a) The slope of the elastic curve at C can be found from the
slope of one of the ends as:
QBC = QB QC

QBC

QC = QB QBC

M
1
Pa Pa2
= QB QC
dx = 2 a
=
s
EI
2
2 EI 2 EI
C

QB t AB

5 Pa 3 1 Pa 2 5Pa 2 Pa 2
/L=

2 EI 4 a 2 EI 8EI 2 EI
Pa2
Qc =
8EI

(b) If the deflection curve equations is wanted then by

selecting an ordinary point E at a distance x

vE = EE EE

Solid Mechanics

vE =

Lx
t AB tEB
L

In this way one

can obtain equation
of the deflection curve.
(c) To simplify the calculations some care in selecting the
tangent at a support must be considered.
In this approach to find
tCA we need to consider
unhatched region which
is more difficult.

(d) The deflection at C can also be calculated as follows.

vc =

t AC + tBC
2

is at the center of the beam. However, this is also move

complicated approach compared to first, as to find tCA we
again need to consider unhatched region.

Solid Mechanics

Problem 3
Find the deflection of the end A of the beams shown in
figure caused by the applied forces. The EI is constant.

Solution

Solid Mechanics

1
1
Pa
Pa 2
A1 = bh = a
=
2
2
EI
2 EI
1 a
Pa
Pa 2
A2 =
=
2 2
EI
4EI
Pa 2
A3 =
4EI

Pa 2
and A4 =
2 EI

a
7a
2a a
11a
x1 = + 2 a = ; x 2 =
+ +a=
3
3
33 2
6
1a
2a
x3 =
+ a = 7 a / 6 ; x4 =
32
3

tCB = A2 x2 + A3 x3 + A4 x 4
Pa2 11a Pa 2 7 a Pa2 2 a
=

+
+

4EI 6 4EI 6 2 EI 3
11Pa3 7 Pa 3 Pa3 ( 11 + 7 + 8 ) Pa3
=
+
+
=
24EI 24EI 3EI
24EI
4 Pa 3 Pa 3
tCB =
=
24EI 6EI
The + sign of tCB indicates that the point C is above the
tangent through B. Hence corrected sketch of the elastic
curve is made.

Solid Mechanics
Pa 2 2
Pa 3
t AB =
a=
2 EI 3
3EI

v A = t AB AA
Pa3 Pa3 Pa3
=

=
3EI 12 EI 4EI
Pa 3
vA =
4EI
Note: Another method to find v A is shown. This may be
simpler method than the present one.