1

EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 12

CHAPTER 16
Optoelectronic Devices

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

LED is a forward biased P-N Junction which emits visible light

when energized
Charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons and
holes cross the junction and recombine
Electrons are in higher energy conduction band and holes are in
lower energy valence band. During recombination, some of this
energy difference is given up in the form of heat and light

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Si and Ge LED: Greater percentage of this energy is given up in

the form of heat so that amount of emitted light is insignificant

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide(GaP) and
Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) LED:
Greater percentage of energy released in the form of light

Colour of the light depend on the material of the semiconductor

GaAs
GaP
GaAsP

Infrared Radiation
Red or Green Light
Red or Yellow Light

LEDs emit no light in reverse direction,

and will be quickly destroyed

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

APPLICATIONS
LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.5 V to 3.3 V, so they are
highly compatible with solid-state circuitry
Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm
In solid state video displays which are rapidly replacing CRT
In image sensing circuits used for picturephone
In the field of optical communication where high radiance GaAs
diodes are matched into the silica-fibre optical cable
In supplying input power to lasers
For entering information into optical computer memories

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

APPLICATIONS
For numeric displays in hand held or pocket calculators
In arrays of different types for displaying alphanumerics (Letters
and Numbers)

CHAPTER 18
THE BASIC TRANSISTOR

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

It consists of two back to back P-N Junctions

manufactured in a single piece of a semiconductor crystal

Transistor is a contraction of two words: transfer and
resistor. As transistor is basically a resistor that amplifies
electrical impulses as they are transferred through it
These two junctions give rise to three regions called emitter,
base and collector
Transistor is simply a sandwich of one type
of material between two layers of other type

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

PNP Transistor: N-type sandwiched between two P-type
NPN Transistor: P-type sandwiched between two N-type
Two Junctions: Emitter-base junction & Collector-base junction
Symbols

Arrowhead always at the

emitter, its direction
indicates the conventional
direction of current flow

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Emitter: It forms left hand section of region of the transistor.

It is heavily doped than any of the other regions because its

main function is to supply majority charge carriers to the base
Base: It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very
thin as compared to either the emitter or collector and is very
lightly doped
Collector: It forms right hand section of region of the
transistor. Its main function is to collect majority charge carriers
through the base
Collector physically larger than Emitter as it has to dissipate
much greater power. So it is Not possible to invert transistor
(making emitter the collector or collector the emitter)

10

Transistor Biasing
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of

correct polarity across its two junctions

For normal operation:
Emitter-Base Junction is always forward biased
Collector-Base Junction is always reverse biased
For biasing, two batteries with supply voltage VEE and VCC are used
For PNP transistor, Positive terminal of VEE is connected to P-type
emitter in order to repel or push holes into the base, Negative
terminal of VCC is connected to P-type collector so that it may attract
or pull holes through the base, see Fig (a).
Transistor will never conduct if its E-B junction is not FB. (Since
there will be no current due to majority charge carriers)

11

12

Transistor Biasing
PNP Transistor Biasing

NPN Transistor Biasing

Important Biasing Rules

For PNP transistor: Both Collector and Base are negative

with respect to Emitter, Collector is more negative than Base

For NPN transistor: Both Collector and Base are positive
with respect to Emitter. Collector is more positive than Base

13

Important Biasing Rules

Double Subscript Notation:
Different potentials are designated by double subscript
First subscript always represents the point which is more

positive
If Emitter is more positive than Base, we write VEB

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EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 13

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

It consists of two back to back P-N Junctions

manufactured in a single piece of a semiconductor crystal

Transistor is a contraction of two words: transfer and
resistor. As transistor is basically a resistor that amplifies
electrical impulses as they are transferred through it
These two junctions give rise to three regions called emitter,
base and collector
Transistor is simply a sandwich of one type
of material between two layers of other type

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

PNP Transistor: N-type sandwiched between two P-type
NPN Transistor: P-type sandwiched between two N-type
Two Junctions: Emitter-base junction & Collector-base junction
Symbols

Arrowhead always at the

emitter, its direction
indicates the conventional
direction of current flow

The Bipolar Junction Transistor

Emitter: It forms left hand section of region of the transistor.

It is heavily doped than any of the other regions because its

main function is to supply majority charge carriers to the base
Base: It forms the middle section of the transistor. It is very
thin as compared to either the emitter or collector and is very
lightly doped
Collector: It forms right hand section of region of the
transistor. Its main function is to collect majority charge carriers
through the base
Collector physically larger than Emitter as it has to dissipate
much greater power. So it is Not possible to invert transistor
(making emitter the collector or collector the emitter)

Transistor Biasing
For proper working of a transistor, it is essential to apply voltages of

correct polarity across its two junctions

For normal operation:
Emitter-Base Junction is always forward biased
Collector-Base Junction is always reverse biased
For biasing, two batteries with supply voltage VEE and VCC are used
For PNP transistor, Positive terminal of VEE is connected to P-type
emitter in order to repel or push holes into the base, Negative
terminal of VCC is connected to P-type collector so that it may attract
or pull holes through the base, see Fig (a).
Transistor will never conduct if its E-B junction is not FB. (Since
there will be no current due to majority charge carriers)

Transistor Biasing
PNP Transistor Biasing

NPN Transistor Biasing

Important Biasing Rules

For PNP transistor: Both Collector and Base are negative

with respect to Emitter, Collector is more negative than Base

For NPN transistor: Both Collector and Base are positive
with respect to Emitter. Collector is more positive than Base

Important Biasing Rules

Double Subscript Notation:
Different potentials are designated by double subscript
First subscript always represents the point which is more

positive
If Emitter is more positive than Base, we write VEB

Transistor Currents
Three primary currents which flow in properly biased

transistors are

and

A small part of emitter current goes to supply base current

and major part goes to collector current
By normal convention current flowing into a transistor taken
as positive whereas flowing out of it are taken as negative

Transistor Currents

Common Base
Configuration

Common Emitter
Configuration

10

Summing Up
Conventional current flows along the arrow whereas electrons

flow against it
Emitter-Base Junction is always Forward-Biased
Collector-Base Junction is always Reverse-Biased

11

Transistor Circuit Configuration

There are three types of circuit connections for transistor
Common Base (CB) configuration
Common Emitter (CE) configuration
Common Collector (CC) configuration

The term common is used to denote the electrode that is

common to the input and output circuits

12

Common Base Configuration

Emitter current is the input current and collector current is

the output current

Input signal is applied between the emitter and base whereas
output signal is taken out from the collector and base

I C I E
I B I E IC
I B I E I E
I B (1 ) I E

13

Common Base Configuration

Ratio of collector current to emitter current is called dc alpha
of

a transistor

Negative sign indicates collector current flows out of it

It is also called forward current transfer ratio (-hFB),
F stands for forward and B for common base
of the transistor is the measure of the quality of the
transistor. Higher its value, collector current more
closely equals the emitter current
Its value ranges from 0.95 to 0.999

14

Common Emitter Configuration

Input signal is applied between base and emitter and output

signal is taken out from collector and emitter circuit

IB is the input current and IC is the output current

15

Common Emitter Configuration

The ratio of collector current to base current is called beta

It is also called common emitter dc forward ratio and is

written as hFE

I E I B IC
I E I B I B
I E (1 ) I B

16

Relation between

17

and

Proof:
As

IC
IB

and

IC
IE

Then

IE

IB

We know

I B I E IC

It gives

IC
IC I E

I E I C I E I E I C I E 1

1
1

Common Collector Configuration

Input signal is applied between base and collector and output

signal is taken out from collector and emitter circuit

IB is the input current and IE is the output current

18

Common Collector Configuration

Current gain of the circuit

I E I E IC 1

IB IC IB
IE

1
IB
1

Output current =

.Input current

I E I B IC
I E I B I B
I E (1 ) I B

19

Relations between Transistor Currents

(1)

I C I B I E

(2)

IE
IB

1 I E
1

IE

IC

IB

I C 1 I B
(3) I E
1

IC

20

Exercise
Solve Example 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4
Solve Chapter 18 Conventional Problems 1,2,3,4

21

EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 14

CHAPTER 19

19.7 Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circuits

Common Base Transistor Circuit

19.7 Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circuits

Fig (b) shows another and more popular way of indicating

power supply voltage

Only one terminal of the battery is shown
The other terminal is understood to be grounded so as to
provide a complete path for the current
For example, Negative terminal of VEE and Positive terminal of
VCC are supposed to be grounded even though as such not
shown in diagram

19.7 Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circuits

Common Emitter Transistor Circuit

19.7 Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circuits

Common Emitter Transistor Circuit

As both collector and Base are

Positive with respect to Emitter,

Hence a single battery can be used
to get proper voltages across the two

19.7 Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circuits

Common Collector Transistor Circuit

19.8 Common Base Formulas

For PNP Transistor

According to KVL:

OR

According to KVL:

OR

19.9 Common Emitter Formulas

For NPN Transistor

According to KVL:

OR

According to KVL:

OR

Exercise
Solve Example 19.1, 19.2, 19.3, 19.4, 19.5, 19.6, 19.7

10

EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 15

19.10 Common Collector Formulas

CC Circuit with its proper dc biasing voltage sources
(Two circuits represent the same thing)
Theoretical Circuit

Practical Circuit

19.10 Common Collector Formulas

CC Circuit (Another way of drawing the same circuit with one battery)
Load resistor (RE) is not in the Collector lead but in the Emitter lead
Why Common Collector? Input is between Base and Collector
Output is between Emitter and Collector

19.10 Common Collector Formulas

For NPN Transistor

According to KVL:

Similarly,

According to KVL:

And,

19.11 The Beta Rule

According to this rule, resistance from one part of a transistor

circuit can be referred to another of its parts

For example, in the Collector can be referred to the Base
and, reciprocally, can be referred to the Collector
Similarly, can be referred to the Base and, reciprocally,
can be referred to the Emitter
Since current through is
, hence factor comes
into picture
Similarly, current through is
, hence
(or approximately ) factor comes into picture again
-rule is used that makes transistor calculations quick and easy

19.11 The Beta Rule...

The -rule may be stated as under:
1. When referring to Base circuit, multiply it by ,when
referring to Collector circuit, divide it by
2. When referring to Base circuit, multiply it by
(or
just ), when referring to Emitter circuit, divide it
by
(or just )
Remember one point before you apply this rule:
The point is that only those resistances are transferred which lie
in the path of the current being calculated

Exercise

Exercise

Exercise

Exercise

10

Exercise

11

Exercise

12

Exercise

13

Exercise
Solve Example 19.8, 19.9, 19.10, 19.11
Solve Chapter 19 Conventional Problems 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

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EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 16

Topic: BJT as a Switch

BJT as a Switch
19.12 Importance of VCE
VCE is very important in checking whether Transistor is
1. Defective
2. Working in cut-off
3. In Saturation (or well into saturation)
o When VCE =VCC, transistor is in cut-off, i.e., fully turned OFF
o When VCE = 0, transistor is in saturation, i.e., fully turned ON
o When VCE < 0, transistor is well in saturation (it is avioded)
o When VCE = VCC, transistor is is used as Amplifier, i.e., when

IB increase or decreases, IC also increases or decreases

BJT as a Switch
19.13 Cut-off and Saturation Points

BJT as a Switch
Cut-off point: A transistor is in the cut-off region when the

BE Junction is not FB, so it does not conduct any current (as

IB=0). All of the currents are zero, and VCE is equal to VCC
V CE V CC I C R L

Since,
I B 0, IC 0
Hence,
V CE V CC
This value of VCE is written as VCE(cut-off)
In cut-off there is ideally an open between

collector and emitter, it is like an open switch

BJT as a Switch
Saturation point: When the BE junction is FB and there is

enough Base current to produce a maximum Collector

current, such that VCE becomes zero, i.e., VCE=0, the transistor
is said to be Saturated
V CE V CC I C R L
0 V CC I C R L
I C V CC / R L

It is obvious that under saturation:

Whole of VCC drops across RL
Collector current is called IC(sat)
As VCE = 0, so there is ideally a short between collector and
emitter, it is like a closed switch

BJT as a Switch
A control signal can be used to turn a transistor ON and OFF
For Example, an LED
LED OFF

Control
Signal

LED ON

Exercise

Exercise

Exercise
Solve Example 19.12, 19.13, 19.14, 19.15, 19.6

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EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 17

Topic: BJT as an Amplifier

Notation for Voltages and Currents

For DC (or non-time varying) Quantities

We will use capital letters with capital subscripts such as

IE,IB,IC
VE,VB,VC

for DC currents
for DC voltages

VBE,VCB,VCE
VEE,VCC,VBB

for DC voltage differences

for DC supply voltages

For AC Quantities

We will use small letters with small subscripts such as

ie,ib,ic
Ie,Ib,Ic
ve,vb,vc
vbe,vcb,vce

for AC currents
for rms value of AC currents
for instantaneous values of AC voltages to ground
for AC voltages differences

Total (Sum of) AC and DC Voltages and Currents

We will use a hybrid notation. For example,

iE for emitter current and vCE for collector to Emitter voltage

Increase or Decrease Notation

This notation is very helpful in analyzing transistor

operation when ac signal is applied to it. It is simply this:

means increase and means decrease
In fig, if VBB were increased,
IB would increase
this would increase IC,
the drop ICRL would increase
and hence VCE will decrease
It can be written as
VBB , IB , IC , ICRL ,VCE

Applying AC to DC biased transistor

When we apply directly an ac signal to the EBJ of

emitter-base circuit of a properly biased transistor, it

upsets the dc bias

Applying AC to DC biased transistor

Most ac signal sources are nearly a short to dc, So

whole of base current would pass through ac source

rather than the base, thereby spoiling the transistor
bias
To avoid this, the ac source is connected to transistor
via a coupling capacitor
This capacitor act as open circuit for dc but almost a short
for ac source (provided it is of sufficiently large
capacitance)

Transistor AC/DC Analysis

In CE amplifier circuit shown in fig (a), an ac signal vbe is

applied across its EB junction

AC voltage vbe will be added to DC voltage VBE as if the two
were connected in series. Resultant voltage shown in fig (b)

Transistor AC/DC Analysis

First Quarter Cycle

In first quarter cycle of input signal, both vbe and VBE increase
thereby giving rise to the following sequence of changes
vBE , iB , iC , iCRL , vCE
Hence output voltage decreases as shown in fig (c)

Transistor AC/DC Analysis

Second Quarter Cycle

Here vbe as well as vBE decrease. Hence

vBE , iB , iC , iCRL , vCE
Third quarter cycle same as in the first and so on
Important: Output is out of phase with the input voltage

Exercise

10

EE182 Basic Electronics

Lecture # 19

Exercises

Exercises

Exercises

Exercises

Exercises

10 (Assuming it is
given value)

Exercises

Exercises
Optimum (best) operating point is the mid point on dc load line.
Thus,

Then
And

Exercises