Wireless World 1962 03

Wireless World
Wireless
ELECTRONICS,
MARCH
Editor:
Managing Editor;
HUGH
S. POCOCK, M.I.E.E.
HUGHS.
M.I.E.E.
Editor:
F. L. DEVEREUX, B.Sc.
B.Sc.
Assistant Editor:
H.
\V. BARNARD
H.W.BARNARD
Editorial:
Editorial:
P. R. DARRINGTON
M. G. LAZENBY
R. H. OLIVER
R.
W. J. A. WOODYER
Drawing Office:
H. J. COOKE
"101
101
World
RADIO,
TELEVISION
1962
Editorial Comment
102 Transistors in Space .
By L. H. Brace
106 Harmonic Analysis

110 Ionosphere Review:
Review : 1961
By H. C. Parr
By T. W.
IV. Bennington
112 World of Wireless

114 Personalities
115 News from Industry
117 Physical Society Exhibition
127 Feedback,
Feedback; Distortion and Allied Topics
By T. Roddam
130 Technical Notebook

131
Manufacturers' Products
133 Letters to the Editor
Production:
D. R. BRAY
Advertisement Manager:
G. BENTON ROWELL
139 Meters and Senses

143
By " Cathode Ray ",
Short-wave Conditions
144 Fundamentals of Feedback Design3

Design-3
By G. Edwin
147 Conferences and Exhibitions

148 March Meetings
150 Unbiased
VOLUME 68 No. 3.
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www.americanradiohistory.com
March,
MARCH,
Wireless World
WORLD
WIRELESS
66
1962
47- 91
AWa7-91
BY100 HIGH
PERFORMANCE
SILICON
RECTIFIER
B
HIGH
'SHORT NECK' PICTURE TUBE

for slender television sets
1 'SH0RT NECK' PICTURE

for slender television sets
type
tube, type
picture tube,
Mullard picture
new Mullard
m m Bii
The new
with
screen with
nil D L| 1U
|l MIL AW47-91,
rectangular screen
has aa rectangular
AW47-91, has
angle
19.:inch diagonal
19-inch
diagonal and
and aa deflection
deflection angle
angle
rCIXlUlim n 1101 aa 19-inch
offers
of 110. The flatness of the screen offers
from
freedom from
a 11
aa wide
wide viewing
viewing angle
angle and
and freedom
freedom
from
Elecobliquely. Elec.viewed obliquely.
when viewed
^11 II I|M
distortion
distortion when
the focustrostatic focusing is used and the
J III
type'unipotential' type
ing lens is of the 'unipotentiaT
threethat is, the two outer grids of the threeThis

grid lens are at the same potential. This
defocustype of lens prevents deflection defocusRECTIFIER
quality
ing and thus ensures good spot quality
ionNo ionthe over the whole picture area. No
Now to be found in many sets as the
that
so that
AW47-91 so
mains rectifier, is the new Mullard silicon trap is used with the AW47-91
This the problem of interaction between
BY100. This
diffused junction rectifier, BYIOO.
the
between the
peak fields of the ion-trap magnet and
rectifier has a maximum recurrent peak
the
and the
inverse voltage rating of 800V and will deflection coils is absent and there
is
there
is
aa
curpass a maximum average forward curconsequent improvement in spot quality.
tempera550rnA
rent of 550mA
at
an
ambient
temperao
of
The design of the electrode structure of
50C.
ture of 50
C. The maximum forward
maxi- the gun of the AW47-91is
the maxi1.5V
voltage drop is 1.5
very
V at 55A
A and the
AW47-91 is such that a very
800V. short gun has been achieved. In
at 800V.
10[J.A at
mum reverse current is lOjiA
addition
In addition
The small size of the BY100 isis an obvious to this, the sealing pip at the base
the
of the
base of
advantage and allows greater flexibility
length
total length
receiver gun is very small, so that the total
the receiver
in positioning the device in the
The
mm. The
110 mm.
localised of the tube neck is only 110
reduction of localised
and in effecting a reduction
the
of the
length of
heating.
overall reduction in the length
features
AW47-91 resulting from these features
-~~~
m
I
m
pentode for
field timebases
triode
The Mullard PCL185 is the new triode
developed
pentode which has been developed
applicaspecifically for field timebase applicain
encountered in
tions and is now being encountered
To
many modern television receivers. To
output
meet the heavy demands of the output
the
timebases, the
stage of present-day field timebases,
peak
pentode of the PCL85 can deliver aa peak
anode
an anode
200rnA at an
anode current of 200mA
,.anode
voltage
grid voltage
screen grid
voltage of 50V and a screen
timebases
of 170V. This rating allows timebases
transsmall output transto be designed with small
in
benefit in
formers, which is of obvious benefit
imparticularly imlow-cost receivers and is particularly
portant in stabilised circuits where large
of
Use of
standing currents are required. Use
thus
has thus
the PCL85 in present-day sets has
provided the receiver manufacturer with
greater scope for economy and simplicity in his design.
t'
I T
}.,
reductions
has made possible even greater reductions
leadin the depth of television cabinets, leading to the more slender appearance of
scope
more scope
present-day sets, and offering more
telefor the development of compact television portables.
PCLB5 atriode MINIATURE

FOIL
pentode for
CAPACITORS
field timebases
PGL85atrio(le
TUBE
MINIATURE
FOIL
III'
MMl
CAPACITORS
materials.
A completely new type of capacitor has perienced with high-k ceramic materials.
is
the The stability of the new components is
ineet the
been developed by Mullard to meet
capacitance
in- capacitance
portable good, and the change in
demand for small components in portable
does not exceed 10 %.
life-does
capaci- during working life
transistor radios. Four values of capacielectrical
In addition to the excellent electrical
0.01, 0.022, 0.047 and
tance are available: 0.01,0.022,0.047
offer
capacitors offer
com- properties, the new foil capacitors
O.liiF.
0.1 fl-F. These are the values most comsmall
the certain physical advantages. Their small
decoupling in the
monly required for . decoupling
insulating
size, rectangular shape and insulating
r .f. and i.f. stages of the receivers.
r.f.
closely
packed closely
consist coating enable them to be packed
These miniature components consist
thus
plastic together on printed-wiring boards, thus
of a non-inductive winding using a plastic
in
vital in
jn- effecting the economy of space so vital
dielectric and finally coated with an inportables.
modern pocket portables.
these the design of modem
sulating lacquer. The loss factor of these
loss
the loss
capacitors is less than half the
Their
factor of ceramic disc capacitors. Their
and Watch next month for more information
wide, and
operating temperature range is wide,
tempera- from Mullard about What's New in the
the change in capacitance with temperaSets.
ex- New Sets,
that exture is considerably less than that
MVM 272
Mreless
VOL 68
Worl
NO.3
NO.
3
1962
MARCH 1962
Noise
Measuring
ring Noise
Measu
the
discusses the
Ray " discusses
IN this issue ""Cathode
Cathode Ray"
measuredifficulties of correlation between objective measureof
reactions of
subjective reactions
the subjective
ments of sound and the
conlaboratory conhuman beings to it. Even under laboratory
relathe relatones the
pure tones
ditions and using continuous pure
between
and between
tion between frequency and pitch, and
define.
to define.
enough to
hard enough
intensity and loudness are hard
used,
are used,
When complex tones containing harmonics are
music
considering music
are considering
and even more so when we are
gulf
the gulf
life, the
everyday life,
of everyday
or the common sounds of
becomes
between -objective
objective and subjective assessment becomes
Ray"
Cathode Ray
increasingly difficult to bridge. As ""Cathode
by aa
only by
solved only
points out, the problem can be solved
basis.
possible basis.
statlstical approach and on the widest possible
statistical
to
are to
noise are
of noise
When regulations for the control of
must
sample must
be given the force of law the statistical sample
not
would not
one would
possible : one
be as large and varied as possible:
noise
traffic noise
of traffic
results of
place too much reliance on the results
of aa
members of
the members
of the
tests based on the opinions of
those
on those
motor-cycle racing club, or for that matter on
are
we are
who, we
unit who,
film unit
of the young ladies of aa film
near
location near
credibly informed, happened to be on location
our
of our
one of
on one
test on
noise test
the site of a recent traffic noise
Legislation
assist. Legislation
trunk roads, and who agreed to assist.
the
fiction the
can hope to satisfy only that legal fiction
"reasonablee man," and to find him the sampling
"reasonabl
abnormal
that abnormal
ensure that
must be sufficiently diverse to ensure
the
sensitivity or ataraxia does not unduly influence the
final result.
the
and the
With the growing volume of motor traffic and
being
are being
efforts are
noise that goes with it, renewed efforts
basis
equitable basis
tv find an equitable
made throughout the world to
the
In the
noise. In
for legislative control of vehicular noise.
K ingdom the National Physical Laboratory
United Kingdom
United
the
advise the
to advise
in to
called in
and other bodies have been called
ReMinister of Transport. The Motor Industry Reto
work to
search Association has also undertaken work
vehicular
determine the best methods of measuring vehicular
it.
controlEng it.
noise as a first step to controlling
It
Some interesting facts have already emerged. It
judgthe judgdiscrepanci es between the
has been found that discrepancies
standard
of aa standard
ment of annoyance and the readings of
as
wide as
(we
ghted) sound level meter are not as wide
(we-ghted)
of
might be expected. If ascending categories of
level
annoyance are plotted against sound intensity level
and
linear and
be linear
to be
in dB the relationship is found to
more
never more
is never
the scatter of points about a mean is
of
limit of
than 10 dB wide. Estimates of the upper limit
tolerance are somewhat wider and range from 90 dB
characterin America to 75 dB in Switzerland with, characterU.K.
the U.K.
in the
dB in
intermediat e value of 80 dB
istically, an intermediate
at
serve at
So the standard noise level meter will serve
roads
least to sort the sheep from the goats on main roads
informain the open country, but would it provide informain

used in
if used
ination if
tion that would stand cross-exam
cross-examination
held
be held
might be
environmen t might
built-up areas where the environment
reverberatio n?
by reverberation?
to have increased meter readings by
the
and the
type-approv al of new cars and
Tests for the type-approval
they
checking of old ones have been devised, and they
speeds
specified speeds
usually involve acceleration between specified
microthe microto the
and over given distances with respect to
we
as we
far as
phone of the sound level meter; but as far
the
account the
into account
know they have not so far taken into
which
overrun, which
noise from silencer resonances on overrun,
exhaust
in some vehicles can exceed the normal exhaust
noise.
in
internationa l agreement is necessary m
Clearly international
and
markets and
com:non markets
these days of foreign travel and common
Internation al
the International
it is to be hoped that the findings of the
to
prove to
will prove
Organizatio n on this matter will
Standards Organization
of
must of
be acceptable and workable. But they must
need
the need
by the
necessity be interim measures, dictated by
stresses
the stresses
'lOmething now to reduce the
to do at least something
done
be done
to be
work to
of traffic noise. There is still much work
which
equip:nent which
to produce
prOduce improved measuring equipment
intermitten ce
as intermittence
takes fully into account such factors as
to
and to
time and
in time
and has the ability to scan the noise in
select those elements which give cause for annoyance.
Exhibition
Society " Exhibition
"Physical Society"
The "Physical
to
Exhibition to
THE first report of a Physical Society Exhibition
ago
appear in this journal was more than 50 years ago
date,
(January 1912, p. 15). It was, even at that early date,
Optical
Electr~cal, Optical
the seventh annual exhibition of " Electrical,
comApparatus" and it included comand other Physical Apparatus
Marconi
mercial wireless instruments such as the Marconi
Since
decremeter . Since
magnetic detector, wavemeter and decremeter.
preserve
to preserve
the beginning the organizers have striven to
as
described as
the atmosphere of what the Victorians described
Exhibithe Exhibiscience meeting " and to ensure that the
aa ""science
Council
The Council
commercial . The
tion shall not become too commercial.
Society,
of the Institute of Physics and the Physical Society,
juintly run the exhibition, have reiterated
who now jointly
unique
their intention " to preserve and enhance the unique
occanature of the Annual Exhibition as a scientific occaof
display of
sion rather than an opportunity for display
ordinary commercial products."
manufactur ers
resear<:h workers and manufacturers
In these days research
one
the one
interdepend ent; the
are becoming increasingly interdependent;
investigafor the equipment necessary to carry out investigations which have long left the " bent wire and sealing
new
wax"" stage, and the other for fresh ideas for new
wax
products. The "Phys. Soc.," as at present conon
meet on
stituted, enables all interested parties to meet
equal terms. May it long continue to do so.
101
101
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,

Space
1n
Space
Transis tors in
Transistors
CIRCUITS USED FOR INSTRUMENTATION AND TELEMETRY

11
BRACE*
H. BRACE
By L.
ERE and space probes have

UpPER-ATMOSPHERE
uPPER-ATMOSPH
required the development of new circuits to perform
the various tasks of voltage generation, current
detection, timing, calibration, and telemetry. In the
past, such tasks were performed by vacuum-tube
devices. However, due to the limited volume and
energy available for the instrumentation in highaltitude sounding rockets, circuits using solid-state
devices have decided advantages.
REFERENCE
OSCILLATOR
DEMODULATOR
FILTER
DEMODULATOR
&
FILTER
Fig. I. Scheme
small d.c.
very
for obtaining stable amplification of aa very
modulatorfamplifierfdetector circuit corresponding

Fig. 2. Ring modulator/amplifier/detector
cfiagram Fig. I. Note that KR44 sets a.c. gain of amplifier.
to block diagram
Component values given apply to American semiconductor
devices used by author.
UNIJUNCTION
OSCILLATOR
UN I JUNCTION
OSCILLATOR
r---~~-------o
Rs
BZk
UNIJUNCTION
TRANSISTOR
VI
c7
C7
OOSf.L
(SIGNAL 0-05/J.
EARTH)
(SIGNAL
EARTH)
INPUT
The use of solid-state circuitry eliminates need

for filament power, reduces the problem of heat
dissipation, and increases reliability.
Current Detectors
detectorsto convert a
The need for "direct-current" detectors-to
slowly varying current of very low value (a few
telemetrymicroamperes) into a voltage suitable for telemetry
occurs frequently in space research.
The semiconductor current detector shown in
Figs. 11 and 2 utilizes a diode modulator as an amplifier of a.c. in conjunction with a bridge-rectifier
demodulator. The modulator is a ring-type using
four silicon diodes, two miniature transformers, and
(Vl), running
a unijunction transistor oscillator (VI),
at 2kcjs,
2kc/s, as the carrier or reference generator for the
modulator.
Dl and
On alternate half cycles of the carrier, D1
D2, D3 and D4 become forward biased. This
alternately completes a path for input d.c. to flow
through the upper half, then the lower half, of the
T 22. A full-wave chopping of the input
primary of T
carrier results, which produces a square wave of the
T 2 This
modulator frequency at the secondary of To.
is the output of the amplifier; the amplitude of this
square wave is proportional to the magnitude of the
slowly-varying input current.
The amplifier is a high-gain miniaturized circuit.
Its output is coupled to the bridge rectifier by means
T 3 The rectified output is
of step-up transformer T3.
C5 ,
filtered by a low-pass network consisting of Q,
R 5 , providing a direct output voltage proC66 and Rs,
portional to the bridge-biasing current at its input
(Fig. 3).
Voltage-controlled Oscillator
Several factors indicate the type of oscillator circuit
use:best
b:!st suited for a voltage controlled oscillator use:
(a) The available space requires a volume of less
0.5in 3
than about OAin'.
SmA) from
(b) Low current consumption (less than 5mA)
Paso, Texas, U.S.A.
El Paso,
Co., El
Devices Co.,
**Static
Static Devices
Ca
0-2/J,
R,
R6
IOk
MARCH
WORLD, March
WIRELESS
Wireless World,
102
OUTPUT
1962
Eout
ARBITARILY DEFINED
FULL-SCALE
OUTPUT^VOLTAGE.
ARBITARILY DEFINED
FULL-SCALE
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
---"--~--I
I
~I
I
I~
~I
1'-'
I~
I~
I~
~I
<->I
I~
~I
ctl
I!
:;;I
1:5
~I
51
IL...
I
I
"-I
I
- - - - - Iin-----+
Fig. 3. Input/output
lnputfoutput characteristic of Fig. 2. As demodulator
is not phase-sensitive reverse-polarity but equal-amplitude
is
inputs give outputs of one polarity only.
the power-supply battery would make possible
use of batteries of relatively small volume.
(c) A high input impedance is desirable to prevent
possible loading of the driving source.
(d) A linear relationship between frequency and
input voltage would simplify data recovery.
(e) The frequency must be relatively independent
of ambient temperature and supply voltage
changes.
(f) The required deviation of the subcarrler
subcarrier frehigh-say 7.5%
quency is highsay
7.5 % of the centre frequency
of the channel used.
A transistor multivibrator is chosen because it can
be made to conform to these requirements by using
silicon transistors and fairly simple temperaturecompensation techniques. Also, the multivibrator
is inherently dependable in starting, uses smaller
components than a comparable audio L-C oscillator,
and has a relatively low output impedance so that
its frequency is relatively unaffected by the load.
niultivibrator suffers from the disadHowever the multivibrator
vantage that its output is a square wave which must
be filtered in some manner to remove the high
harmonic content.
Fig. 4 shows the oscillator circuit. The bias level
of silicon transistors Vl
VI and V2 is set by R
R3 and R
R44
respectively. By conventional multivibrator action,
Vl
VI and V2 alternately conduct and cut off, producing
a square-wave output at each collector.
Transistor V3 is used as an emitter follower, providing the unit with a high-impedance input of
signa] is applied to the .base
n. The input signal
about 400k O.
of V3 and appears at the emitter. The voltage
divider R8 and R
R,,
supphes a pre-determined
12 supplies
portion of this as a change
change of bias of VI and V2,
causing a change in frequency of the oscillator.
Fig. 5 shows a typical curve of oscillator fr~quency
frequency
versus input voltage. This illustrates that the
curve is nearly linear within the band, and maintains
reasonable linearity up to twice the full-scale input
voltages (about 8V). V4, another emitter-follower
stage, provides a low output impedance and avoids
any difficulties that might be caused by loading of the
output affecting the functioning of the oscillator.
L 2 and C
G06 L
L1 C
The filter formed by L,
C,7 removes the
high harmonic content, so making the output an
approximation to a sine wave.
Range-changing Circuit
The range-changing circuit is a high-current-gain
silicon semiconductor amplifier designed to energize
a relay when the circuit input voltage reaches a
predetermined d.c. level (switching point). When
used for space-probe
space-probe instrumentation, the relay
contacts are connected in an appropriate manner
th~ input of the
to add a shunting resistance at the
current detector and thereby change its current
sensitivity.
When the input voltage (Fig. 6) is below the
Zener region of reference diode Dl, virtually no base
or collector current flows in Vl.
VI. Then the collector
of VI and the emitter of V2 are both at the supply
22V), resulting in zero current through
potential ((22V),
relav coil.
the relay
As the input voltage approaches the switching
point, D
DlI approaches its breakdown voltage and
begins to allow VI base current. The resulting
collector current drops the collector voltage and D2
approaches its Zener region, allowing V2 to pass
base current. At the switching point, the relay
current reaches its pull-in value and switching
occurs.
l2
Cr]Tl1
OUTPUT
SIGNAL
INP~T
IOOJ.L
c6
c7
o OOIJ.L
SOOp
Rs
IOk
frequency.
Fig. 4. Voltage-controlled oscillator circuit for conversion of varying voltage into varying frequency.
103
103
Wireless
March 1962
WORLD, MARCH
WIRELESS World,
I
UPPER BAND EDGE
. UPPER BAND EDGE
CENTRE
CENTRE
FREOU ENCY 1---~----------- E;n
FREOUENCY
EDGE
BAND EDGE
LOWER BAND
LOWER
-----------
circuit
Fig. 6. Range-changing circuit. Relay contacts switch circuit
/eve/ of input volts is reached.
constants when preset level
circuit
by circuit
5. Type of input/output characteristic given by
Fig. S.
of Fig. 4.
20J.I-A
/R 1=190k
current
show~ a typical curve of relay current
Fig. 7 showb
an
versus input voltage. The steep slope ensures an
accurately defined switching point. The relay current
20mA (over twice the pull-in
levels out at about 20niA
levds
longer
no longer
value) when the limited supply voltage no
increases
allows V2 collector current to follow the increases
in base
b1se current.
I
I
I
I
I
-t1
IOJ.I-A
7J.I-A ---~!:!--~_!:~~~---
I
I
Sawtooth-voltage
Sa~tooth-voltage Generators
--------o~--------~~-1
Ein--+SWITCHING
POINT
developed
sawtooth-volt age generators have been developed
Two sawtooth-voltage
instrumentati on.
prob! instrumentation.
for use in probe
supplies aa
circuit-whic h supplies
Fig. 8 illustrates one circuitwhich
through
out;Jut, sweeping through
clipped sawtooth waveform output,
output
an output
with an
7V with
-7 to +
m1ximum range from 7
a maximum
-|-7V
divid;!r arranged to provide amplitudes of
voltage divider
of
^2.2
6V.
2.2 and ^j^V.
uni;unction oscillator
The
Th~ emitter output of a uni'unction
frequency
provides
provid~s a sawtooth waveform at a frequency
C 1 and R33. This output
determined mainly by C,
the
to the
is amplified by V2 and directly coupled to
provid ~ s a lowemitter follower stage V3 which provides
em:tter
Zener diode D2 establishes
impedance output.
SWITCHING
POINT
circuit.
Fig. 7. Performance of range-changing circuit.
waveform
the zero reference so that the output waveform
~hove and below zero with the emitter
varies equally above
D 1 taken as zero reference.
of D1
The sawtooth output is clipped at both extremes
maintain
to maintain
and to
provJde known reference levels and
to provide
voltage
ind:pend ~nt of supply voltage
amolitude stability independmt
uses
circuit uses
and temperature changes. The clipping circuit
HIGH
+-soV
R6
R,
IOk
R7
IOk
[)z
LOW
,~r
10
"
47k
I
I
Rz
03
22k
RJ
Os
r-tf-J-~
VI
R9
lk
I0 J
47k < R"
04
5 15k
:D+
RIO
47k
01
: :D6
06
<
13V
COMMON
Rs
Rs
27k
20k
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
TIME-
stroke.
finish of
and finish
start and
at start
devices at
Zener devices
8. Sawtooth generator providing reference levels set by Zener
Fig. 8.
of stroke.
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
104
f
I
R4 >
+ 25V
R|Rl
zsV
22k
22k
Rs
%
68k
6Bk <
Rs
>539k
'k
22k
R9
,cIOk5k|
Rio
LOW
h
+
COMMON
VI
03
-25V
"2
3-3k
R6
6"8k
R7
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
6Bk
TIME-
C1
capacitorCj.
sweepcapacitor
for sweep
charging for
constant-current charging
employing constant-current
getJerator employing
sawtooth generator
Good-linearity sawtooth
Fig. 9. Good-linearity
output
each output
for each
D4) for
and D4)
(D3 and
a silicon Zener diode (D3
for
D6) for
and D6J
(D5 and
diode (D5
polarity, and a germanium diode
output
the output
of the
shorting of
prevent shorting
each Zener diode to prevent
diode.
Zener diode.
the Zener
of the
conduction of
during forward conduction
8.
Fig. 8.
in Fig.
shown in
waveform shown
This provides the output waveform
accom9) accom(Fig. 9)
generator (Fig.
The second sawtooth generator
pure
producing aa pure
of producing
task of
difficult task
plishes the more difficult
good
extremely good
having extremely
sawtooth-waveform output having
from
freedom from
and freedom
stability, and
amplitud~ stability,
linearity, amplitude
reference.
zero reference.
the zero
about the
wavdorm about
dr.ft of the waveform
dr;fc
symmetrical
be symmetrical
to be
output isis to
Furthermore, if the output
supplies
power supplies
use power
may use
circuit may
about ground, this circuit
need
eliminating need
thus eliminating
ground, thus
having a common ground,
sawtooth
the sawtooth
by the
required by
is required
as is
b1tteries, as
for separate bitteries,
performimproved performThis improved
8. This
Fig. 8.
in Fig.
generator shown in
silicon
expensive silicon
more expensive
the more
by using the
ance is obtained by
'"ance
both aa
requiring both
by requiring
and by
d~vices and
semiconductor devices
source.
supply source.
power supply
negative and positive power
for
need for
eliminating need
stability, eliminating
Good amplitude stability,
circuit.
this circuit.
of this
features of
two features
of two
result of
clipping, is the result
to
Zener-diode-regulated to
are Zener-diode-regulatcd
voltages are
The supply voltages
voltage
the voltage
in the
drift in
to drift
due to
changes due
reduce bias level changes
therand thertrrnsistor and
silicon transistor
of aa silicon
source and the use of
bias
in bias
drift in
reQ.uce drift
stage reduce
mistor in the amplifier stage
changes.
teml)erature changes.
level due to temperature
and
unijunction and
the unijunction
of the
output of
. The sawtooth output
to
coupled to
is coupled
V2) is
(VI, V2)
circuit (VI,
trans:stor oscillator circuit
transistor
the
isolates the
which isolates
V3 which
stage V3
the emitter-follower stage
amplifier
of amplifier
impedance of
input impedance
the input
oscillator from the
output
low output
presents aa low
V5 presents
stage V5
V4.
V4. Emitter-follower stage
transistor
silicon transistor
pnp silicon
V2 isis aa pnp
load. V2
impedance to the load.
chargin charggenerator in
constant-current generator
which acts as a constant-current
output.
sawtooth output.
linear sawtooth
more linear
ing Cl, resulting in aa more
so
selected so
are selected
D3 are
and D3
D2 and
Zener-diode regulators
regulators D2
provides
voltage provides
Zener voltage
in Zener
differences in
that their differences
allow
to allow
V3, to
for V3,
therefore for
V2, therefore
bias_for V2,
sufficient bias
distortion
significant distortion
without significant
maximum output without
of the output sawtooth.
to
changes to
minimize changes
to minimize
selected to
i~ selected
The thermistor is
Amplichanges. Amplitemperature changes.
output amplitude with temperature
through
obtained through
be obtained
can be
than 11%
tude stability betterothan
% can
'
80C.
the range of 00 to 80
C.
25V
about 25V
is about
amplitude is
The maximum output amplitude
ground.
to ground.
respect to
with respect
12.5V with
peak-to-peak, or 12.5V
voltage
necessary voltage
provide necessary
to provide
R,7 and Ra8 are adjusted to
R
for
used for
transistor used
silicon transistor
given silicon
amplification for aa given
Jess
cause less
25% cause
of 25%
changes of
voltage changes
V3. Supply voltage
drift.
zero drift.
and zero
change and
than 11 % amplitude change
9>
Fig. 9,
in Fig.
shown in
A typical output waveform
waveform isis shown
by
than 22%
less than
to less
reduced to
is reduced
tol~rance is
% by
the linearity tolerance
V2.
transistor V2.
the use of silicon transistor
NEWS
CLUB NEWS
Amateur
District Amateur
& District
Barnsley &
the Barnsley
of the
Barnsley.-Meetings
Barnsley.Meetings of
the
on the
he:d on
are held
1913, are
in 1913,
formed in
wh:ch was formed
Club, which
Radio Ciub,
George
King George
the King
at the
month at
each month
in each
second
second and fourth Friday in
March
on March
meeting on
the meeting
At the
Barnsley. At
Hotel, Peel Street, Barnsley.
Speakers."
Hi-Fl Speakers."
on "" Hi-Fi
speak on
23rd J. Kruse will speak
secretary
honorary secretary
(G2UK), honorary
Gee (G2UK),
Bexleyheath.Dr. A. C. Gee
Bexleyheath.-Dr.
talk
will talk
Group, will
Teleprinter Group,
Radio Teleprinter
of the British Amateur Radio
.~.'Y,"
"RT
on
Society
Radio
Kent
North
the
of
to
to members the North Kent Radio Society on "R'lVY,"
22nd.
March 22nd.
on March
called, on
as radio teleprinting isis .colloquially
colloquially called,
Clock
Hall, Clock
Congregational Hall,
the Congregational
at the
The club meets at 8.0 at
Tower.
Tower.
transistor
on aa transistor
lecture-demonstration on
Birkenhead.A
Birkenhead.-A lecture-demonstration
on
Roberts on
L. . Roberts
by L.
given by
be given
will be
rece~ver will
direction-finding receiver
direct:on-find~ng
the
vn the
Soc~ety.
Radio
Amateur
Wirral
the
to
7th
March
March 7th to the Wirral Amateur Radio Soc:ety. on
Meetings
contest. Meetings
constructional contest.
21st
21st the club is hold.ng aa constructional
,
Road.
Ball's Road.
House, Ball's
Guide House,
are
are held at the Guide
arranged
been arranged
has been
meeting has
Birmingham.A Mullard film meeting
B~rmingham.-A
are
fi~ms are
The Aims
9th. The
March 9th.
for March
by the Slade Radio Society for
obare obTickets are
"Transistors." Tickets
"Particles Count!" and "Transistors."
"Particles
Erdington,
Road, Erdington,
Orchard Road,
Chapman, 22 Orchard
tainable
tainable from D. S. Chapman,
7.45
at 7.45
held at
are held
Soc:ety are
the Society
of the
Birmingham
Birmingham 24. Meetings of
Erdington.
Street, Erdington.
at The Church House, High Street,
will
construction will
and construction
amplifier design and
Bradford.Audio amplifier
Bradford.-Audio
13th
March 13th
the March
at the
(G3LZW) at
Barowltz (G3LZ1S')
be discussed by P. L. Barowitz
meets
club meets
The club
Society. The
Radio Society.
Bradford Radio
meeting
meeting of the Bradford
Lane.
Horton Lane.
Little Horton
66 Little
at 66
7.30 at
on alternate Tuesdays atat 7.30
Brooke
H. Brooke
by H.
discussed by
be discussed
operaton will be
..:_Mobile operation
Halifax
Halifax.Mobile
Am-ateur
Heights Amateur
Northern Heights
the Northern
of the
(G3GJV) at
at a meeting of
(G3GJV)
7.45at 7.45
held at
are held
Meetings are
21st. Meetings
March 21st.
Radio Society on March
Ogden.
at the Sportsman Inn, Ogden.
chairman
the chairman
(GW3JGA/T), the
Prestatyn.J. T. Lawrence
Lawrence (GW3JGA/T),
Prestatyn.-J.
amateur
demonstrate amateur
will demonstrate
Society, will
of
of the Flintshire Radio Society,
on
club on
the club
of the
meeting of
the meeting
at the
transmission at
colour television transmission
the
at the
7.30
at
held at 7.30 at
are held
meetings are
March 26th. Monthly meetings
March
RaJway Hotel.
Railway
Group
Southampton Group
the Southampton
of the
Southampton.At the meeting of
Southampton.-At
(G3FZL)
Stone fG3FZL)
C. Stone
M. C.
G. M.
lOth G.
March 10th
of
of the R.S.G.B. on March
the
in the
meets in
group meets
The group
transmitters. The
will talk about v.h.f. transmitters.
7.0.
at 7.0.
University at
the University
of the
Lanchester
Lanchester Building of
Valley
Spen Valley
the Spen
of the
programme of
Spen Valley.The
Valley.-The March programme
Spen
astronomy
radio astronomy
on radio
talk on
includes aa talk
Society includes
Amateur Radio Society
College,
Technical College,
Halifax Technical
the Halifax
of the
Dougherty, of
on the 14th by L. Dougherty,
W.
A. W.
by A.
(28th) by
operation (28th)
single-sideband operation
and
and another on single-sideband
7.30
at 7.30
held at
are held
meetings are
Fortnightly meetings
Walmsley (G3ADQ). Fortnightly
Gomersal.
Top, Gomersal.
Hill Top,
School, Hill
at
at the C. of E. Infants' School,
lOS
1962
Wireless
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
ANALYSIS
HARMONIC
NIC ANALYSIS
HARMO
.A
By
By H.
H. C.
C. PARR,
PARR, M
m.a
GRAPHICAL METHODS DESCRIBED
THERE are several arithmetical methods for

ThERE
for
analysing a repetitive waveform into its component
harmonics, and hence of deriving the first few terms
of its Fourier expansion, but if more than the first
two or three terms are required the work is very
very
laborious.
Where a high degree of accuracy is not wanted,
wanted,
results can be obtained much more quickly
quickly and
and
pleasantly by graphical methods. It is possible to
to
devise a wide variety of such methods, and which
which
of these are the most useful in any particular case
case
required, the
depends upon the number of terms required,
the
rapidity with which the series converges, the degree
of accuracy expected, and whether the final
final results
results
are to be expressed numerically or graphically. It
It is
is
descnbe in this article only aa limited
possible to describe
limited
of such methods, and these have been
number of
been
results are
chosen on the assumptions, (a) that the results
are
ultimately required in numerical form, and
and (b)
(b)
that the type of waveform being analysed is
is that
that
y
P(Aoi)
\C|
\
Vr ^
\
\
d
fig.
Fig. I. The construction for obtaining
amplitude and phase
0 Cl
of
f '15
X
of
encountered in studying the harmonic structure of
sounds produced by musical instruments.
The Fourier Expansion: The most usual form
form of
of
the Fourier expansion is:
sin 30 +
+ a2sin20 +
y
+ a 33sin3ff
+ ....
a 1 sin0 +
+ aînd
b0 +
= b
y =
cos20 +
+ tjcosfl
+ bs3cos30 +
+ ....
....
b1cos0 + b22cos2B
+
and it is in this form that we shall obtain our results.
An alternative form is:

y
+ 0)
S) +
4- cc^sin
(^22 +
+ 20) +
+.
(ch +
c1 sin (i^j
+ CiSin
y = ba0 +
2 sin (cp
+ .. ...
3 0) +
+ 30)
cp 3 +
c33sin ((<^3
and this is more useful in some cases, being expressed
expressed
directly in terms of the amplitudes and phase angles
of the individual harmonics. If the results are
are rerequired in this form, they can be derived from the
the
first form equation by using the following relations,
which are not2difficult
to prove:
1
2
b1 2 etc.,
a 1 2 + bf
= ap
cCi1 2 =
= bl1/al1 etc.
cp 1 =
and tan />,
These formulae lend themselves readily to graph-
known,' and the

^1 are known,
ical treatment. If a 1 and b
a 1 ) is plotted on rectangular co-ordinates,
(bu
point {b
u Uj)
as shown in Fig. 1, then OP represents c11 and angle
angle
POX is ^cp1. In this way c1 is derived by drawing,
and without calculation.
Note that the a's and b's may be either negative
or positive, but that the c's can all be taken as positive.
Sine- wave: Consider first a simple wave which
he Sine-wave:
T
The
involves only a single frequency. The curve can be
expressed as
b1cos O,
+ btcos
a 1sin 0 +
yy = bo
0,
b0 + ajSin
T he values of
and one cycle is shown in Fig. 2. The
ifthe
au
b0>
b,1 are readily found on this diagram if
the
0, a
v and b
90 and 180 ordinates are drawn as shown. The
The
Care
3;-values
are clearly b0 +
+ bu
b^ bb0 +
+ au
y-values of B, A and C
b0
and bo
bl1 respectively. So if BC meets the
the 90
90
they-value
ordinate at Q, then the
y-value of Q is b600 . A horizontal line RQ can then be drawn through Q,
Q,
bu and QA must represent
and RB must represent b^,
au the sign, of course, being negative if B or A lie
lie
below the line RQ.
of Two Curves: In dealing

Constructing a Mean of
with more complex waveforms, an important
technique is the construction of the mean of a pair of
of
superimposed curves. With a little practice this can
be done speedily as shown in Fig. 3. Each point
point is
is
plotted by laying the ruler along an ordinate with
with
0 ," mark on the lower curve, and
its " O
and mentally
mentally
halving the distance between the two curves on this
particular ordinate, as shown in the figure. It is not
necessary for these ordinates to be equally spaced;
points need to be plotted fairly closely only
only when
when
one or other of the curves is changing direction
direction
rapidly. The plotted points are then joined with aa
curve in the usual manner, using a broken
broken line,
line,
or some other feature, to distinguish it from the
original two curves. This curve is the required
mean.
Separation of Odd and Even Harmonics: By
using the above technique it is possible to separate
the odd and even harmonics from a complex wave.
Consider, for example, Fig. 6, which shows one cycle
of a sound wave. Firstly, a tracing is made of
of the
the
complete waveform, marking for reference the
0,, 180 and 360 ordinates,
horizontal axis and the oo
and printing ""TOP"
TOP " in appropnate
appropriate position on
on the
the
tracing paper. This is then turned over, and instead
of scribbling, all the lines are carefully repeated on
on
the back, so that they will print through when
when
required, and furthermore, will do so either from
front to back or from back to front.
In order to isolate the odd harmonics, a complete
copy is made of the tracing. The tracing paper is
is
then turned over about a horizontal axis so that the
" TOP " mark is at the bottom, but left and right
are not interchanged. With the tracing in this
this
position the right half of the curve is then superimMARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
106
//
""A X
\
Q
_ ..
\ % \\
Â
C\
/
/
/
. 0e
vy
0#
1
1
. 180
360
9 0
b1
and bj.
a 1 and
for Oj
Fig. 2. The construction for
S8
a
B
curve.
mean curve.
Fig. 3. Plotting aa mean
half
left half
the left
and the
original, and
the original,
of the
posed on the left of
shown
as shown
original, as
the original,
of the
right of
superimposed on the right
the
and the
axis and
horizontal axis
the horizontal
that the
care that
in Fig. 7, taking care
each
during each
register during
in register
are in
ordinates are
appropriate ordinates
then
curves isis then
two curves
these two
of these
mean of
operation. The mean
in
line in
broken line
the broken
by the
shown by
drawn, and this curve, shown
original
the original
of the
harmonics of
odd harmonics
Fig. 7, contains all the odd
even.
the even.
wave, and none of the
curve
the .curve
half the
only half
harmonics, only
even harmonics,
the even
To obtain, the
from
instance, from
first instance,
the first
in the
need be printed through in
from
half, from
other half,
the other
this the
of this
top of
oo
0 to 180, and on top
without
time without
this time
superimposed, this
180 to 360, is superimposed,
two
these two
of these
mean of
The mean
paper. The
inverting the tracing paper.
constant
the constant
only the
contains only
and contains
curves is then drawn and
as
to as
referred to
conveniently referred
is conveniently
(which is
term bbo0 (which
Thi~
harmonics. This
even harmonics.
the even
and the
""harmonic
harmonic No. 0 ") and
8.
is shown in Fig. 8.
more
but more
similar, but
A similar,
Method of Superimposition:
Superimpositio n: A
groups
other groups
isolate other
to isolate
used to
be used
elaborate, method can be
of
tracing of
the tracing
divide the
we divide
Suppose we
of harmonics. Suppose
0,
the 0,
drawing the
by drawing
parts by
equal parts
Fig. 6 into three equal
the
superimpose the
and superimpose
ordinates, and
360 ordinates,
240 and 360
120, 240
shown
as shown
diagram as
one diagram
on one
curve on
the curve
three sections of the
of
sum of
the sum
draw the
to draw
possible to
then possible
in Fig. 4. It is then
ordinates
spaced ordinates
of spaced
number of
A number
these three curves. A
each
on each
plotted on
is plotted
point is
and aa point
are drawn as shown, and
curves
three curves
the three
of the
y-values of
the y-values
of these by adding the
step
to step
compasses to
using compasses
ordinate, using
on this particular ordinate,
values
the values
that the
mind that
in mind
bearing in
and bearing
off the distances, and
added
be added
must be
and must
negative and
or negative
positive or
may be either positive
and
thts, and
over this,
systematic over
be systematic
must be
One must
algebraically. One
the
with the
starting with
follows: starting
as follows:
is as
a suggested method is
the
off the
step off
axis step
horizontal axis
the horizontal
compass point on the
The
ordinate.. The
this ordinate.
on this
curve on
height of the uppermost curve
be
then be
will then
compass will
the compass
by the
quantity represented by
negative
and negative
point, and
the point,
above the
is above
pencil is
the-pencil
positive if the
the
throughout the
applies throughout
rule applies
this rule
and this
if it lies below, and
curve,
second curve,
the second
of the
ordinate of
the ordinate
operation. To add the
pencil
the pencil
that the
so that
turning so
move the compass without turning
the
on the
(still on
point (still
the point
locate the
axis, locate
is on the horizontal axis,
pencil isis
the pencil
until the
close until
or close
open or
same ordinate), and open
turn
to turn
necessary to
be necessary
may be
(It may
curve. (It
on the second curve.
signifies
merely signifies
this merely
and this
180, and
the compass through 180,
quantity
the quantity
of the
sign of
the sign
changed the
has changed
that the addition has
third
the third
with the
Deal with
compass.) Deal
the compass.)
represented by the
return
to return
always to
remembering always
curve in the same way, remembering
altering
before altering
axis before
horizontal axis
the horizontal
the pencil point to the
stepped
now stepped
setting isis now
final setting
the compass setting. The final
with
be, with
may be,
case may
the case
as the
downwards as
off upwards or downwards
and aa
axis and
horizontal axis
the horizontal
on the
now on
the compass point now
summarequired summathe required
on the
point on
mark made, showing a point
4.
Fig. 4.
in Fig.
shown in
tion curve. This isis shown
the
In the
represent? In
curve represent?
summation curve
What does this summation
6,
3, 6,
Nos. 3,
harmonics Nos.
the harmonics
only the
contains only
present case it contains
the
terms the
general terms
In general
0. In
No. 0.
9, etc., together with No.
superimpossections, superimposinto nn sections,
result of dividing a curve into
isolate
to isolate
curve, isis to
summation curve,
drawing the summation
ing, and drawing
that
carefully that
note carefully
But note
etc. But
3n, etc.
harmonics, 0, n, 2n, 3n,
represented isis
are represented
harmonics are
the scale on which these harmonics
broken
the broken
that the
means .that
This means
magnified n times. This
on aa
etc., on
6, etc.,
3, 6,
harmonics 3,
give harmonics
curve on Fig. 4 would give
originaL
the original.
scale three times the
once
at once
be at
will be
process will
this process
The usefulness of this
are
etc., are
3n, etc.,
2n, 3n,
terms 2n,
the terms
cases the
apparent. In many cases
very
represent very
will represent
curve will
resultant curve
negligible, and the resultant
the
with the
together with
alone, together
harmonic alone,
nearly the nth harmonic
to
applied to
process isis applied
the process
if the
Further, if
constant
constant term. Further,
harmonics
even harmonics
the even
had the
already had
has already
a curve which .has
only
then only
number, then
odd number,
an odd
being an
removed, n itself being
the
However, the
present. However,
are present.
etc., are
5n, etc.,
harmonics n, 3n, 5n,
described
be described
to be
method to
the method
and the
process is timetaking, and
be
will be
disadv.antages, will
it .has
although. it
has disadvantages,
subsequently, although
great aa
too great
without too
applied without
be applied
can be
preferred when it can
sacrifice of accuracy.
and bbn
gives aan
method gives
This method
"Grid": This
Use of a "Grid":
D and
n
that
(a) that
known(a)
only ififitit isisknown
applied only
be applied
directly, but can be
harmonics
all
that
(b)
and
term,
constant
no
is
there
constant term, and (b) that all harmonics
non-existent
either non-existent
are either
etc., are
3n,s etc.,
of frequencies 2n, 3n
Fig. 4. Plotting the

sum of three curves.
107
1962
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
11
1
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t
J
1
I
1
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1
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1
1
1
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1
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360
360
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288
216
216
306
234?
Z34
18
harmonic
fifth
the
of
isolation
the
for
Grid
5. Crid for the isolation of the fifth harmonic..
Fig. 5.
00
720
72
90
144
162
analysed.
be analysed.
to be
Fig. 6. The waveform to
are
or are
remove d) or
been removed)
already been
have already
(e.g., because they have
tion
prepara
the
involves
ue
techniq
le.
negligible.
The
technique
involves
the
preparation
negligib
applied
if itit isis applied
but if
paper, but
tracing paper,
grid"
of a " grid
" on tracing
has
grid has
the grid
once the
quick once
remarka bly quick
frequently
frequen tly it is remarkably
been drawn.
standar d
on aa standard
advance on
in advance
necessa ry to decide in
It is necessary
on
working on
When working
axis. When
horizon tal axis.
scale for the horizontal
be
would be
scale would
suitable scale
paper aa suitable
foolscap or quarto paper
this
double this
while double
360, while
full 360,
represe nt the full
em to represent
18 cm
Ifitit
drawing s. If
larger drawings.
for larger
conveni ent for
scale would be convenient
for
contriva nces for
mechan ical contrivances
use mechanical
to use
conveni ent to
is not convenient
standar d
to standard
wavefor m to
given waveform
decreas ing aa given
increasing
ng or decreasing
increasi
sufficient
with sufficient
freehan d with
this freehand
do this
to do
scale, it is possible to
given
the given
on the
drawn on
is drawn
squares is
of squares
accuracyy if a network of
accurac
,
become
will
they
that
such
being
,
diagram,
their
size
being
such
that
they
will
become,
diagram
The
diagram . The
scale diagram.
standar d scale
the standard
on the
em squares on
say, 2 cm
of
changed , of
be changed,
will be
scales will
horizon tal scales
verticall and horizontal
vertica
course, in the same ratio.
fifth
the fifth
isolate the
to isolate
needed to
Fig. 5 shows the grid needed
equal
five equal
into five
divided into
harmonic.
e The cycle isis divided
harmon ic. The
of
start of
the start
at the
drawn at
line drawn
vertical line
sections,, and a full vertical
sections
one-qua rter
line one-quarter
vertical line
broken vertical
each section, and a broken
grid isis
this grid
If this
section. If
each section.
of the distance along each
to the
drawn to
wavefor m drawn
over aa waveform
placed in position over
the
the
along the
OX along
line OX
the line
with the
scale, with
horizon tal scale,
correct horizontal
harmonics.
odd harmonics.
the odd
Fig. 7. The broken line contains the
of
y-value s of
the 3'-values
of the
average of
the average
then the
axis., then
horizontal
horizon tal axia,
on
and on
b5 , and
to b-,
equal to
is equal
lines is
full lines
the curve on the five full
are
averages are
These averages
is aas.
lines is
the
the five broken lines
These
5.
with
y-value s with
appropr iate ^-values
the appropriate
obtained
obtaine d by adding the
article,
the article,
in the
earlier in
detailed earlier
ses, exactly as detailed
compasses,
compas
line,
conveni ent line,
any convenient
along any
sum along
steppin
steppingg off this sum
by
numeric ally by
result numerically
the result
dividing the
measuring,
measuri ng, and dividing
positive
either positive
be either
course, be
of course,
may, of
results may,
five. These results
the
only the
if only
ignored if
be ignored
may be
sign may
negative, but the sign
or negative,
find
To find
require d. To
is required.
phase, is
the phase,
de, and not the
amplitude,
amplitu
of
pair of
along aa pair
offalong
stepped off
be stepped
can be
the phase, aas5 and bbs5 can
as
ed
measur
l
diagona
the
perpendicular
lines,
and
the
diagonal
measured
as
icular
perpend
1.
Fig. 1.
in Fig.
shown in
ed earlier, and shown
explained
explain
harmon ic,
any harmomc,
for any
used for
be used
can be
analogous method can
An analogous
needed.
be needed.
will be
explana tion will
and no further explanation
of
use of
t-be use
illustrat e rfie
shall illustrate
We shall
Applic ation: We
Typicall Application;
Typica
Fig. 66
of Fig.
curv.u of
the curVu
analysin g the
by analysing
method s by
all these methods
general
the general
From the
harmon ic. From
eighth harmonic.
as far as the eighth
higher
no higher
that no
clear that
is clear
curve itit is
nce of the curve
appearance
appeara
of
those of
While those
pro:nin ent. While
unduly prominent.
u monic is unduly
hharmonic
be ,commay be
twelfth, may
the twelfth,
say, the
higher order than, say,
comassume,
to assume,
not to
advisab le not
is advisable
disregar ded, it is
pletely disregarded,
to
small to
sufficiently small
is sufficiently
ninth is
example , that the ninth
for example,
which
method
a
use
we
if
third,
the
on
effect
no
have
third, if we use a method which
two.
the two.
fails to separate the
follows:
as follows:
be as
will be
analysis will
The stages in the analysis
scale.
standar d .scale.
to standard
curve to
(1) Reduce the given curve
fl>rm.
this form.
in this
alread v in
be already
to be
assume d to
Fig. 6 is assumed
seventh
and seventh
sixth and
fifth, sixth
the fifth,
for the
(2) Prepare grids for
ics.
harmonics.
harmon
describ ed
method s described
the methods
using the
By using
(3) Trace Fig. 6. By
even
the even
and the
Fig. 77 and
on Fig.
harmon ics on
obtain the odd harmonics
Fig. 8.
harmonics
harmon ics on Fig.
the
trace the
and trace
Fig. 88 and
on Fig.
ordinate on
90 ordinate
4) Mark the 90
((4)
(3),
process (3),
ofprocess
repetiti on of
complet e repetition
broken curve. By a complete
(i.e.,
etc. (i.e.,
10, etc,
6, 10,
2, 6,
h:u monics 2,
Fig. 9 the harmonics
obtain on Fig.
the
10
Fig.
on
and
s)
number
even
"
odd
the " odd" even numbers) and on Fig. 10 the
even
even " even
the "" even
(i.e., the
etc . . (i.e.,
8, etc.
harmonics
harmon ics 0, 4, 8,
numbers).
number s).
repeat
and repeat
10 and
Fig. 10
of Fig.
curve of
broken curve
(5) Trace the broken
4,
harmon ic 4,
11 harmonic
Fig. 11
on Fig.
give on
process (3) yet again, to give
i1
Fig. 11
that Fig.
Note that
8. Note
and 8.
harmon ics 00 and
and on Fig. 12 harmonics
the
that the
but that
harmon ic, but
twelfth harmonic,
the twelfth
will contain also the
the
making the
by making
elimina ted by
largely eliminated
be largely
effect of this can be
drawn
be drawn
can be
that can
one that
best one
broken curve not the best
curve,
sine curve,
best sme
the best
but the
points, but
through the plotted points,
ordinate
22! o ordinate
the 221
Drawin g the
as judged by the eye. Drawing
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELES S World,
108
12
Fig. 12
IfFig.
measured. If
be measured.
to be
enable a44 and bbA4 to
will then enable
in
illustrated in
construction illustrated
the construction
apply the
is too small to apply
in
drawn in
be drawn
can be
curve can
sine curve
Fig. 2, the axis of the sine
ordinate,
11!0o ordinate,
the 11J
marking the
after marking
by eye, giving bba0,, and after
a88 and 6b88 can be found.
a 6:, and
and b 6 by
by applying
applying the appropriate
(6) Find a,
advantage
the advantage
Note the
9.* Note
Fig. 9.*
of Fig.
resultant of
grid to the resultant
waveform,
original waveform,
the original
than the
rather than
of using Fig. 9 rather
harmonic.
contain twelfth harmonic.
which may contain
of
resultant of
the resultant
to the
grid to
appropriate grid
(7) Apply the appropriate
harmonic.
fifth harmonic.
the fifth
Fig. 7 to determine the
of
resultant of
the resultant
to the
grid to
(8) Apply the appropriate grid
h1rmonic.
seventh harmonic.
the seventh
Fig. 7 to determine the
the
mark the
7, mark
Fig. 7,
of Fig.
curve of
broken curve
(9) Trace the broken
of
method of
the method
use the
and use
ordinates and
120 and 240 ordinates
be
course,be
ofcourse,
will,of
totalswill,
the totals
and the
needed, and
be needed,
will be
grid will
* Only
the grid
half the
Only half
by three, not six.
divided
divided by
0
Fig. 8. The broken line
contains the even harmo-
4-5
90
even
Fig. 9. The "odd" even
10,
harmonics,
harmonics, i.e., 2, 6, 10,
etc.
etc.
nics.
II. Harmonic 4.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 10. The "even"

even harmonics, i.e.,
even
0, 4, 8, etc.
Fig. 12.
Harmonics 0 and 8.
Harmonics
Fig. 13. Harmonic 3.
as
harmonic as
third harmonic
the third
superimposition to
derive the
to derive
than
rather than
method rather
this method
use this
shown in Fig. 13. We use
possible
the possible
of the
because of
method because
the quicker " grid "" method
allowed
be allowed
can be
This can
harmonic. This
effect of the ninth harmonic.
through
curve through
sine curve
best sine
the best
drawing the
for in Fig. 13 by drawing
and bb
the aa and
that the
forget that
not forget
(Do not
the plotted points. (Do
by
divided by
be divided
must be
13 must
Fig. 13
values derived from Fig.
Values
three.)
Fig. 99
on Fig.
drawn on
now drawn
is now
ordinate is
(10) If the 45 ordinate
by aa
harmonic by
second harmonic
the second
derive the
it is possible to
to derive
the
of the
y-values of
the y-valucs
Measure the
numerical method. Measure
call
and call
ordinates, and
45 ordinates,
and 45
0 and
the 0
broken curve on the
that
see that
to see
easy to
is easy
Then itit is
these bband
and a respectively. Then
b22 =
b6
b- bg
= b
.
that
show
to show
and almost as easy to
that
=
u + iza66
adia2 =a+
can
harmonic can
first harmonic
the first
manner, the
(11) In a similar manner,
correshave corresto have
and bb to
Using aa and
7; Using
be found from Fig. 7.
shown
be shown
can be
diagram, itit can
this diagram,
ponding meanings in this
that
bl =
- bb1
- bbs5
- bba
= bb
b1
3
7
+ aa33 - aa55 ++ aa7.
= aa +
a1 =
and
7.
arithmetically.
out arithmetically.
These are best worked out
analysis.
the analysis.
This completes the
SHOW
PUBLIC ADDRESS SHOW
of
Association of
the Association
of the
exhibition of
THE 14th annual exhibition
King's
the King's
at the
held at
be held
will be
Engineers, will
Public Address Engineers,
from
7th from
March 7th
on March
Harrow-on-the-Hill, on
Head Hotel, Harrow-on-the-Hill,
20
about 20
which about
in which
exhibition, in
the exhibition,
During the
10.0
10,0 to 6.0. During
there
below), there
list below),
(see list
participating (see
manufacturers are participating
equipment,
new equipment,
of new
demonstrations of
will be a number of demonstrations
will
there will
and there
shown and
be shown
will be
films will
a series of technical films
of
chairman of
as chairman
Gilbert as
John Gilbert
with John
p.a. quiz with
also be a p.a.
Warren
H. Warren
Brittain, H.
H. Brittain,
Kelly, H.
experts-S. Kelly,
the panel of expertsS.
from
obtainable from
ticket obtainable
by ticket
is by
Admission is
and A. Curtis. Admission
Middx
Harrow, Middx
South Harrow,
Road, South
Northolt Road,
Alex Walker, 394 Northok
business
by business
or by
Association) or
the Association)
(honorary secretary of the
card.
will
who will
Association, who
the Association,
of the
The new president-elect of
exhibition, isis
the exhibition,
during the
held during
be installed at the a.g.m. held
David Lodge, of E.M.I.
Ultrasonics,
Chapman Ultrasonics,
Audix, Chapman
Exhibitors include Audix,
Industries,
Film Industries,
Electron~cs, Film
E.M.I. Elcctron.cs,
C.
C, T. H. Electronics, E.M.I.
Pamphonic,
Magneta, Pamphonic,
Lus:raphone, Magneta,
G.E.C., Goodmans, Lustraphone,
Reosound,
Instruments, Reosound,
Renda Instruments,
Politechna (A.K.G.), Renda
HayVortexion, HayElectronics, Vortexion,
Reslosound, S.T.C., Shure Electronics,
(Cambridge).
Wrights (Cambridge).
don Warren, Westrex, and Wrights
Handbook"
Radio Handbook"
R.S.G.B. "Amateur Radio
instruction
of instruction
course of
THIS book provides a first-class course
of
mine of
gold mine
and aa gold
operator and
amateur operator
for the intending amateur
second
The second
experienced. The
already experienced.
reference for those already
than
fewer than
no fewer
reprinted no
was reprinted
1940) was
edition (published 1940)
its
proved its
and proved
1946 and
to 1946
up to
period up
the period
12 times during the
Revis.e d
copies. Revised
190,000 copies.
nearly 190,000
popularity by selling nearly
considerably
been considerably
has been
edition has
third edition
and re-written, the third
techlatest techthe latest
on the
information on
extended and contains information
single-sideband
on single-sideband
section on
large section
niques, including a large
construcfor construcdesigns for
Many designs
operation and equipment. Many
mechanical
and mechanical
diagrams and
layout diagrams
tion are included and layout
imagine
to imagine
difficult to
is difficult
It is
needed. It
details are given where needed.
referby refersolved by
be solved
not be
could not
that could
an amateur's problem that
hard
as hard
nearly as
Handbook: itit isis nearly
ence to Amateur Radio Handbook:
the
in the
least in
at least
too, at
problem, too,
professional problem,
to imagine a professional
would
answer would
the answer
which the
to which
sphere, to
communications sphere,
communications
600
over 600
and over
pages and
552 pages
are 552
not be available. There are
Radio
the Radio
from the
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Lon
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Little Russell
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Society of Great Britain,
6d).
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post 36s
(by post
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don, W.C.I,
109
1962
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
61
Review: 19
Ionosphere
1961
osphere Review:
Ion
RAPIDLY
DECLINING RAPIDLY
ACTIVITY DECLINING
SUNSPOT
SUNSPOT ACTIVITY
BENN INGT ON*
By T. W. BENNINGTON*
SUN
solar
the solar
of the
(indica tive of
numbe rs (indicative
sunspo t numbers
plot of the sunspot
noon
the noon
give the
graphs give
y) and the two lower graphs
activity)
activit
as
freque ncies as
critica l frequencies
midnig ht F 22-layer critical
and midnight
(indiSlough
at
station
R.
D.S.I.
measured
at
the
D.S.I.R.
station
at
Slough
(indired
measu
lines
full lines
The full
ionizat ion). The
F 22 ionization).
cative of the level of F
media n,
or median,
mean, or
month ly mean,
in each graph give the monthly
nth
the 12-mo
show the
lines show
values,
12-month
values , and the dashed lines
averthe averindica te the
thus indicate
averag e of these, and thus
running
runnin g average
each
in each
variati on in
genera l variation
age conditions
condit ions and the general
quantity.
quanti ty.
in
um in
sunspo t maxim
since sunspot
maximum
As is seen there have, since
sunly sunthe month
in the
fluctua tions in
monthly
1958, been large fluctuations
had
value had
the value
1961 the
of 1961
end of
numbe rs, but by the end
spot numbers,
averag e
runnin g average
twelve -month running
fallen to 32. The twelve-month
till
slowly till
relativ ely slowly
decrea sed relatively
value, which had decreased
quite
decrea sing quite
been decreasing
early 1959, has since then been
throug hmainta ined throughwas maintained
decrea se was
rapidly,
rapidly , and that decrease
someor
se,
decrea
of
rate
t
presen
the
If
present rate of decrease, or somewhich out 1961.
in which
way in
Cycle .-The way
Sunsp ot Cycle.The
Coursee of the Sunspot
Cours
seem
would seem
it would
future it
the future
in the
contin ues in
thing
near
it,
continues
cycle
t
presen
the
hout
throug
conditions
condit ions have varied throughout the present cycle
much
1963: much
in 1963:
occur
um
minim
t
a
that
sunspot
minimum
might
occur
in
sunspo
is
graph
upper
The
ated by the graphs
illustrated
graphs.. The upper graph is a
is illustr
impos is imposit is
But it
expect ed. But
earlier than it had been expected.
of
rate of
t rate
presen
the
fact,
er,
wheth
sible
to
say
whether,
in
fact,
the
present
Corpora tion
Broadca sting Corporation
British Broadcasting
Departm ent, British
* Research
Research Department,
contin ue, and
decrease
decrea se will continue,
so the time of the mini260
-.--r--.---r-,-,,.-, ^60
,....-,--,,-r-r-r-..,.--:-r-.---r--.---r---r--r---.--rA---.-Ir-..--r-l--.--r-..-.--.-.presen t un- ."v,
mum is at present
40
240
can
Howev er, we can
certain.
certain . However,
next.
~ I I
zo
be
certain
that
for
the
next
220
AX' +-~-+-t-~1-t--+--t--+-+-+--1
activit y
f-+--+-+ -+-+-+- +---t-+- -l-t--+-- +--+-if- ''lftt
few years the solar activity
00
mWHiHHI 200
relativ ely low and
will be relatively
the
conseq uently , _ the
that, consequently,
80
I ao
ionization
tion of the ionoioniza
6o S:5co sphere will be low and the
I 60
unfreque ncies un:~ higher frequencies
I 40
40 ^
.long-d istance
usable for .long-distance
1mmm I 20
comm unicat ion.
communication.
~
20
critica l freS:z
The noon critical
00
I 00 ^
i5':
iii
dur
quency,
quency , it is seen, was durconsid erably
1961
ing
i 80
considerably
i0
I
H
prelower than during the preimaHi 60
particu io
vious
vious years, more particuB
larly during the winter
40
B
the
months
month s at the end of the
B
midnig ht
20
20
year, whilst the midnight
IEffli
freque ncy also de- .
critical
critica l frequency
ifIMHBfflM
0
mn
apprec iably. The
creased
crease d appreciably.
E
I
implication
ation of all this is,
implic
the
course , that during the
of course,
a
1
8
freque ncies of use
year the frequencies
long-d istance comfor long-distance
M
I
decrea sed conmunication
munic ation decreased
x
ly.
siderably.
siderab
4
L
'~
I
.L ~ -~
Frequ encies .-SurUsable Frequencies.Sur^ r^SiDNiGHT
I M M I M I M M M N M
enoug h it was
ly
prisingly
enough
prising
2
D
S
J
M
D
S
M JJ JLg JjiJLJ)
D M
M. JJ 5S ^
D W.
M JJ SS D,
D W
M JJ SS D,
MJSDHJs1iMJS
M J S D M J S D M J S--'DD W
e that 26
'--..---- --' '----... ---''---, ..--..-'
practic
in
practice
found
'----,.--'
'----r1961
1960
1959
1958
1957
1956
1955
Mc/s was still usable in
1954
daylight
daylig ht during the early
ns, /954ionospheric conditio
in ionospheric
variations in
corresponding variations
Variations
conditions,
I954- part of the year, and
ns in sunspot activity With corresponding
and
Variatio
inclusive.
I96I
/961 inclusive.
MARCH 1962
WORLD , March
Wireless
WIRELE SS World,
110
Febepoch Febthe epoch

at the
occurr ed at
maxim um occurred
SPOT maximum
IjUNSPOT
activit y
solar activity
the solar
ruary/March,
ruary /Marc h, 1958, and since then the
average
the average
1961 the
Throu ghout 1961
decreasing. Throughout
has been decreasing.
averrunnin
nth
12-mo
the
by
ted
indica
as
y,
activity, indicated by the 12-month runningg averactivit
to
contin ued to
numbe rs, continued
sunspo t numbers,
month ly sunspot
age of the monthly
end
the end
at the
that at
so that
rate, so
relatively rapid rate,
se at a relatively
decrease
decrea
solar
the solar
of .the
this index
of this
index of
of the year the value of
at 203,
stood at
maxim um stood
sunspo t maximum
y, which at sunspot
activity,
203,
activit
had
than had
value than
lower value
consid erably lower
had fallen to 52, a considerably
of
ioniza tion of
of ionization
average level
been expected.
level of
expect ed. The average
conalso conconseq uence, also
as aa consequence,
ionosp heric layers,
the ionospheric
layers, as
in
freque ncies in
higher frequencies
the higher
decrea se and the
tinued to decrease
istance
long-d
for
useful
were
band
ave
short-w
the short-wave
were useful for long-distance
period s,
orily very limited
communication
limited periods,
unicat ion for only
comm
for aa
used for
be used
to be
had to
freque ncies had
whilst the lower frequencies
time.
total time.
the total
of the
propor tion of
greaterr proportion
much greate
Ill
II -'1\
'--~---'
cirfew cirover aa few

only over
again during the autumn, though
though only
this
from this
directions from
southerly directions
in southerly
cuits running in
freusable frehighest usable
the highest
summer the
country. During the summer
for
that for
and that
Mc/s, and
21 Mc/s,
was 21
quency over these circuits was
circuits
northerly circuits
more northerly
Over more
only a limited period. Over
year
the year
of the
part of
early part
the early
during the
Me/ s was usable during
21 Mc/s
autumn,
the autumn,
during the
period, during
and again, for a limited
limited period,
highest
the highest
was the
but during the summer
Mc/s was
17 Mc/s
summer 17
was aa
there was
winter there
the winter
usable. After
during the
Mter dark during
lower
even lower
and even
Me/ s and
and 66 Mc/s
sharp decrease to 99 and
frequencies
receivable frequencies
highest receivable
frequencies. The highest
beginthe beginat the
which, at
circuit which,
over the North Atlantic circuit
Mcjs,
29 Mc/s,
of 29
order of
the order
of the
were of
ning of the year, were
and
summer and
the summer
during the
decreased to about 19
Mc/s during
19 Mc/s
the
during the
Mc/s during
23 Mc/s
about 23
to about
2gain to
increased again
for
frequencies for
receivable frequencies
highest receivable
autumn. The highest
durMc/s durthe deep night increased
14 Mc/s
about 14
to about
increased to
of
order of
the order
to the
decreased to
ing the summer and decreased
this itit
From this
year. From
the year.
of the
end of
Mcjs towards the end
7 Mc/s
conwere confrequencies were
working frequencies
the working
is apparent that the
end
the end
at the
night, at
and night,
day and
by day
siderably lower, both by
beginning.
the beginning.
of the year _than at the
Disturbances.-The
Magnetic Disturbances.The
Ionospheric and Magnetic
disionospheric dissudden ionospheric
of sudden
number of
decrease in the number
since
year since
by year
year by
on year
gone on
turbances, which has gone
which
during which
1961, during
during 1961,
1957, was continued during
disturbsuch disturbof such
few of
relatively few
year there were relatively
ionoand ionomagnetically and
of magnetically
ances. The number of
increased
.had increased
which had
spherically stormy days, which
during
again during
decreased again
1960, decreased
somewhat during 1960,
these
that these
however, that
certain, however,
1961. It is by no means certain,
parsolar parof solar
streams of
by streams
caused by
storms, which are caused
conwill conatmosphere, will
earth's atmosphere,
the earth's
ticles arriving in the
minimum
sunspot minimum
as sunspot
number as
in number
tinue to decrease in
before
years before
two years
or two
one or
about one
approaches, for often, about
and
number and
i~crease in
to increase
seem, to
minimum, they ..seem,
in number
_intensity.
intensity. ;
activity
sunspot activity
1962 sunspot
Year.-During 1962
The Coming Year.During
imthough itit isis imdecreasing, though
on decreasing,
will most likely go on
decrease
of decrease
rate of
present rate
the present
possible to say whether the
the
that the
probable that
seems probable
But itit seems
will be maintained. But
by
will, by
number will,
sunspot number
12-month running average sunspot
20.
about 20.
of about
value of
to aa value
fallen to
have fallen
the end of
the year, have
ofthe
the
in the
reduction in
further reduction
-be aa further
will be
If this is so there will
usable
are usable
frequencies are
higher frequencies
total time when the higher
of
made of
be made
to be
have to
will have
use will
and considerably more use
17
circuits 17
southerly circuits
the lower frequencies. Over
Over southerly
frequency
daytime frequency
as aa daytime
usable as
be usable
Mc:./s
Mc/s should still be
during
Mc/s during
21 Mc/s
and 21
summer months, and
during the summer
communinight-time communiwinter. For
the autumn and winter.
For night-time
summer;
the summer,
during the
usable during
should be usable
cation 11 Mc/s should
and
autumn and
the autumn
in the
frequency in
usable frequency
but the highest usable
even
possibly even
and possibly
Mc/s, and
be 9
likely to be
winter is likely
9 Mc/s,
will
Mc/s will
15 Mc/s
circuits 15
northerly circuits
lower. Over more northerly
lower~
the
during the
frequency during
da)rtime frequency
be about the highest daytime
these
over these
It isis over
winter. It
next winter.
- summer, and 17 Mc/s next
most
be most
will be
things will
that things
circuits during darkness that
during
usable during
be usable
should be
Mc/s should
11 Mc/s
difficult, for though 11
Mc/s
of 66 Mc/s
frequencies of
only frequencies
the summer, by 'autumn
autumn only
these
on these
and on
results, and
give results,
to give
or lower are likely to
will,
stations will,
of stations
congestion of
lower frequencies the congestion
troublesome.
no doubt, be troublesome.
conradio con1962 radio
during 1962
that during
It appears, therefore, that
associated
those associated
approach those
gradually approach
ditions will gradually
the
of the
end of
the end
by the
that, by
with sunspot minimum, and that,
longfor longdifficult for
becoming difficult
be becoming
year, they will be
the
during the
particularly during
distance communication
communication particularly
hours of darkness.
RADAR
THAMES RADAR
THAMES
INSTALLATION
NEW INSTALLATION
WITH NEW
EXTENDED COVERAGE WITH
point atat
control point
Authority's control
THE Port of London Authority's
equipped
been equipped
years, been
two years,
past two
Gravesend has, for the past
Gravesthe Gravesof the
picture of
complete picture
with radar providing aa complete
Decca,
Now, Decca,
Thames. Now,
the Thames.
of the
Reach-some 55 miles of
end Reachsome
supply
to supply
are to
equipment, are
original equipment,
who provided the original
Cliffe,
at Cliffe,
site at
secohd site
for aa second
radar for
their Type 32 harbour radar
pictures
radar pictures
the radar
which the
fro~ which
mJ.es east of Gravesend, from
55 miles
microwave
via aa microwave
point via
control point
P.L.A. control
will be fed to the P.L.A.
operathe operaprovide the
will provide
installations will
link. The combined installations
with aa
Service with
Navigation Service
Thames Navigation
tions staff of the Thames
moveshipping moveall shipping
of all
units, of
display units,
detailed view, on five display
river.
of river.
stretch of
12-mile stretch
ments in a 12-mile
Health
Port Health
and Port
Customs and
where Customs
It is at Gravesend where
pilots
river pilots
and river
sea and
where sea
and where
pratirrue and
Authorities grant pratique
an
on an
which, on
vessels which,
morf vessels
or more
150 or
change over in the 150
The
hours. The
24 hours.
every 24
area every
this area
average, pass through this
freradio fremarine radio
v.h.f. marine
the v.h.f.
Navigation Service utilizes the
shipof shipauthorities of
shore authorities
and shore
quencies to inform ships and
anchorages
safe anchorages
of safe
masters of
ping movements and advise masters
-ping
is jmpract:cable.
impracticable.
when river navigation is
duplibe dupliwill be
there will
where there
The new radar at Cliffe, where
conremotely conbe remotely
will be
receivers, will
cated transmitters and receivers,
tJ.ere
and there
Room and
Operations Room
trolled
trol;ed from the Gravesend Operations
manned
station manned
the station
keep the
to keep
will normally be no need to
tower.
lattice tower.
70-foot lattice
on aa 70-foot
The aerial will be
installed on
be installed
XC/INVer ISLAND i
r/.1 ^
. . Chapman
w. UgM j
f
Thames
the Thames
ofthe
Radar coverage of the 12-mile
stretch of
12-mi/e stretch
to
Island, to
Convey Island,
from the Chapman Light,
off Convey
Light, off
five
on five
provided on
will be
be provided
above the Tilbury Docks will
covered
are covered
& SSare
areas RR &
Decca p.p.i. displays. The areas
U, VV
and U,
Gravesend and
at Gravesend
by the existing installation at
Cliffe;
at Cliffe.
& W by the new station at
&
Wireless World,
MARCH
WORLD, March
WIRELESS
RAOAR
EXISTING
RADAR
1962
1962
io
. Miles
3 4
6J
111
WORLD OF WJ[ E ESS

Trad e
of Trade
Balance
nce of
Bala
the
by the
IMPORT-EXPORT
RT-EX PORT figures for 1961 issued by
IMPO
value
the value
in the
increas e in
the increase
Board of Trade show that the
11M
over 11M
was. over
exports waselectronics exports
of radio and electronics
The
2.7M . The
only 2.7M.
by only
increas ed by
import s increased
whereas
wherea s imports
import s
of imports
and of
68.9M and
overall total of exports was 68.9M
in
were in
import s were
in imports
increas es in
23.5M.. The main increases
23.5M
with
.
red
compa
ent
equipm
transmitting
equipment
6.8M
compared
with
itting
transm
receivers
car receivers
and car
domest ic and
5.5M the year before, domestic
gear
electro nic gear
industr ial electronic
(0.6M ) and industrial
l'4M (0.6M)
1.4M
tranin trandecreas.es in
were decreases
(0.75M). There were
1 3M (0.75M).
1.3M
valves
in valves
and in
1.32M ) and
(!.26M against 1.32M)
import s (1.26M
sistor imports
4.6M).
and c.r. tubes (4.4M against 4.6M).
the
how the
table how
following table
the following
seen from the
It will be seen
up:
made up:
increas e in exports was made
20% increase
...
parts
and parts
tubes and
Valves,
Valves, tubes
and car radio
s~ts and
radio s3ts
Domestic
Domestic radio
..
.
...
sets
Television
sets
...
Television
. ..
etc.
Transmitters,
navaids , etc,
ters, navaids,
Transmit
etc. ...
loudspeak ers, etc.
P.A.
equipmen t, loudspeakers,
P.A. equipment,
accessorie s ..
and accessories
Components
Compone nts and
Electro-medical
appiratus
aJ:plratus
edical
Electro-m
Industrial electronic
gear
electronic gear
Industrial
gear
test gear
and test
Instruments
Instrumen ts and
1960
1961
7.1
2.5
1.0
18.2
1.3
' 15.2
0.5
2.1
9.4
10.0
2.2
1.6
21.4
1.2
17.7
0.5
. 2.5
11.8
57.3M
68.9M
Deve lopm ents

Telecommunications
omm unica tions Developments
Telec
teleall-electronic teleSATELLITE
commu nicatio ns, all-electronic
LLITE communications,
SATE
subscri ber
of subscriber
extension of
phone exchanges
exchanges and the extension
Postma sterthe Postmasterby the
trunk dialling were all dealt with by
the
of the
dinner of
annual dinner
the annual
speaking at the
General
Genera l when speaking
Manuf acturin g
Engineering and Manufacturing
Telecommunication
Te~ecommunication Engineering
that
announ ced that
He announced
Februa ry 13th. He
Association
tion on February
Associa
being
was being
equipm ent was
and equipment
comple te and
buildin g was complete
the building
Down,
Goonh illy Down,
on Goonhilly
installedd in the ground station on
installe
tests
Anglo-American tests
forthco ming Anglo-American
ll, for the forthcoming
Cornwall,
Cornwa
be
should be
aerial should
The aerial
satellites. The
commu nicatio ns via satellites.
of communications
to
planne d to
is planned
station is
the station
completed
comple ted in April and the
summe r.
early summer.
or early
spring or
late spring
the late
by the
operational by
be operational
teleround- the-wo rld teleplanne d round-the-world
questio n of the planned
On the question
comsatellite comby satellite
outmod ed by
becomi ng outmoded
phone cable becoming
in
that in
opinion that
the opinion
express ed the
P.M.G . expressed
munication
tion the P.M.G.
munica
comple as compleer as
exist togeth
the long term they will exist
together
systems.
mentary
mentar y systems.
exchange
telepho ne exchange
public telephone
all-electronic public
" The first all-electronic
"The
Highga te
at Highgate
service at
into service
brough t into
in Europe "'' will be brought
Post
The Post
year. The
this year.
later this
London , later
Wood, North London,
have
cturers
manufa
.
of
tium
consor
a
and
Office
consortium of manufacturers have
rehe reand he
system and
electronic system
developed
developed the new electronic
should
Office should
Post Office
the Post
affirmedd the policy that the
affirme
exchanges.
telepho ne exchanges.
electronic telephone
change to fully electronic
ticketsi
handlin g tickets
again handling
are again
Fair.-W e are
& Fair.We
Festiva l &
Audio Festival
HotelI
the Hotel
at the
held at
being held
is being
which is
for this annual event which
29th.
to 29th.
26th to
April 26th
from April
W.C.1, from
London , W.C.I,
Russell,
Russell, London,
the
excluding the
day excluding
any day
on any
two on
Tickets,
Tickets , which admit two
avail-are avail26th, are
the 26th,
on the
4.0 on
to 4.0
11.0 to
trade period from 11.0
thisi
from this
and from
dealers and
audio dealers
from audio
free of charge from
able tree
stampe d1
send aa stamped
to send
asked to
are asked
Applica nts are
office.
office Applicants
the;
for the
tickets for
for tickets
Applications for
envelope. Applications
addressed
ed envelope.
address
notepap er.
business notepaper.
on business
made on
be made
trade period must be
112
Open. -The
Stations Open.The
" Satellite " Stations
Two New B.B.C. "Satellite"
Two
broadca-sting
sound broadcasting
television and v.h.f. sound
B.B.C.'ss new television
B.B.C.'
Oxford,
Beckley, Oxford,
at Beckley,
and at
Cornwall, and
Redruth , Cornwall,
starions at Redruth,
stadons
station,
Redruth station,
The Redruth
service. The
brough t into service.
have been brought
teleits telereceives its
unatten ded, receives
designed to work unattended,
which is designed
of
receptio n ot
direct reception
by direct
program mes by
vision and sound programmes
Hessary Tor.
North Hessary
transmissions
ion
ssions from the station at North
transmi
and
Channe l 11 and
on Channel
program mes on
It re-transmits
re-trans mits the TV programmes
frequencies :
following frequencies:
the following
on the
program mes on
the sound programmes
tht.
also
station, also
Beckley station,
The Beckley
94.1Mc /s. The
89.7, 91.9 and 94.1Mc/s.
television
the television
re-trans mits the
unatten ded, re-transmits
designedd to work unattended,
designe
In
2. In
Channe l 2.
on Channel
Coldfield on
programmes
program mes from Sutton Coldfield
transmissions
sound transmissions
and sound
television and
each case both the television
transradio transsound radio
v.h.f. sound
The v.h.f.
polarized. The
horizon:ally polarized.
are horizontally
spring
the spring
during the
comple ted during
mitters at Beckley will be completed
91.7
(Light), 91.7
frequen cies-89 .5 (Light),
and will operate on four frequencies89.5
of
(West of
95.85 (West
and 95.85
(Midlan d Home) and
(Third),, 93.9 (Midland
(Third)
England
Englan d Home).
of
awards 'of
374 awards
of 374
list of
latest list
Award s.-The latest
Te.ch. AwardsThe
Dip. Tech.
1059.
to 1059.
total to
the total
brings the
Techno logy brings
Diplom a in Technology
the Diploma
woman
first woman
the first
is the
diploma tes is
Lst of diplomates
Among the latest list
is
She is
engineering. She^
electrical engineering.
to receive a diploma in electrical
to
studi~d
who studied
(Manch ester), who
Gardne r, of A.E.I. (Manchester),
M
ss J. Gardner,
M:ss
Salford,
Techno logy, Salford,
Advanc ed Technology,
at the Royal College of Advanced
numb-er
total number
The total
honours. The
first-class honours.
and passed with first-class
is
award is
the award
to the
leading to
courses leading
following courses
ot students
student s following
of
year.
previous year.
the previous
on the
1,200 on
6,200 an increase of over 1,200
6,200
an
to an
equ:val ent to
is equivalent
which is
Courses leading to the award, which
course
sandwic h course
year sandwich
or _55 year
compris e aa 44 or
honours
h:mour s degree, comprise
training .
industri al training.
academic and industrial
of academic
the
since the
time since
first time
Award s.-For the first
T.E.M.A.
T.E.M. A. Awards.For
woman
young woman
ago, aa young
years ago,
four years
introdu ced four
scheme was introduced
compet ition
the competition
in the
pr:zewi nners in
is
is among the three prizewinners
&
Engin::erjng &
Telecom munica tion Engineering
organized
organiz~d by the Telecommunication
year
final year
best final
the best
Association for the
Manufacturing
Manufa cturing Association
were
prizes were
The prizes
memb~rs.
ices among its members.
apprentices
The
appren:
Februon Februd:nner on
annual d.nner
Association's annual
presented
present ed at the Association's
categories .are:three categories
the three_
in the
ary 13th. The winners in
are;
Ericsson
of Ericsson
graduat e-in-tra ining, of
Bennett , M.Sc., graduate-in-training,
J PP. Bennett,
J.
apprenstudent
ch.,
Dip.Te
Morris,
Telephones;
Dip.Tech., student apprenTelepho nes; R. M.
technician
Ha~dman, technician
A. Hardman,
M. A.
Miss M.
tice, of G.E.C.; and Miss
E.
ice, of A.T. &
apprentice,
apprent
the
in the
increase in
Decemb er's increase
Licenc es.-Las t December's
Receiving
Receivin.~ Licences.Last
through out
licences throughout
TV /sound licences
combin ed TV/sound
number of combined
bring23,794, bringwas 23,794,
Ireland was
Northe rn Ireland
Great Britain and Northern
with
compar es with
This compares
11,657,504. This
ing the total to 11,657,504.
Sound- only
1S'60. Sound-only
Decemb er, 1960,
04 at the end of December,
11,076,004
11,076,0
Decemlast Decemand last
mark and
3tM mark
licences remain around the 3iM
sets
for sets
500,253 for
including 500,253
3,658,806, including
ber's total was 3,658,806,
fitted in cars.
the
of the
preside nt of
new president
Associ ation.-T he new
Services Association.The
Relay Services
who
C.B.E., who
Bt., C.B.E.,
Maclean, Bt.,
Association
Association is Sir Fitzroy Maclean,
the
held the
who held
Womersley, who
succeedss the late Sir Walter Womersley,
succeed
ea
E.
W. E.
last yyear.
death last
his death
position from 1948 until his
r- W.
Macclesfield
of Macclesfield
Parker, of
G. Parker,
and G.
Rediffusion, and
Brooks, of Rediffusion,
chairma n
appoint ed chauman
respectively appomted
Radio Relay Co., are respectively
1962.
for 1962.
chairma n for
and deputy chairman
maps
contour maps
Book." -Field- strengt h contour
"Trader
"Trade r Year Book."Field-strength
constations, contelevision stations,
I.T.A. television
for both BB.B.C.
B.C. and I.T.A.
tape
and tape
receivers and
current receivers
of current
specifications of
densed specifications
manuof manudirector y of
i.fs, aa directory
receiver i.fs,
post-wa r receiver
recorders,
recorders, post-war
of
few ot
but aa tew
are but
guide are
buyers' guide
and buyers'
addresses and
facturer s' addresses
facturers'
ss
the "Wirele
of the
edition of
1962 edition
the 1962
in the
the many features in
Wireless
in
publish ed in
First published
Book." First
Year Book."
Electrical Trader Year
& Electrical
Books,
Iliffe Books,
by Ilitfe
issued by
volume, issued
436-page volume,
1925, this year's 436-page
costs 21s.
MARCH 1962
WORLD , March
Wireless
WIRELE SS World,
Faraday Medallist.Sir
Faraday
Medallist.-Sir Basil
Basil Schonland,
Schonland, C.B.E.,
C.B.E.,
FJR.S., director of the research
F.R.S.,
research group
group of
of the
the U.K.
U.K. Atomic
Atomic
Energy Authority until
until his
his retirement
retirement aa year
year ago,
ago, isis
for the
Faraday Medal
Medal ""for
the outstanding
outstanding
awarded the I.E.E. Faraday
part he has played in
part
in the
the development
development of
of electrical
electrical
engineering, in
in particular
particular in
in the
the field
field of
of
science and engineering,
nuclear power."
power/' Sir Basil,
Basil, who
who was
was aa signals
signals officer
officer in
in
the first world war and between
between the
the wars
wars was
was aa professor
professor
of physics at the University
University of
of Cape
Cape Town,
Town, was
was from
from
1941-44 superintendent of
of the
the Army
Army Operational
Operational ReResearch Group in the Ministry
Ministry of
of Supply.
Supply. After
After the
the war
war
he returned to South Africa
Africa but
but came
came back
back to
to the
the U.K.
U.K.
in 1954 as deputy director
director of
of the
the Atomic
Atotnic Energy
Energy
Research Establishment.
Establishment.
Semiconductor Documentation.The
Documentation.-The full
full text
text of
of the
the
International Symposium
Symposium on
on Semiconductors,
Semiconductors, held
held in
in
Paris in February, 1961,
1961, and
and reported
reported in
in this
this journal
journal
for April of that year, has
has now
now been
been published.
published. It
It
comprises 1,800 pages in two
two linen-bound
linen-bound volumes,
volumes, the
the
first _ covering production techniques
techniques and
and the
the second
second
More than
than 120
120 papers
papers were
were
applications and reliability. More
read by leading authorities,
authorities, and
and this
this text,
text, coming
coming after
aft~r
a period of intensive activity
activity in
in semiconductor
semiconductor research,
research,
will be a valuable source of
of information
information for
for many
many years
years
to come.
to
caine. Copies of the two
two volumes
volumes together
together are
are now
now
available at a cost of 192
192 NF
NF from
from S.D.S.A.
S.D.S.A. (Societe
(Societe
pour la Diffusion edes Sciences
Sciences et
et des
des Arts),
Arts), 23
23 rue
rue de
de
Lubeck, Paris, 16
16e..
Liibeck,
Physics Convention.At
Convention.-At the
the opening
opening session
session of
of the
the
fourth annual convention
convention of
of the
the Institute
Institute of
of Physics
Physics &&
Physical Society at Harrogate on
on May
May 24th,
24th, Sir
Sir Bernard
Bernard
Lovell, director of the Nuffield
Nuffield Radio
Radio Astronomy
Astronomy
Jodrell Bank,
Bank, will
will deliver
deliver the
the 1962
1962
Laboratories at Jodrell
Guthrie Lecture.
Lecture. Among the lectures
lectures on
on the
the second
second
day of the convention, which
which "is
" is intended
intended primarily
primarily as
as
a domestic affair," is one
one by
by Dr.
Dr. A.
A. C.
C. Rose-Innes,
Rose-Innes, of
of
the Services Electronics
Electronics Research
Research Laboratory,
Laboratory, on
on
"Physics
between superconductors."
superconductors."
" Physics of tunnelling between
no longer
longer required
required in
in the
the
Radio and TV licences are .no
U.S.S.R. Instead, from January
January 1st
1st this
this year
year aa sum
sum
equal to about three-quarters
three-quarters of
of aa year's
year's licence
licence has
has
been added to the price of
of all new
new sets
sets so
so as
as to
to "" cushion
cushion
the loss of revenue to the
the State,"
State," to
to quote
quote Soviet
Soviet News.
News.
Licences have in the past
past been
been issued
issued for
for 3-year
3-year periods
periods
at the equivalent of
of approximately
approximately 5
5 per
per annum
annum for
for
television and about 28s
28s p.a.
p.a. for
for sound
sound radio.
radio.
Moroccan Television .Service

Starts.-The Moroccan
Moroccan
Service Starts.The
Broadcasting System begins
begins aa television
television service
service on
on
March 3rd using the 625-line
625-line standard.
standard. An
An abortive
abortive
attempt at television transmissions
transmissions eight
eight years
years ago
ago by
by
a private company
company_called Telma
Telma ended
ended after
after aa year's
year's
operation. Now the Moroccan Government
Government is
is operating
operating
the old studios and
and transmitters
transmitters at
at Casablanca
Casablanca and
and
Rabat and has invested
invested about JM
tM to
to get
get the
the service
service
operating. Much equipment
equipment for
for the
the Casablanca
Casablanca station
station
has been supplied by
by France
France and
and that
that for
for the
the Rabat
Rabat
station by Italy. Imported
Imported television
television receivers
receivers are
are
subject to government price
price control.
control. It
It isis stated
stated that
that aa
commission of the Mot
Moroccan
Ministry of
of Information
Information isis
ocean Ministry
examining the possibility of
of commercial
commercial television.
television.
Constructors.-In addition
addition to
to the
the two
two prizeprizeAmateur Constructors.In
winners mentioned in our report
report of
of the
the Radio
Radio Hobbies
Hobbies
Exhibition (January issue)
issue) there
there were
were two
two awards
awards
home-constructed equipment
equipment from
from
presented for the best home-constructed
London area.
area. Both
Both went
went north
north
amateurs outside the London
of the border; the first to
to H.
H. R.
R. Mackie
Mackie (GM3FYB)
(GM3FYB) for
for
a single-sideband exciter and
and the
the second
second to
to].
Macintosh .
J. Macintosh
(GH3IAA) for an ""all-band"
transmitter.
all-band " transmitter.
Up.-According to
to the
the report
report
Soviet Set Production Up.According
of the U.S.S.R. Council of
of Ministers'
Ministers' Central
Central Statistical
Statistical
televis:on sets
sets produced
produced in
in the
the
Board, the number of television
Soviet Union in 1961 was
was 1.95M
1.95M unitsan
units-an increase
increase of
of
223,000 on the previous year. Similarly
Similarly production
production of
of
sound radio receivers and
and radiograms
radiograms increased
increased and
and
reached a total of 4.2M units.
units.
National Gramophone Conference.During

Conference.-During the
the
annual conference of the National
National Federation
Federation of
of
Gramophone Societies at
at High
Hig"J. Leigh,
Leigh, Hoddesdon,
Hoddesdon,
Herts, during the weekend of
of March
March 30th-April
30th-April 2nd,
2nd,
on stereo
stereo reproduction.
reproduction. AA
Cecil Watts will be speaking on
new loudspeaker is to be described
described and
and demonstrated
demonstrated
by F. R. Britten and B. J.
J. Webb.
Webb. The
The major
major part
part of
of
to the
the aesthetics
resthet:cs of
of music.
music.
the programme is devoted to
The conference
co1.ference secretary
secretary is
is G.
G. E.
E. Palmer,
Palmer, 106
106 StreatStreatfield Road, Kenton, Harrow, Middx.
Middx.
The Society of Instrument Technology

Technology has
has recently
recently
decided to re-group its
its specialized
specialized sections
sections and
and has
has
accordingly formed four new sections,
sec:ions, namely
namely :: MeasureMeasurement Technology, Control
Control Technology,
Technology, Systems
Systems EnEngineering, and Automation.
Automa:ion. Reason
Reason given
given for
for the
the
change is that with increasing
increasing membership
membership (now
(now about
about
the technical
technical activities
activities had
had grown
grown
3,000) the sphere of the
to such an extent that further sub-division
sub-division was
was necesnecessary. Details
Derails of the Society's
Society's activities
ac:ivities rray
rray be
be obtained
obtained
from 20 Queen Anne Street,
Street, London,
London, W.l.
W.l.
Sympnsium.-Contributions from
from Canada,
Canada,
Battery Symposium.Contributions
France, Germany, Poland and
and the
the U.S.A.
U.S.A. are
are listed
listed in
in
the p-ovisional programme of
of some
some 30
30 papers
papers for
for the
the
third International Battery
Battery Symposium
Sympos.:um which
which isis to
to be
be
held in Bournemouth from October
October 2nd
2nd to
to 4th.
4th. Details
Details
which is
is being
bein~ organized
orgm:zed by
by the
the
of the symposium, which
Inter-Depart:rrental
Commhee on
on Batte'ies,
Batte-:-ies, are
are obtainobtainInter-Departmental Committee
Collins. Admiralty
Admiralty Engineering
Engineering LaboraLaboraable from D. H. Collins.
tory, West Drayton, Middx.
Middx. The
The registration
registration fee
fee isis
4gn.
Satellite Communication.An
Communication.-An international
international conferconference on satellite
satelli:e communication
communica:ion isis to
to be
be held
held in
in LonLondon early next December with
with the
the object
object of
of providing
providing
a'1
opportuni:y for the presentation
presentation of
of papers
papers on.
on. and
and
an opportunity
discussion of, all scientific
scien:ific and
and technical
technical aspects
aspects of
of this
this
fast-growing field. Those
Those wishing
wishing to
to attend
attend the
the conconference are invited to
to apply
apply to
to the
the Secretary
Secretary of
of the
the
I.E.E., Savoy Place, London,
London, W.C,2.
W.C.2.
R.T.R.A.Headquarters of the Radio

R.T.R.A.-Headquarters
Radio and
and Television
Television
Retailers' Association, formerly in
in Goodee
Good!!e Street,
Street, has
has
been moved to larger premises at
at 19-21
19-21 Conway
Conway Street,
Street,
Fitzroy Square, London, W.l.
W.l. (Tel.:
(Tel. : Euston
Euston 6040).
6040).
Com,uter
Appreciation.-Courses, designed
designed to
to give
give
Computer Appreciation.Courses,
atmrecia:ion of
of whether
whether the
the work
work of
of
the executive an aporeciation
his organization could be carried
carried out
out on
on aa computer,
computer. and
and
if so what advantages, economic
economic and
and otherwise,
otherwise, might
mig-ht be
be
expec:ed
being conducted
conduc:ed by
by Leo
Leo ComComexpected to result, are being
puters Ltd.,
Ld., Fartree
Partree House,
House, Queensway,
Queensway, London,
London, W.2.
W.2.
Eflc"J.
duraion and
a'1d the
the fee
fee isis
Each
course is of one week dura'ion
T
25' n. Further details
25qn.
de!ails are
are available
available on
on application
application to
to
the above
above address.
address.
the training manager at the
R.F.C.W.O.O.C.A. Dinner.The
Dinner.-The Royal
Royal Flying
Flying Corps
Corps
Comrades' Association
Association are
are to
to hold
hold
Wireless Operators Old Comrades'
their annual dinner in London
London on
on March
March 10th.
lOth. Details
Details
are obtainable
ob:ainable from E. J.J. F,
F. C.
C. Hogg,
Hogg, 'M.B.E.,
57 HendRendM.B.E., 57
sham Road, London, S.W.17.
S.W.17. (Tel.;
(Tel.: Balham
Balham 6963.)
6963.)
Automatic Control,At
ControL-At the West
West Ham
Ham College
College of
of
Technologv, Stratford, London, E.15,
E.l5, aa short
short evening
even:ng
course in automatic control, intended
intended for
for graduates
graduates and
and
halders
in electr'cal
electrical engineering
engineering or
or applied
applied
holders of H.N.C. in
physics, begins on March
March 14th.
14th.
"Automatic Tape Stop"a

Stop "-a correction.
correction. In
In Fig.
Fig. 22 on
on
p. 74 of our February issue,
issue, the
the right-hand
right-hand relay
relay contact
contact
connected to
to the
the top
top of
of the
the
(shown closed) should be connected
and not
not to
to the
the B.T.H.
B.T.H.
lamp voltage regulation
rej!ulation resistor
resistor and
VR12-B Zener diode.
WIRELESS World,
WORLD, March
MARCH 1962
1962
Wireless
113
Personalities
r-sori alltles
Pe
by
appoi~ted by
M.I.E. E.,_ha
Bridge water, M.I.E.E.,,
T. H. Bridgewater,
hass beep.
been
appointed
ion; a
Televis
er,
'Engine
Chief
of
post
the
to
B.B.C.
the
to the post of Chief Engineer,
Television,
a
Televis ion
Co_ntrolle r, Television
.post .of
tp.e post
at~on for the
designation
of Controller,
new design
Pulling ,
J:-LL.. Pulling,
M,. Jsuccee ds. M
Engine ering. - He succeeds.
Service Engineering.
month,
ounced -last
who, ,as-ann
M.l.E. E., who,
CBE,, M.A., M.I.E.E.,
as announced
last montn,
C.B.E.
Mr.
Engine ering.
of Engineering.
Directo r of
ant Director
is now 'Assist
Assistant
Mr.
with
years with
four years
for : four
Bridgewater
Bridge water who is 53, worked for
as . an
1932 as
in 1932
B.B.C. in
the . B.B.C.
J. L. Baird before joining the
on
televisian
the television
Whe11 the
engineer. When
mainte nance engineer.
assistant
assista nt maintenance
senior
appoin ted aa senior
he was
was appointed
service started in 1936 he
station.
Palace star.on.
Alexan dra Palace
the Alexandra
engine er at the
maintenance
mainte nance engineer
t~ the
returne d to
he returned
R.A.F. he
the R.A.F.
After war service .in the
the
Ennten(le nt Enbeen aa 'Superi
has been
He has
B.B.C.
BBC in 1946. He
Superintendent
more
but
O.B.'s but more
originally O.B.'s
coverin g originally
Televis ion, covering
gineer, Television,
since 1'952.
Regions, since
recentl
recentlyy also the Regions,
1952.
0
Bridgewater
H..Bridgewater
T. H.
r/
J.] . A.
A . Freer
joined
has joined
A.M.I. E.E., has
(Canta b), A.M.I.E.E.,
T. A. Freer, M.A. (Cantab),
J.
eng:ne er.
chief eng.neer.
as chief
Contro l Ltd.,
System s Control
International
Ltd., as
tional Systems
Interna
was
he was
where he
Ferran ti, where
whh Ferranti,
been with
had been
Since 1954 he had
inputcompu ter inputdesign ing computer
in designing
engage d in
head of the group engaged
Bristol
the Bristol
with the
was with
he was
Previously he
systems. Previously
output systems.
Contro l
System s Comrol
Interna tional Systems
Compa ny. International
ane Company.
Aeroplane
Aeropl
as
B.Sc.,- as
Lee, B.Sc.,
T . Lee,
W. T.
of W.
appoin tments of
the appointments
announ ce the
also announce
N.
R. N.
of K.
and of
group and
analysis group
systems analysis
manager
manag er of its systems
applica tions
chief applications
as chief
Gutzon as
John Gutzon
on, B.A., and John
Anderson,
Anders
HavilDe Haviithe De
with the
previously with
was previously
ers. Mr. Lee was
engineers.
engine
of
head of
time head
one time
at one
he was
where he
Aircraf t Co. where
land Aircraft
was at
recentl y
more recently
and more
group, and
compu ting group,
analog ue computing
their analogue
develo pments .
control developments.
compu ter control
industr ial computer
worked on industrial
electric
the electric
with
ily
primar
deal
will
who
on,
Anders
Mr. Anderson, who will deal primarily with the
G.E.C.
the G.E.C.
from the
!.S.C. from
to I.S.C.
transfe rred to
industr y, transferred
power industry,
GutMr. GutStanm ore. Mr.
Labora tories, Stanmore.
Electro nics Laboratories,
Appliedd Electronics
Applie
the
in
tions
applica
with
ned
concer
be
will
who
zan,
zon,
be concerned with apphcations
infrom
the
I.S.C.
joined
ies,
mdustr
um
petrole
and
al
chemical
petroleum industries, joined Woold
LS.C. ridge.
from
chemic
Ramo Wooldndge.
Thomp son Ramo
associate, Thompson
Americ an associate,
its American
develo pthe developHouse, the
Smale House,
of Smale
manag er of
Cooper , manager
E. G. Cooper,
Ltd;,
Wireless Ltd.,
& Wireless
Cable &
of Cable
worksh op centre of
ment .and workshop
in
Marco ni'ss in
with Marconi
career with
his career
started his
retired . He started
has retired.
He
1935. He
in 1935.
Wireless in
& Wireless
Cable &
transfe rred to Cable
1919 and transferred
the most
develo pments , the
many developments,
with many
associated with
has been associated
now
system most
correct ion .system
error correction
automa tic error
regent being the automatic
now
recent
at
succeeded at
is succeeded
He is
links. He
radio links.
" difficult " radio
used on "difficult"
with
been with
has been
who has
Simmo nds who
Smale House by F. W. Simmonds
years
15 years
past 15
the past
for the
and for
years, and
organiz ation for 38 years,
the organization
departm ent.
engine er-in-c hief's department.
has been in the engineer-in-chief's
B.B.C.'s
the B.B.C.'s
of the
engineer-in:.,ckarge of
Master~, engineer-in-charge
H. A. Masters,
appoin ted
was appointed
1956, was
s.ince 1956,
transm itting station since
try transmitting
Daventry
Daven
the
joined the
He joined
Hpnqu rs . . He
Year Honours.
M.B.E
an M
B E.. in the New Year
ComMarco ni Comthe Marconi
serviCe with the
Corporation
ation in 1930 after service
Corpor
pany and the G.P.O.
114
manag er .
comme rcial manager
recentl y commercial
Mockf ord, until recently
F. S. Moekford,
1930,
in 1930,
joined m
he joined
which he
Compa ny, which
W /T Company,
of Marconi's
Marco ni's W/T
the
joining the
to joining
Prior to
ser-Vice. Prior
full.:.time service.
has retired from full-time
civil
the civd
of the
supervisor of
he. was for 11 years supervisor
company
compa ny he
Airpor t. In
Croydo n Airport.
services at Croydon
aviationn wireless
In 1935wireless services
aviatio
Depart
Aircraf t DepartMarco ni's Aircraft
of Marconi's
manag er of
appoin ted manager
he was appointed
company.
the company.
of the
manag er of
genera l manager
ment and later deputy general
chairthe chairto the
assista nt to
person al assistant
During the war he was personal
comme rcial
was commercial
and was
directo r, and
m~naging director,
man and managing
under...to underappoin ted to
recentl y appointed
manager
er for 14 years until recently
manag
Mr.
d :rector. Mr.
manag ing d.rector.
the managing
take special duties for the
its
and its
E.E.A., and
of E.E.A.,
membe r of
council member
been:a
Moekford
a council
Mockf ord has been
has
and has
format ion, and
its formation,
R.C.E.E.A., since its
predecessor
predec essor R.C.E.E.A.,
chairman~
be-en chairman.
three times been
manag er
appoin ted manager
recentl y appointed
Gladm an, B.Sc., recently
J. C. Gladman,
A.E.I.
the A.E.l.
of the
Depart ment of
Engine ering Department
Compu ter Engineering
of the Computer
Metrop olitanjoined MetropohtanDivision, joined
Appara tus Division,
nic Apparatus
Electronic
Electro
Depart ment.
Radio Department.
the Radio
in the
engine er in
Vickers in 1948, as an engineer
Compu ter
the Computer
of the
engine er of
chief engineer
assista nt chief
He became assistant
the
on the
month slater,
two months
and two
ment in May, 1959, and
Department
later,
on
Depart
Division,
Appara tus Division,
Electro nic Apparatus
A.E.I. Electronic
ion of the A.E.L
formation
format
Engine erCompu ter Engineermanag er, Computer
assista nt manager.
appoin ted assistant
was appointed
ing Department.
Pepart ment.
Electronics,
Winsto n Electronics,
of Winston
founde r of
Reynolds, founder
Winsto n Reynolds,
F.
F Winston
chair._..
the chairrelinqu ished the
has relinquished
Middle sex, has
Sheppe rton, Middlesex,
of Shepperton,
compa ny,
the company,
of the
directo rship of
manag ing directorship
manshipp and managing
manshi
as
succeeded as
is succeeded
He is
board. He
the board.
on the
remain ing on
but is remaining
of
Directo r of
the Director
is the
who is
Bridges, who
an by W. Allen Bridges,
chairman
chairm
of
Corpor ation of
Dynam ics Corporation
the Dynamics
of the
Operat ions of
an Operations
European
Europe
wholly
now aa wholly
is now
Electronics is
Winsto n Electronics
ca, of which Winston
America,
Ameri
years aa
six years
for six
Samue ls, for
Joseph Samuels,
subsidi ary. Joseph
owned subsidiary.
been
has been
Electronics, has
Winsto n Electronics,
of Winston
member
membe r of the board of
company
the company
joined the
He joined
director. He
managing director.
ted managing
appointed
appoin
&
Teleph ones &
Standa rd Telephones
with Standard
yeats with
in 1954 after ten years
(A.E.I.).
Controls (A.E.l.;.
Sunvic Controls
with Sunvic
Cables,
Cables, and seven years with
the
of the
manag er of
works manager
I.E.E., works
Cooper , Assoc. I.E.E.,
LesUe
Leslie Cooper,
past
the past
for the
Ltd. for
Works Ltd.
Electric Works
Teleph one & Electric
Phoenix
Phcenix Telephone
director.
executive director.
an executive
appoin ted an
been appointed
years, has also been
12 vears,
of
subsidi ary of
is aa subsidiary
which is
Phcenix, which
Prior to joining Phoenix,
15
for 15
was for
he was
Ltd., he
Holdin gs Ltd.,
Teleph one Holdings
ned Telephone
Combined
Combi
encompa nies enof companies
group of
H.M.V ./E.M. I. group
vears
years with the H.M.V./E.M.I.
radio
amateu r radio
in amateur
Well-k nown in
produc tion. Well-known
gaged on production.
for
R.S.G.B. for
the R.S.G.B.
of the
preside nt of
was president
GSLC, he was
circles as G5LC,
1953.
L. Cooper
K. F. Russell
Wire-:Wharfe dale WireK.F.

A.M.I. E.E., has joined Wharfedale
Russell, A.M.I.E.E.,
K. F. Russell,
13
past il
the Past
For the
manag er. For
cal manager
less Works .as techni
technical
Electri c
& Electric
Teleph one &
Automatic Telephone
years he has been with Automatic
'years
patents .
with patents.
concer ned with
mainly concerned
Co. where he was mainly
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD , March
Wireless
WIRELE SS World,
R. J. B. Finlay, O.B.E., who, at the age of 41, recently

retired from the Royal Navy with the rank of
Lieutenant-Commander after 24 years service, has been
appointed assistant secretary of the Electronic Engineering Association. His appointment will enable C. W.
Warner, the recently appointed information officer, to
devote his whole time to the Association's information
services.
R. J. B. Finlay
C. W. Warner
Larry H. Brace, the author of the article in this issue

eng:neer with Static
on transistors in space, is a senior engineer
Devices Co. of El Paso, Texas, where he is engaged in
Dev.:ces
basic research in, and development of, instrumentation
'
systems for space travel.
Hector C. Parr, director of music at Shebbear College,
p.1C6 a graphical
descr~bes on p.lC6
Seaworthy,
Beaworthy, Devon, describes
Exh ~bitioner
method of harmonic analysis. He was an Exhibitioner
at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he
obtained a 2nd class honours degree in the mathematical
tripos in 1949. He had held a number
number of teaching posts
prior to going to Shebbear College.
OBITUARY
Captain John Megarry Furnival, M.B.E., who retired
four years ago as general manager of Marconi Instruments Ltd., died on February 4th at the age of 69.
He joined Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company
in 1919 in the original Aircraft Department and
in 1934 became manager of the Aircraft Wireless Establishment formed at Hackbridge. He later
undertook research work on " beam approach" and
radio steering devices. He was general manager of
Marconi Instruments from 1942.
Dr. Ernest Exley Thomson, M.Sc., who for many
manufacture
and manufacture
years was engaged in the development and
of photoelectric and other vacuum devices at E.M.I.'s
Research Laboratories, died on January 17th at the age
in
of 55. He joined the company in 1933 and assisted in
the development of the beam tetrode valve and Emitron
camera tubes. During the last war he was associated
proximity
for proximity
first with the development of photocells for
fuses, then with radar c.r.t.s. and finally with klystrons.
Lucien Chretien who died in January, aged 62,
enjoyed an international reputation as an author and
firsr articles having appeared in
technical journalist, his first
1917. Since 1933 he was editor-in-chief of the French
technical journal Radio et TV. He pioneered and
Improvements relating to frepatented many circuit improvements
quency changing, automatic gain control, etc.
George Arthur Cheetham, A.M.C.T., M.I.E.E.,
Ltd.; from 1942
managing director of Ferguson Pailin Ltd.,
until his retirement in 1955, and an ex-director of
Metropolitan-Vickers, has died at the age of 73. Following some years with Ferranti Ltd., Mr. Cheetham
joined Metropolitan-Vickers . in 1913. During the last
war he was responsible for the manufacture of
"-the automatic pilot.
""George
George "the
R. H. Dent, a pioneer of the hearing aid industry
since 1919 has died. He founded Ardente Acoustic
Laboratories Ltd. which recently became part of the
E.M.I. Group.
from InduStry
News
News
from
Industry
Link.-The General
G.E.C.-Mullard Semiconductor Link.The
Electric Co. Ltd. and Mullard Ltd., have reached an
agreement to pool their resources in the production of
semiconductors. This grouping means that the two
U .K. market
companies will have a major part of the U.K.
and will be comparable to the largest transistor manufacturers in the world. Mullard is strong on transistors
for domestic radio and TV in the home sales market, .
G .E.C. has specialized more in semi conducwhilst the G.E.C.
tors for indusuial
industrial and electrical engineering applications and has contacts in the export field. Thus their
activities will complement each other in the new undertaking, which is likely to take the form of a joint
subsidiary company. According to a joint statement,
while details are being settled, both Mullard and G.E.C.
separatdy their respective
will continue to market separately
existing ranges of semiconductors.
existing
Brown Brothers Ltd., the radio and electrical wholesalers, now in their 73rd year, have completed the final
stage of a rebuilding and development programme at
their London headquarters at Great Eastern Street. A
new four-storey building replaces the former singlestorey structure and total floor area has been increased
to
to 215,000 sq ft.
Western Electric Company Inc., of New York, a .

System,
Telephone System,
manufacturing subsidiary of Bell Telephone
Justice
of Justice
has commenced an action in the High Court of
restrain
to
against Pye Ltd., claiming an injunction to restrain
694,021
Patents 694,021
infringement of two Western Electric Patents
claim
The claim
relief. The
ancillary relief.
and ancillary
and 700,231, damages and
broad
of broadPye of
by Pye
sale by
and sale
arises from the manufacture and
circuitry.
transistor circuitry,
employing transistor
cast radio receivers employing
con-
Pye conthat Pye
Western Electric said that it understands that
an
by an
covered by
be covered
to be
sale to
and sale
siders such manufacture and
licence.
existing transistor licence,
:
the
to the
contractor to
programme contractor
Televis:on,
Channel Te!evis
on, programme
Channel
the Channel
for the
Jndependent Television Authority for
Independent
equipprincipal equipand principal
camera and
the camera
that the
Islands, announce that
St.
Bouillon, St.
Rouge Bouillon,
at Rouge
studios at
their studios
for their
ment suppliers for
mem
Test
Ltd. Test
Helier, Jersey, will be E.M.I. Electronics Ltd.
and supervisory equipment will be supplied by Marconi.
The new I.T.A. station, at Fremont, Jersey, which is
operate
will operate
next, will
September 1st
on September
open on
scheduled to open
1st next,
polarization.
horizontal polarization,
with horizontal
channel 99 with
on channel
on
Television
and Television
Radio and
Proposed.-The Radio
Set Proposed.The
R.T.R.A. Set
possithe possiinvestigating the
been investigating
has been
Association has
Retailers' Association
Retailers'
for
receiver for
television receiver
branded television
own branded
its own
having its
of having
bility of
bility
operation.
buying operation.
bulk buying
in aa bulk
members in
to members
availability to
availability
115
115
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
D
TRADE
OVERSEAS
SEAS TRADE
(OVER
combeing comstudio isis being
largest studio
Centre 's largest
Televis ion Centre's
Oslo Television
orthicon
image orthicon
4!in image
E.M.I. 4iin
with E.M.I.
ipped
re-equ
pletely
re-eqmpped
with
jcamera channels
part
As aa part
equipm ent. As
associated equipment.
channels and associated
programme,
(
transmitter programme,
Norwegian transmitter
of
Stage
I
of
the
Norwegian
( EMI Electronics
Northe Norsupplied the
recently supplied
Electronics have also recently
] E.M.I.
comwith a~ comDepartmen~ with
aphs Department
Telegr
wegian
Post
and
Telegraphs
eqmpm ent
measu nng equipment
frequency measuring
bining unit and radio frequency
1 for
Jonsk.nuten,
at Jonskguten,
transm itter at
TV transmitter
Boveri TV
Brow11
the
new
Brown
Boveri
1 near Kongsberg.
E.M.l.
with E.M.I.
placed with
been placed
have been
Kong.sberg. Orders have
~he
for the
equipm ent for
similar equipment
supply
to
their
II
ized
under
Stage
H
to
supply
similar
reorgan
have
Ltd.
nents
Compo
ce Components Ltd. have reorganized their
Advance
Advan
Trondh eim,
near Trondheim,
Vassfjellet, near
at Vassfjellet,
so
itters at
ns
transm
Divisio
new
TV
transmitters
ent
Instrum
and
zation
Stabili
former Mains Stabilization and Instrument Divisions
Hamar .
bysoaa
linked by
Nordh uc, near Hamar.
and at Nordhue,
autonomous, linked
virtually autonomous,
now virtually
that they are now
n
commo
giving
stration
admini
strengthened
central
administration
giving
common
hened
strengt
Trinid ad,
Hotel, Trinidad,
Hilton Hotel,
new Hilton
the new
Volstat
the Volstat
Sound system for the
rename d the
been renamed
have been
They have
services
services to both. They
Totten the TottenLtd., the
Electronics Ltd.,
Trix Electronics
of
d by Trix
r
provide
numbe
A
n.
is
being
provided
Divisio
ent
Instrum
Division
and
the
Instrument
Division.
A
number
ot
n
Divisio
Electronics
Ultra Electronics
of Ultra
subsidiary of
W.1,
a_nd
ization
reorgan
ham
Court
Road,
W.l,
subsidiary
this
d
followe
have
tions
promo
have followed this reorganization
and
staff promotions
with aa
provided with
be provided
will be
bedroo ms will
30Q bedrooms
executive
an executive
be an
to be
Ltd. Nearly 300
Dunna way to
R J. Dunnaway
these include that of R.
also
contrac t also
the contract
and the
relay, and
radio relay,
l
genera
s
3-programme
sound
ramme
become
3-prog
Sidey
ny
compa
director
of
the
company
and
P.
Sidey
becomes
general
r
directo
banand banballroom and
system, ballroom
paging system,
supply
of
a
paging
covers
er.
manag
sales manager.
equipm ent
calling equipment
kitchen calling
reinforcement, kitchen
queting sound reinforcement,
comcontrol.
new comof aa new
name of
and car parking control.
the name
is the
Telemax-Southern
ax-Sou thern Ltd. is
Telem
and
Ltd. and
Instrum ents Ltd.
Southe rn Instruments
jointly by Southern
pany, formed jointly
surveillance
secondary surveillance
ground secondary
civil ground
of aa
market ing of
the marketing
France is to have a civil
undert ake the
Telemechanics
Teleme chanic s Ltd., to undertake
ConTraffic ConAir Traffic
Northe rn Air
its Northern
at its
deinstalled at
synthesizer deand synthesizer
radar system installed
meter and
frequency meter
wide-range frequency
new wide-range
Orly. 1The
of Orly.
airport of
Paris airport
the Paris
to the
Southe rn
by Southern
adjacent to
Centre, adjacent
trol Centre,
he
manufa ctured by
and manufactured
Teleme chanic s and
signed by Telemechanics
and
interro gator-r espons er and
an interrogator-responser
are
of an
consisting of
ent, consisting
equipment,
Telem ax-Sou thern are
equipm
of Telemax-Southern
Headq uarters of
Instruments.
ents. Headquarters
Instrum
Radar
Cossor
by
d
supplie
be
to
Instruis
,
system is to be supplied by Cossor Radar
Southe rn Instruof Southern
an aerial system,
factory of
Surrey , factory
Cambe rley, Surrey,
at the Camberley,
Electronics.
& Electronics.
ments.
closedsmall closedBuses .-Thre e small

Television
Televis ion Aids Leeds Buses.-Three
T.V.T.
Pye T.V.
by Pye
installed by
and installed
built and
cameras, built
circuit TV cameras,
1.,
Square
City Square,
at City
stops at
bus stops
at bus
located at
Cambr idge, are located
of Cambridge,
s,
camera
The
Leeds.
in
ge
Exchan
Briggate
Briggate and Corn Exchange m Leeds The cameras,
underg round
by underground
linked by
are linked
poles, are
ed on 22ft poles,
mounted
mount
transpo rt
Corpor ation's
the Corporation
at the
room at
cable to the control room
s transport
the
manipulat~.the
can mampulate
officer~ can
traffic officers
headquarters.
headqu arters. Here traffic
conditiOns
traffic condmons
view traffic
to view
control to
camerass by remote control
camera
stop.
each stop.
at each
queuei ng at
are queueing
people are
and see how many people
accordingly.
directe d accordingly.
Buses are then directed
of
Ltd., of
Analytical Ltd.,
Distrib ution.- Southe rn Analytical
Sigrist Distribution.Southern
U.K.
sole U.K.
their sole
relinquished their
Surrey , have relinquished
Camberley,
rley, Surrey,
Cambe
but
Switzerland, but
of Switzerland,
AG. of
Photom eter AG.
agency for Sigrist Photometer
exis~
all.existfor all
service for
and service
spares and
continu e to supply spares
will continue
m
active in
remain active
to remain
are to
and are
installations and
ing Sigrist installations
measur ements .
turbidi ty measurements.
flow turbidity
continuous flow
the field of continuous
representatives
U.S. representatives
Corpor ation, U.S.
Electronics Corporation,
Visual Electronics
camera
television camera
Compa ny television
Valve Company
Electric Valve
for English Electric
set
test set
factory test
EEV factory
comple te EEV
installed a complete
tubes, have installed
New
Street, New
40th Street,
West 40th
356 West
at 356
headqu arters at
at their headquarters
on
service on
adjustm ent service
24-hou r adjustment
facilitate their 24-hour
York, to facilitate
orthico n tubes.
image orthicon
Sales &&
E.M.I. Sales
of E.M.I.
title of
new title
EMI Tape Ltd. is the new
E.M.I.
now
which isis now
of which
Division of
Emitap e Division
Service Ltd. the Emitape
comand comorders and
all orders
and all
name, and
trading under the new name,
E.M.I. Tape
to E.M.I,
addres sed to
be addressed
munications
tape
tions should now be
munica
Middx .
Hayes, Middx.
Ltd. at Blyth Road, Hayes,
service
their service
that their
advise that
Equipm ent Ltd. advise
Milliard
Mullar d Equipment
WimRoad, WimAboyne Road,
from Aboyne
department
depart ment has been moved from
Royal,
Manor Royal,
at Manor
plant at
new plant
compa ny's new
bledon,
bledon, to the company's
28787.)
Crawley 28787.)
(Tel.: Crawley
Sussex. (Tel.:
Crawle
Crawleyy New Town, Sussex.
formed aa
has formed
America has
of America
Corpor ation of
Dynamics
Dynam ics Corporation
with
Ltd., with
Measu rement s Ltd.,
Digital Measurements
subsidiary, Digital
British subsidiary,
at
laboratories at
engineering laboratories
and engineering
12 500 sq ft plant and
autofactory autoproduc e factory
and produce
Surrey , to design and
Mytchett,
Mytch ett, Surrey,
equipm ent.
processing equipment.
mation and data processing
Garden s,
Kimbe rley Gardens,
of Kimberley
Design s Ltd., of
Electronic Designs
Jason Electronic
of aa
hands of
the hands
in the
now in
is now
Londo n, N.4, is
Harringay,
gay, London,
Harrin
ani
of Newm
Cohen , of
H. Cohen,
L. H.
manag er, L.
receiverr and manager,
Newman
receive
Londo n,,
Square , London,
Cavendish Square,
19 Cavendish
Harcou rt House, 19
Harris, Harcourt
W.l.
valued1
order valued
an order
placed an
has placed
Aviation has
Minist ry of Aviation
The Ministry
ElecW.S. Elecsubsidiary, W.S.
Ultra subsidiary,
with Ultra
75,000 with
at about 75,000
transstandb y transairborn e standby
u.h.f. airborne
tronics Ltd., for a new u.h.f.
air/gro und1
with air/ground
aircraft with
provides aircraft
mitter-receiver,
mitter-receiver, which provides
as aai
such as
emergency such
extrem e emergency
communications
nications even in extreme
commu
supply.
power supply.
electrical power
complete
complete failure of the electrical
instruc -.
of instrucseries of
Cours es.-A series
Servicing Courses.A
Solartron
on Servicing
Solartr
impartt
to impart
Solartron to
by Solartron
started by
been started
tional courses has been
fromi
technicians from
service technicians
the service
to the
know-how to
the latest know-how
agents.
and agents.
companies and
overseas companies
their overseas
116
presen t
at present
Unit isis at
Demon stratio n Unit
Solartron's
on's Mobile Demonstration
Solartr
comthe comof the
part of
as part
tour as
3-mon th sales tour
undertaking
undert aking a 3-month
DenSweden, Dencovers Sweden,
Itinerary covers
expon sales drive. Itinerary
pany's export
to
return to
with return
Germa ny, with
and Germany,
France and
Holland, France
mark, Holland,
carries
demon strator carries
The demonstrator
31st. The
the U.K. on March 31st.
equiprecordi ng equiptape recording
and tape
logging and
a full range of data logging
instrum ents.
and instruments.
compu ter and
analogue computer
ment, an analogue
large
placed 'a
has placed
Navy has
Nether lands Navy
The Royal Netherlands
a large
1-kW
for 1-kW
Division for
Maritim e Division
Marco ni's Maritime
order with Marconi's
have
and have
amplifiers, and
radio-f requen cy amplifiers,
broadband
broadb and linear radio-frequency
Racal
to Racal
200,000 to
at 200,000
valued at
contrac t valued
awarde d a contract
also awarded
communicaradio communicah.f. radio
of hi.
supply of
the supply
Electronics
Electronics for the
equipm ent.
tion equipment.
consigned aa conhas signed
Defenc e has
Minist er of Defence
Switzerland's
rland's Minister
Switze
BloodBristol /Ferran ti Bloodfor Bristol/Ferranti
25M, for
tract, valued at some 25M,
Bloodweapons. Bloodguided weapons.
surface-to-air guided
hound Mark 22 surface-to-air
comBritish comof British
consortium of
of aa consortium
produc t of
the product
hound is the
and
A.E.I. and
Ferran ti, A.E.I,
Aircraft, Ferranti,
Bristol Aircraft,
including Bristol
panies including
Engines.
Siddeley Engines.
Bristol Siddeley
microwave
for microwave
paraboloids for
diamet er paraboloids
Twenty-four
y-four 6ft diameter
Twent
recording
data recording
of aa data
part of
use, part
transmission use,
pulsed data transmission
installaPetrole um installaBritish Petroleum
for aa British
telemetry system for
and telemetry
by
recently by
dispatc hed recently
were dispatched
Gu!f, were
Persian Gulf,
. tion in the Persian
Ferof FerDepart ment of
Electronics Department
Applied Electronics
suppliers, Applied
the suppliers,
Edinbu rgh.
ranti Ltd., Edinburgh.
with aa
runway with
main runway
its main
equip its
to equip
Airpor t is to
Athens Airport
the
brings the
This brings
System. This
Landin g System.
Instrum ent Landing
Pye Instrument
140.
nearly 140.
to nearly
Pye to
by Pye
equipp ed by
so equipped
airfields so
numberr of airfields
numbe
dualbe dualto be
are to
fleet are
Group fleet
Niarch os Group
the Niarchos
All tankers in the
radar
Hughe s radar
Kelvin Hughes
36 Kelvin
for 36
order for
An order
equipped. An
radar equipped.
has
vessels has
Group 'ss vessels
the Group
in the
installa tion in
equipments
equipm ents for installation
S.
of S.
Division of
Hughe s Division
Kelvin Hughes
the Kelvin
received by the
been received
Ltd.
(England) Ltd.
Smith & Sons (England)
communicate
to communicate
order to
in order
Ghana , in
University of Ghana,
The University
42ft
erected aa 42ft
has erected
Greenl and, has
in Greenland,
expedition in
with an expedition
Angle.
Slotted Angle.
Dexion Slotted
in Dexion
built in
mast built
wireless mast
high wireless
for
systems for
relay systems
radio relay
two s.h.f. radio
equipm ent for two
Radio equipment
and
Sydney and
between Sydney
one between
Office, one
the Australian
Australian Post Office,
Mount
and Mount
Brisbane and
betwee n Brisbane
other between
Orange and the other
Electric
Genera l Electric
the General
by the
provided by
be provided
Matheson,
Mathes on, is to be
Co. Ltd.
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD , March
WIRELESS World,
MARCH,
March, 1962
WmELESS WoRLD
Wireless
World
67
tpualitu suyufrnwht
recorder has
has an
an additional
additional amplifier
amplifier
The W.V.B. recorder
provision for
for "" before
before "" and
and
and head with provision
" after " record monitoring
monitoring while
while the
the recording
recording
"after
is in progress, and
and this
this also
also has
has echo
echo facilities.
facilities.
m.
The W.V.A. recorder

recorder has
has provision
provision for
for aa plug
plug inin
can be
be supplied
supplied with
with. this
this and
and
stereo head and can
pre-amplifiers with
with equalisation
equalisation
stereo playback pre-amplifiers
each having an output
output of
of I1 volt
volt from
from aa cathode
cathode
follower. This is type
type W.V.A.fS.
W.V.A./S.
A heavy mumetal shielded

shielded microphone
microphone transfortransformer is built in for
for 15-30
15-30 ohms
ohms balanced
balanced and
and
screened line, and requires
requires only
only 77 micro-volts
micro-volts
fully load.
load. This
This isis equivalent
equivalent
approximately to fully
to 20ft. from a ribbon
ribbon microphone
microphone and
and the
the cable
cable
may be extended to 440
440 yds.
yds. without
without appreciable
appreciable
loss.
The 0.5 megohm input isIs fully
fully loaded
loaded by
by 18
18 millimilli's, microphone
volts and is suitable for
for crystal
crystal P.U.
P.U.'s,
microphone
or radio inputs.
The playback amplifier
amplifier may
may be
be used
used as
as aa micromicro-
phone or gramophone amplifier

amplifier separately
separately or
or
whilst recording
recording is being
being made.
made.
The meter fitted
fitted for
for reading
reading signal
signal level
level will
will also
also
to enable
enable aa level
level response
response to
to be
be
read bias voltage to
circumstances. A
A control
control isis
obtained under all circumstances.
provided for bias adjustment
adjustment to
to compensate
compensate low
low
mains or ageing valves.
The power output isis 44 watts
watts heavily
heavily damped
damped by
by
negative feedback
feedback and
and an
an oval
oval internal
internal speaker
speaker isis
built in for monitoring
monitoring purposes.
purposes.
THE
THE .VORTEXION
VORTEXION W.V.B.
W.V.B. or
or W.V.A/5
W.V.A/S
are eminently suitable
suitable for
for making
making aa high
high quality
quality
recording almost indistinguishable
indistinguishable from
from the
the
original since these
these models
models have
have facilities
facilities for
for
monitoring the recording
recording actually
actually put
put on.
on the
the tape
tape
with only a fraction
fraction of aa second
second delay.
delay.
middle
middlefrequencies,
frequencies,ananoverload
overloadofofthe
thetape
tapeatathigh
high
frequenciesgives
givesaamushy
mushyquality
qualitywith
withlots
lotsofofhiss
hiss
frequencies
and
and background
background noise.
noise.
|eve|while
|isteningtotothe
Adjustmentto
tothe
the bias
biaslevel
whi|elistening
the
Adjustment
result
is
useful
in
this
connection
especially
where
result is useful in this connection especially where
..
.
r
i
, .
By this means, when
when for
for any
any reason
reason the
the signal
signal isis
..
.
j
i
r l
as required,
required, the
the result
result of
of the
the
distorted or not as
recording on the tape
tape can
can be
be heard
heard almost
almost ininstantly, and adjustments
adjustments can
can be
be made
made until
until the
the
required.
results are as required.
the
the brand
brand ofoftape
tape
andthe
thebias
biassetting
settingforforit itare
are
r and
, ,
not
not
exactly
exactlyknown.
known,
'
Again
Again ifif clean
clean treble
treble recordings
recordings atat 3!in.
3fin. are
areofof
prime
importance
it
is
now
recognised
that
prime importance it is now recognised that nono
other
other method
method isis quite
quite soso effective
effective inin achieving
achieving
this as reducing the
the bias
bias slightly
slightly while
while listening
listening
to the
the results.
results. The
The meter
meter reading
reading ofofthe
the new
new
to
bias setting
setting for
for the
the particular
particular tape
tape used
used may
maybebe
bias
noted for
for future
future use.
use.
noted
Many types of music today

today have
have the
the treble
treble boosted
boosted
considerably, and may
may result
result in
in greater
greater power
power
being recorded at
at high
high frequencies
frequencies than
than atat
VORTEXION LIMITED, 257-263 The Broadway, Wimbledon, London, S.W.19
VORTEXION LIMITED, 257-263 The Broadway, Wimbledon, London, S.W.19

Telephones:
LIBerty 1814
2814 and
and 6242-3.
6242-3.
Telegrams:"Vortexion,
"Vortexion,Wimbledon,
Wimbledon,Lon."
Lon."
Telephones: LIBerty
Telegrams:
VVIRELESS World
Wireless
VVoRLD
March,
MARCH, 1962
1962
styli
ACO S ADV ANC E

ACOS
ADVANCE |
Styli
-Jf
- > . '
ill
&
'mmi
M. mm'i
am
"*
1& .
. ,l
^ changer dust bug
\^r/
changer dust bug

& stylus
stylus pressure
&
pressure
gauge
Acos continue to advance

advance and
and be
be recognised.
recognised. Recognised
Recognised as
as the
the finest
finest range
range of
ofreplacereplacement styli now available.
and
stereo,
there
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available. Diamond
Diamond and
and sapphire,
sapphire, mono
mono and stereo, there are now
now over
over
150 types of Acos x500 styli,
styli, to
to fit
fit all
all makes
makes of
of pick-ups
pick-ups and
and cartridges.
cartridges. There
There isisone
one toto
fit your equipment.
equipment. All
x500 styli
All Acos
Acos .x500
styli are
are individually
individually tested
tested at
at 500-times
500-times magnification,
magnification,
yet they cost no more
more than
than other
other makes.
makes. Look
Look for
for Acos
Acos styli
styli in
in the
the characteristic
characteristicpack!
pack.
Accessriries after the /act.-Don't
Accessaries
fact :Don't overlook
overlook the
the Acos
Acos Changer
Changer Dust
Dust Bug
Bug that
that sweeps
sweeps all
all
before.
before it,
it~ and the Acos
Acos Stylus
Stylus Pressure
Pressure Gauge
Gauge which
which stops
stopspick-ups
pick-tipsfrom
from throwing
throwingtheir
their
weight about.
about ..
Other Acos products;
products: mono
mono and
and stereo
stereo pick-ups,
pick-ups, cartridges,
cartridges,.microphones.
microphones.
~ ~ ~ ~ e
ARE DOING
ARE
DOING THINGS
THINGS IN
IN STYLI
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CROSS, HERTS.
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TEL: WALTHAM
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27331
f.XIT
!
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me
jB
r
Physical Society Exhibition

Physical
Society
Exhibition
ELECTRONICS
IN ELECTRONICS
DEVELOPMENTS IN
NEW DEVELOPMENTS
to
upon to
relied upon
be relied
can be
Exhibitio n can
Society" Exhibition
"Physica l Society"
The "Physical
selling""
of "" selling
multitud e of
the multitude
from the
break from
provide a very pleasant break
provide
proindustry proin industry
electroni cs in
of electronics
uses of
the uses
Example s of the
shows. Examples
the
of the
some of
of some
simplicit y of
and simplicity
ingenuit y and
liferate, and the ingenuity
admired.
be
to
much
are
proposed systems
much to be admired.
the
to the
attended to
was attended
exhibitio n was
the exhibition
Throughout
out the week the
Through
will
it
that
hope
to
dares
one
and
ing,
overflow
point of overflowing,
and one dares to hope that it will
hall.
Olympic hall.
some Olympic
to some
ly be removed to
eventually
eventual
control
attitude control
Satellite motors for attitude
of
thrusts of
produce thrusts
are required to produce
feasible
is feasible
and itit is
only a few dynes, and
Elliott
beams. Elliott
to employ ionic beams.
dehave deBrothers (London) Ltd. have
demonstr ating aa
veloped and were demonstrating
of
thrust of
giving aa thrust
type giving
motor of this type
leaked"
is "" leaked
Argon is
about 25 dynes. Argon
"
by aa
surround ed by
into a gun structure surrounded
argon isis
The argon
The
magnet solenoid.
elecof elecinfluence of
ionized under the influence
conand conby a filament and
trons emitted by
the
field, the
strained by the magnetic field,
toaccelerated tobeing accelerated
resulting ions being
high
by aa high
gun by
the gun
of the
wards the exit of
(5kV);
voltage (5kV).
and
productio n and
Naturally this production
the
in the
result in
emission of ions would result
potentials
development
ent of unwanted potentials
developm
practice,
in practice,
so it would, in
in the gun, so
beam.
the beam.
be>
be necessary to neutralize the
emitting
by emitting
This can be achieved by
path
the path
in the
electrons from a filament in
beam.
accelerated beam.
of
of the accelerated
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
was
The demonstration
demonstr ation apparatus was
oilan oilof an
aid of
the aid
working, with the
equivapressure equivadiffusion pump, at a pressure
diffusion
150km.
of about 150km.
lent to a height of
was
in) was
out/energ y in)
Efficiency (energy out/energy
use
the use
by the
raised by
be raised
35% but could be
be
would be
ions-me rcury would
of " heavier " ionsmercury
similar
or a similar
very suitablebut
suitable- but argon or
avoid
to avoid
used to
be used
material had to be
fouling of the pump.
Four
engineering. Four
tions in chemical engineering.
actually
are actually
closely-spaced
closely-spaced probes are
potenthe potenprovided so as to measure the
direcY direcand Y
X and
the X
tial gradients in the
to
used to
are used
gradients are
. tions. These gradients
motors velodyne motors
control the speed of velodyne
reand reprobe and
the probe
which then drive the
of
direction of
the direction
cording pen along the
at aa
gradient at
potential gradient
the maximum potential
gradient.
this gradient.
to this
proportio nal to
speed proportional
and
path and
the path
This simulates both the
Current
flow. Current
velocity of current flow.
nppMMj
of
is of
simulatio n is
Electrolytic
Electrolytic tank simulation
technique
new technique
course by no means a new
particubut aa particuproblems, but
for solving problems,
by
shown by
sophisticated example shown
larly sophisticated
Energy
the United Kingdom Atomic Energy
velocity
obtaining velocity
Authority involved obtaining
inforposition inforas well as the normal position
of
summatio n of
mauon, the automatic summation
mation,
elecmoving elecdifferent solutions, and moving
different
designed
trodes.
trodt:s. This simulator was designed
pumped
gas pumped
of gas
to study the bubbling of
demotor derocket motor
particles, Experimental
Experimental ionic rocket
through a bed of fine solid particles,
through
Elliott.
_of Elliott.
division of
high-voltage division
applica- veloped in high-voltage
a process which has many applica117
debandw idth debulence. The gain in bandwidth

supply bulence.
by supply
affected by
which is not affected
but aa
gain, but
amplifier gain,
pends
on
the
amplifier
variations.
ions.
variat
said
is said
multiplication
multiplication of 100 times is
ed.
achiev
to
be
achieved.
oscillating
an oscillating
of an
ampli tude of
Vibration
Vibration amplitude
with
linearly with
crystal varies linearly
quartz crystal
quanz
cer:atransf ormer using ceraImped ance transformer
de- Impedance
In aa depressure. In
gaseous pressure.
applied
applied gaseous
by
made
been
nts
eleme
elements
has
been
made
by
mic
ColBrune i Coldeveloped by the Brunei
vice developed
Research
Medical Research
of the Medical
H.
S.
Wolff,
emis
effect
this
ology
Techn
lege of Technology this effect is emthe
on the
shown on
Council, and was shown
for Council,
gauge tor
vacuu m gauge
ployed in a vacuum
input
an input
ing an
Provid
N.R.D.C.
stand.
Providing
.C.
N.R.D
torr
0.1
measurements
remen ts in the range 0.1 torr
measu
capacitive
mainly capacitive
imped ance that is mainly
conne cted impedance
25 torr.
crystal is connected
torr. The crystal
-25
0--th e
e is about 10
leakag
the
leakage
10"-2the
-the
cirtor
oscilla
tts
Colpi
stor
transi
a
in transistor Colpitts oscillator cirpiezoof piezopair of
a pair
ts
consis
device
consists
of
a
the
to
ed
adjust
being
coupling being adjusted to the
cuit, coupling
their
at their
ng,
carryi
phs
bimor
ic
electric
bimorphs
carrying,
at
electr
tranthe
of
t
outpu of the tranminimum.
um. The output
minim
core
pot
e
minut
free
ends,
a
minute
ferrite
pot
core
meter
to aa meter
fed to
rectified and fed
sistor is rectified
disc
ferrite disc
contai ning a coil and the fertile
directly containing
calibrated directly
which can then be calibrated
circuit.
magn etic circuit.
the
etes
compl
completes
magnetic
that
pressu re.
in pressure.
the
to the
applie d to
poten tial is applied
When a potential
few
by aa few
bimorphs
they
bend
by
phs
bimor
the
reduces the
usually reduces
so
feedback usually
Positive
Positive feedback
impre ssed so
microns for each volt impressed
case microns
the case
device, but in the
bandpass
magthe magbandp ass of a device,
of the
reluctance of
altering
the
reluctance
g
alterin
developed
anemo meter developed
hot-w ire anemometer
of a hot-wire
corres pondi ng
circuit. The corresponding
Turn- netic circuit.
F. TurnG. F.
and G.
rville and
to
]. Some
used to
by M. J.
Somerville
be used
induc tance can be
change
of
inductance
e
chang
Manc hester
of Manchester
Unive rsity of
bull of the University
oscillator
an oscillator
of an
frequency of
vary
the
frequency
stand
N.R.D .C. stand
conand conand shown on the N.R.D.C.
amplified and
outpu t is amplified
upper whose output
the upper
ack raises the
positive
feedback
Foste rpositive feedb
by aa Fosterverted
back
to
d.c.
by
The
indirectly. The
ncy limit, albeit indirectly.
be
frequency
can be
freque
this can
obviously this
circuit: obviously
4
in Seeley circuit:
10-"in
only 10"
wire, only
platin um wire,
giving
hot platinum
in in
amplifier giving
ed
followed
by
a
d.c.
amplifier
follow
bridge
in aa bridge
conne cted in
diameter,
impediame ter, if connected
outpu t impedesire d output
practically any desired
would practically
d.c. would
by d.c.
energized by
circuitt and energized
circui
techni que
closed-loop technique
.
dance.
If
a
closed-loop
dance
200c/ s,
about 200c/s,
bandw idth of about
back
give a bandwidth
fed back
is fed
outpu t is
adopt ed, i.e. the output
in is adopted,
variations in
to variations
respo nd to
the
i.e. it would respond
bimor phs, the
electric bimorphs,
piezoto
the
piezo-electric
Howe ver,
200 I sec. However,
the
airflow of up to 200/sec.
by the
raised by
be raised
can be
nce can
resista
input
resistance
t
circui
Turnb ull's circuit
Somerville and Tumbull's
in Somerville
effective
the effective
and the
fier and
ampli
gain
of
the
amplifier
poten of aa potenpan of
model
the hot wire forms pan
reduced. The model
capacitance reduced.
out- capacitance
centre -tappe d outoptical tiometer
in optical
used in
tiome ter across a centre-tapped
resistance
are used
discharges are
ed an input resistance
achiev
Arc discharges
shown
achieved
and
amplifier and
13
small put transformer
their small
transf ormer of an
an amplifier
because of their
instruments
0.
10I3
instru ments because
fl.
poten - of about
the potenfrom
the
ck
but
feedba
ness,
the
feedback
is
taken
from
the
bright
high
and
source
brightness, but the
be
to be
arrang ed to
fretiometer,
necessitates fretiometer, which is arranged
arc necessitates
ility of the arc
instability
instab
by
shown by
" spirit " level, shown
Electronic "spirit"
at its
hot-w ire at
its Electronic
Bendix-Eric- positive
positive with the hot-wire
readjustments. Bendix-Ericquent readjustments.
variadetect
can
r
Plane
G.
airV.
Planer
Ltd.,
can
detect
variathe
As
.
servoworking
tempe rature As the airsimple servoworking temperature.
showing aa simple
sson were showing
second
least 11 second
at least
of tions from level of at
ampli tude of
the amplitude
of aa flow cools the wire the
production of
system for the production
ty
stabili
erm
long-t
a
has
and
arc
a long-term stability
maint aining of
increases, so maintaining
oscillation
tion increases,
wande ring oscilla
from aa wandering
ary image from
stationary
station
level
the level
In the
arc. In
of arc.
ds
secon
of
10
seconds
of
wire.
the
of
rature
tempe
light
the
nt
constant
the
temperature
of
the
wire.
in
mirro r in the light consta
beam- splitte r mirror
arc. A beam-splitter
sense
which sense
electrodes which
about tube are three electrodes
at about
oscillates at
to aa The circuit
on to
circuit oscillates
image on
point image
path feeds the point
the
in the
e
bubbl
on
positi
the
position
of
the
bubble
in
r.f.
the
of
ampli tude of the r.f.
repre- 200kc
/s, the amplitude
200kc/s,
phototransistors reprefour phototransistors
group of four
oelectr
of
ions
Variat
lyte.
electrolyte.
Variations
of
electroelectro
The
speed. The
which being equivalent
equiv alent to wind speed.
into which
quadr ants into
sentin
sentingg the four quadrants
conditions
the conditions
change the
nce change
resista
lyte
resistance
d.c.
the
ed,
ts
rectifi
outpu
r.f.
is
thus
rectified,
when
the
d.c.
The
wander. The outputs
the arc may wander.
and
circuit and
bridge circuit
associated bridge
the in an associated
to the
corresponds to
to or mean level corresponds
used to
and used
amplified and
from these are amplified
for
fied for
ampli
is
the
bridge
signal
is
amphfied
ssed
impre
the
minia ture average
average air speed and the impressed
four miniature
energizing four
tilt, by energizing
.
meter
y
display
on
a
meter.
displa
turthe turrepres ent the
variations represent
telephone-ear- rapid variations
ids not unlike telephone-earsolenoids
soleno
the
in the
mirro r in
focusing mirror
piece coils, a focusing
light path.
electrode
condu cting electrode
flow about a conducting
statiomrry
tes gas flow about aa stationary
simulates
simula
an
about an
flow about
curren t flow
bubble,
bubble, and current
solid
simulates solid
electrode simulates
ting electrode
insulating
insula
bubble.
moving bubble.
particle flow about aa moving
particle
bubbl e
electrode bubble
the electrode
making the
By making
fine
of
er
numb
ue
analogue
out
of
a
number
of
fine
analog
conthese coninsulator, these
aroun d an insulator,
wires around
tor
or insula
condu ctor or
ditionss of conductor
insulator
dition
electrically
by electrically
simulated by
could be simulated
the wires
separating the
connecting
wires
connecting or separating
between
switching between
respectively.
respectively. By switching
summ ing
and summing
conditions and
these two conditions
obso oboutpu ts so
the two sets of probe outputs
(deproportions (devarious proportions
tained in various
and
gas and
pending
relativee gas
pendi ng on the relativ
plots
or plots
streamlines or
velocities) streamlines
bubble
bubble velocities)
relagas relaof gas
elements of
of the flow of elements
obbe obcan be
bubbl e can
moving bubble
tive to a moving
eleof eleplots of
or plots
Pathlines, or
tained.
tained. Pathlines,
cofixed coto fixed
relative to
ments of gas relative
moving
by moving
obtain ed by
ordinates,
ordinates, can be obtained
at aa
analogue at
electrode analogue
bubbl e electrode
the bubble
the
to the
corresponding to
velocity corresponding
fixed velocity
same
the same
adding the
and adding
velocity and
bubble
bubbl e velocity
it
as it
pen as
recording pen
ty to the recording
veloci
velocity
Streak streamlines. Streakattempts
attempts to trace streamlines.
tracer
by tracer
formed by
lines, or lines formed
fixed
at aa fixed
injected at
sudde nly injected
ial suddenly
material
mater
the
using the
by using
obtain ed by
point, can be obtained
up
join up
to join
information to
velocity information
pen velocity
same
the same
to the
corresponding to
points corresponding
pathlines.
diverging pathlines.
time on diverging
lime
modifiusing aa modifidiscri minat or using

Voltage
Voltage discriminator
stage
idt-tri gger stage
cation of the Schm
Schmidt-trigger
well-defined
and well-defined
to give a very sharp and
debeen devoltage level has been
triggering
triggering voltage
Labor aCavendish Laboraveloped
veloped at the Cavendish
comm on
The common
Camb ridge.
tory, Cambridge.
The
stage
Schm idt stage
resistor of the Schmidt
cathodee resistor
cathod
resistors
separate resistors
is split into two separate
by aa
joined by
are joined
cathodes are
and the two cathodes
cut
is cut
diode is
the diode
as the
diode. As long as
cathode
as aa cathode
acts as
oft the first valve acts
rises
poten tial rises
follower
follower but when the potential
the
diode, the
sufficiently
to cut on the diode,
sufficiently .to
state.
Schm idt state.
the Schmidt
reverts to the
circuit
circuit reverts
only
set only
thus set
is thus
point is
trigger point
The trigger
conduction,
into conduction,
by the diode going
going into
10
ELECTRONICS
CTRONICS
1NDUSTRIAL
INDU STR IAL ELE
avoid
meas urem ent.-T o avoid
Vibration
Vibration measurement.To
of
business of
somew hat messy business
the somewhat
slip
and slip
arranging
gaugess and
arrang ing strain gauge
cooling
attend ant cooling
rings with their attendant
Engines
Siddeley Engines
Bristol Siddeley
problems,
problems, Bristol
of
system of
f.m. system
developed an f.m.
have developed
vibration
turbin e-blad e vibration
jet-engine
jet-en gine turbine-blade
the
into the
measurement.
remen t. Wire bent into
measu
placed
is placed
form of a " square zig zag "" is
turbin e
the turbine
of the
periph ery of
round the periphery
the
in the
ted
moun
t
magne
small
a
magnet mounted in
and
sinusroughly sinusinduces aa roughly
blade tip induces
the
of the
ends of
oidal signal across the ends
presen t,
are present,
components are
wire. Two components
is
which is
frequency " which
" carrie r frequency"
the "carrier
of
speed of
proportional
niona l to the mean speed
propo
comp onent
turbin e and an f.m. component
the turbine
speed
the speed
to the
propo niona l to
which is proportional
The
vibration. The
variations
variations caused by vibration.
ampli remove amplito remove
limited to
signal is limited
unidirectional
fluctuations and unidirectional
tude fluctuations
average
the average
developed, the
pulses are developed,
to
proportional to
voltage
voltage of which is proportional
is
frequency is
frequency.
frequency. The mean frequency
on aa
indicated on
filtered
filtered out to be indicated
to
due to
modulation due
leaving the modulation
meter,
meter, leaving
MARC H 1962
Wireless
WORL D, March
WIRELESS World,
118
on control
B.I.S.R.A. experimenta
experimentall digital
digital crane-positi
crane-position
control
system. Infra-red transmitters
transmitters can
can be
be seen
seen atat left.
left.
vibration, which is fed

fed to
to aa tape
tape rerecorder. Multiple wires
wires or
or grids,
grids,
which incidentall
incidentallyy are not
not wires
wires at
at
all but sheet copper
copper stamped
stamped to
to
shape, enable the complex blade
blade tip
tip
movementss to be completely
completely deterdetermovement
mined.
Magnetic tape recording principles
principles
are used to advantage in
in equipment
equipment
developed by Baldwin Industrial
Industrial
ent of
measurement
of the
the
Controls for the measurem
from aa rolling
rolling
length of steel strip from
mill. Mter
After erasure of
of the
the magnetism
magnetism
set up in the strip by
by the
the electrolytic
electrolytic
strip passes
passes
cleaning process, the strip
under a print coil and aa pickup
pickup coil
coil
which are exactly one foot
foot apart,
apart, or
or
a similar unit distance.
distance. A
A manually
manually
produced pulse is recorded
recorded on
on the
the
strip and reproduced
reproduced by
by the
the pickup
pickup
coil as the strip passes
passes under
under it.
it. The
The
reproduced pulse is also used
used to
to rerelly so
cord the next pulse automatica
automatically
so
that the reproduced pulse
pulse occurs
occurs ~s
as
each foot of strip passes under
under the
the
pickup coil, irrespectiv
irrespectivee of
of the
the strip
strip
speed. The pulses are
are now
now fed
fed to
to aa
counter and displayed. As
As the
the amamplitude of the pulses varies
varies with
with strip
strip
speed the input stage of
of the
the counter
counter
is a variable-m
variable-muu pentode
pentode whose
whose
suppressor voltage is derived
derived from
from aa
tacho-generator
driven by the
the mill
mill
tacho-gene rator driven
so that the output pulse
pulse remains
remains
constant.
t.
Analysis of photograph
photographss of
of c.r.
c.r.t.
ming and
traces is a time-consu
time-consuming
and
tedious task; but this isis aa task
task where
where
a slow-scan television technique
technique can
can
nts
be used to carry out measureme
measurements
automatically.
" Editor"
lly. Cawkell's "Editor"
automatica
film reader employs aa flying-spot
flying-spot
scanner to illuminate the
the film.
film. Gate
Gate
"Shell "" Research.

Research. Digital
Digital
Graph analysis equipment by "Shell
read-out indicates the co-ordinate
co-ordinate value.
value.
to open
open just
just before
before
circuits are set up to
the trace base line and
and close
close after
after
the top of the waveform
waveform:: the
the scan
scan
crossing the base line
line starts aa counter
counter
registering the number
number of
of cycles
cycles
oscillator
executed by a standard oscillator
until the top of the
the waveform
waveform isis
apparatus
reached. The completed apparatus
will handle four traces at
at aa time
time and
and
give measurements
accurate to
to withwithmeasureme nts accurate
nts can
in 1%. 100 measureme
measurements
can be
be
nts that
made in 40sec; measureme
measurements
that
can, if necessary, be fed
fed directly
directly into
into
a computer.
in principle
principle
An analyser similar in
was shown by the U.K.A.E.A
U.K.A.E.A.. (de(developed at the Atomic
Atomic Weapons
Weapons
ent) but
Research Establishm
Establishment)
but the
the
intention of this apparatus
apparatus isis the
the
analysis of the shape of
of waveforms
waveforms..
A 156-line scan is used,
used, taking
taking
250jusec/Iine
and the scanner
scanner output
output
250,usec/line and
is converted to digital
digital form
form for
for printprinttape.
ing-out on punched paper tape.
For the conversion of graphs
graphs into
into
Shell" Research
digital form ""Shell"
Research have
have
introduced their equipment
equipment for
tor the
the
analysis of opaque charts up
up to
to 12cm
12cm
wide. The section to be analysed
analysed isis
illuminated and projected on
on to
to aa
illuminated
viewing screen. The image
image of
of each
each
point to be digitized
digitized isis brought
brought into
into
coincidence
cross lines
lines on
on the
the
coincidence with cross
screen by means of xx . and
and yy lead
lead
screws. These are linked
linked to
to the
the
ters
sliding contact of two potentiome
potentiometers
which then carry voltages
voltages proporproportional to the co-ordinate
co-ordinatess of
of the
the point
point
under examination.
A digital
digital voltvoltexamination. A
meter then displays the xx and
and yy cocoordinates depending on the
the setting
setting
front-pane l switch.
of a front-panel
demonstrated
model on
on the
the
ted by a model
demonstra
British Iron and Steel
Steel Research
Research
Association's
Position dedeAssociation's stand. Position
mands set in (coded in
in feet
feet and
and
tion) are
inches for demonstra
demonstration)
are conconverted to serial digital
digital code
code and
and
turned into infra-red pulses
pulses from
from
lamps directed at the
the travelling
travelling troltrolley. The trolley is prepared
prepared for
tor the
the
reception of a new demand
demand by
by switchswitching on both transmitter
transmitterss (lamps),
(lamps),
which stops the motor.
motor. The
The pulse
pulse
d to
trains are then transmitte
transmitted
to the
the
crane, where they pass
pass into
into aa dederegister : this is the
mand register:
the signal
signal for
for
the motor to start again.
again. The
The syssystem works by adding
adding or subtracting
subtracting
the new informatio
informationn from
from that
that
already standing on
on the demand
demand
register, which is compared
compared with
with the
the
ticks up
up "" the
the
position register that "" ticks
position of the crane.
crane. So
So that
that slip
slip
cannot affect the result the
the position
position
register is "checked
" checked " at several
several fixed
fixed
points along the trolley
trolley traverse.
traverse.
ent
Standard solid-state logic-elem
logic-element
are used
" bricks"
used throughou
throughoutt
bricks "
ments).
(Mullard Combi-Ele
Combi-Elements).
Digital shaft encoder checking

checking by
by
the shaft
shaft isis
normal methods, wherein the
slowly rotated and each
each output
output
monitored,
wearisome
monitored , are extremely wearisome
As the
uneconomic.
the vast
vast
and uneconomic.
majority use a cyclic code,
code, wherein
wherein
only one output changes
changes for
for each
each
digit change, a simple form
form of
of logic
logic
can be employed. By definition,
definition, the
the
indicating either
either
number of lines indicating
state is alternateiy
alternately odd or
or even.
even. IfIf
then the outputs are
are connected
connected to
to
multiple input "AND" gates, the
the outoutput of the gate will
will be
be aa perfect
perfect
for a good
good encoder.
encoder. AA
Digital position control for
for cranes
cranes square wave for
using the
the inforinforconvenien t way of using
and similar conveyor devices
devices was
was convenient
\19
Wireless
World, MARCH
March 1962
1962
WIRELESS WoRLD,
storage
on aa storage
it on
mation is to display it
divided
encod er is
oscilloscope.
is divided
oscilloscope. The encoder
disbeing diseach being
sectors, each
into five sectors,
the
of the
lines of
displaced lines
qn ten displaced
played on
is
releva nt section is
oscilloscope.
scope. The relevant
oscillo
sensing
photo- electri c sensing
triggered
triggered by a photo-electric
device.
device.
pulse
digital pulse
application for
An application
for aa digital
the
by the
exhibi ted by
tor was exhibited
generator
genera
Energ y
Atomic Energy
Kingd om Atomic
United Kingdom
of
velocity of
the velocity
Authority,
Autho rity, in which the
materi al
of material
sample of
throug h a sample
sound through
the
of the
means of
invest igated by means
was investigated
oscilloscope.
an oscilloscope.
genera tor and an
pulse generator
pulse
fire aa pulse
to fire
proced ure is to
The procedure
the
throug h the
genera tor through
from the pulse generator
pulse
material. A second pulse
sample of material.
sample
is
generator is
derived
derived from the pulse generator
arrival
the arrival
coincide with the
adjustedd to coincide
adjuste
detected
and :the
of the first pulse, and
the detected
oscillothe oscilloindicated on the
coincidence
ence is indicated
coincid
pulse
the pulse
scope. The setting of the
precision
controls, and a precision
generator
tor controls,
genera
fitted
is fitted
which is
variable
variable delay line, which
the
gives the
indica tor, . gives
with a digital indicator,
interva l
pulse interval
time delay. The pulse
and
operat ion and
generator
tor is digital in operation
genera
to aa
shown to
be shown
can be
so the time delay can
in aa
millimicrosecond, in
fraction
fraction of a millimicrosecond,
microseconds.
total time of up to 100 microseconds.
therefo re
is therefore
velocity of sound is
The velocity
accurately.
extrem ely accurately.
known extremely
ferret
brush- and-sc raper ferret
ssing a brush-and-scraper
Unfor tunate ly
throug h the pipes. Unfortunately
tlthrough
and
stuck and
get stuck
someti mes get
tools sometimes
t.the
conof condigging up of
necessitate
itate the digging
necess
rsiderable
device
so aa device
length s of main, so
lengths
ssiderable indica
the
of the
position of
the position
te the
will indicate
tthat
surface
the surface
on the
observ er on
ferret to an observer
ReWater' Reof great value. The Water
iis
develo ped
Association have
Association
have
developed
search
s
the
to the
attach ed to
system : attached
a system:
ssuch
enclosure
watert ight enclosure
r is a watertight
scraper
scrape
^
by aa
energized by
solenoid energized
containing
ning a solenoid
tcontai
brief
for aa brief
oscillator for
transis tor oscillator
30-c/s transistor
the
Althou gh the
second. Although
each second.
Iperiod
resulthe resulof the
much of
shunts much
iron
pipe
I
of aa
rotatio nal speed of
Stability
ty of rotational
Stabili
disand dismeasu red and
drivingg shaft is measured
drivin
of
1044 of
in 10
played to within one part in
by
shown by
equipm ent shown
11 r.p.s. by an equipment
frestanqa rd freMilliard,
Mulla rd, in which a standard
derived
that derived
compa red with that
quency is compared
A
system. A
the system.
from the output end of the
hundr ed
one hundred
with one
marke d with
glass disc marked
the
on the
mount ed on
fine radial lines is mounted
system,
optical system,
shaft and moves in an optical
develbe develto be
causin g pulses to
thereby
thereb y causing
photothe photoof the
collector of
oped on the collector
is
measu remen t is
multiplier.
lier. The measurement
multip
oscilloscope
trigger ing an oscilloscope
effectedd by triggering
effecte
frestanda rd fretime base with the standard
the
z-mod ulating the
quency pulse and a-modulating
pulse.
output pulse.
the output
trace by means of
of the
the
betwe en the
difference between
The time difference
now
is now
rd and output pulses is
standard
standa
betwe en
distan ce between
represented
ented by the distance
repres
bright the brightand the
trace and
the start of the trace
for
repeat ed for
is repeated
process is
up spot. The process
succespulses, succeshundr ed pulses,
each of the hundred
vertically
displaced vertically
sweeps being displaced
sive sweeps
Instab ility
raster. Instability
in the form of a raster.
the
by the
indica ted by
is indicated
rotatio nal speed is
of rotational
side.
to side.
wande ring from side
spot wandering
side to
unusu al
an unusual
be an
to be
seem to
A ferret would seem
But
Soc." But
exhibit
exhibit at the " Phys. Soc."
to aa
applie d to
ferret " is the name applied
.""ferret"
motive
pipes, motive
throug h pipes,
device passed through
pressu re
by pressure
suppli ed by
power being supplied
underWater underit. Water
from a fluid behind it.
pasby pasmains by
takingss clean out their mains
taking
120
to
it to
for it
escapes for
sufficient escapes
tant field, sufficient
by aa
away by
feet away
several feet
detect ed several
be detected
in
pickup in
The pickup
appara tus. The
le apparatus.
portable
portab
havsolenoid havanothe r solenoid
detect or is another
the detector
hundr ed
several hundred
induct ance of several
ing an inductance
this
from this
output from
henrys;; . the signal output
henrys
gate " aa
to "" gate
amplified and used to
is amplified
headp hones,
1-kc/s signal that feeds headphones,
1-kc/s
the
follow the
can follow
operat or can
so that the operator
is
It is
pipe. It
the pipe.
ferret as it runs along the
to
possible to
prove possible
hoped that it will prove
to
detect or to
leak detector
add some form of leak
reduce
to reduce
help to
ferret -this could help
the ferretthis
than
more than
of more
wastage of
presen t wastage
the present
supplies.
water supplies.
nation 's water
10% of the nation's
COMPUTING
PUT ING
COM
Phythe Phyby the
calculator shown by
Desk calculator
College,
Kings College,
of Kings
Depar tment of
sics Department
relatively
used relatively
University, used
Durham
Durha m University,
and
p-n-p and
circuits built round p-n-p
simple circuits
bi-dire ctiona l
transis tors,
transistors,
bi-direcdonal
n-p-n
cold-c athode
counte rs and cold-cathode
Dekatron
ron counters
Dekat
device
this device
of this
trigger tubes. A feature of
are
switches are
few switches
is that only very few
tubes
trigger tubes
needed,, since the trigger
needed
instruc and instrucnumbe rs and
(which set up numbers
accum ulator)
Dekat ron accumulator)
tions into the Dekatron
touchi ng aa
by touching
activa ted simply by
are activated
to
as to
so as
electrodes so
finger across two electrodes
curren t
extra current
bleed in a small extra
alread y
are already
(200/iA)) to the tube (they are
(200,u.A
biased nearly on).
by
determ ined by
(current
X time) being determined
nt X
(curre
stored.
being stored.
quanti ty being
analogue quantity
the analogue
to
be to
would be
Another
possible system would
Anoth er possible
degree
inform ation as the degree
store the information
store
magne tic
hard magnetic
of aa hard
magne tizatio n of
of magnetization
material.
material.
by
shown by
develo pment s shown
Film storage
storage developments
lowof lowPlessey related to the use of
to
films to
superc onduc ting films
temperature
tempe rature superconducting
of
directions of
the directions
inform ation as the
store information
contin'uously
numbe r of continuously
rotation
rot.arion of a number
curren ts
curren ts. These currents
circulating
ting currents.
circula
than
stabilized, and rather than
must be stabilized,
each
in each
do this by cutting a hole in
curren t
which current
eleme nt round which
storage
storage element
propos e simply
can circulate,
simply
circulate, Plessey propose
(renon-su percon ductin g (reto use the non-superconducting
each
inside each
genera ted inside
sistive)
sistive) region generated
of
action of
the action
curren t by the
circulating
circula ting current
film.
the film.
its magnetic
magnetic field on the
store
8 store
X8
an 88 x
showed an
G. V. Planer showed
magne tic
cylindrical magnetic
separa te cylindrical
using separate
to
on to
electro plated on
elemen ts electroplated
film elements
non-magnetic
non-m agneti c tubes.
shown
multip lier I divide r shown
gue multiplier/divider
Analogue
Analo
genera pulse generaof aa pulse
consists of
by Texas consists
modul ator:
chopp er modulator;
triggering a chopper
tor triggering
generpulse generthe pulse
to the
OQ.e input is fed to
one
p.r.f.,
its p.r.f.,
vary its
propor tionate ly vary
ator to proportionately
modul athe modulato the
fed to
is fed
and the second is
the
modul ates the
thus modulates
tor. One input
input thus
if
that if
shown that
other, and it can be shown
integr ated,
is integrated,
outpu t is
modul ated output
the modulated
shown
de- Dynamic
which, dediode- capaci tor store shown
obtained, which,
Dynam ic diode-capacitor
outpu t is obtained,
an output
prochop- by A.E.I,
norma l prothe chopthe normal
polarit y of
reverses the
A.E.I. reverses
pending
of the
pendin g on the polarity
elemen ts
propor tional cedure of using switching
switching elements
is proportional
waveform, is
per drive waveform,
form
the form
the to store the information
(in the
of the
ratio of
inform ation (in
produ ct or
either to the product
or ratio
or
condu cting or
wheth er they are conducting
of whether
inputs .
two inputs.
becouple beto couple
capacitors to
not) and capacitors
inform athe informado tween stages, by storing the
which do
systems which
storage systems
Analogue
Analo gue storage
no
or no
charge or
tors
capaci
tion
in
capacitors
(as
charge
diexpen
uous
cpntin
requir e the continuous
not require
expendi(as
cted
conne
)
I
charge)
which
are
connected
(as
charge
igated
invest
ture of power are being investigated
switchp-n-p- n switchshown) by a chain of p-n-p-n
Council. shown)
Resea rch Council.
Medic al Research
by the Medical
is
inform ation is
The information
.
diodes
ing
diodes.
dea
such
to
lent
equiva
t
neares
The nearest equivalent to such a dethe
to the
pulse to
e pulse
positiv
d
:
applied
as
a
positive
applie
le
availab
tly
presen
is
presently available
vice . which
inform ation
(Cl). This information
capaci tor (C,).
motor -drive ni first capacitor
appea r to be aa motor-driven
would appear
positive
applyi ng aa positive
applying
potentiometer,
potent iometer, but it would be diffi-- is then moved by the
capaci tor
same capacitor
same
transfe r pulse to
and1 transfer
small and
cult to make such a device small
across
voltage across
resulta nt voltage
Ini so that the resultant
quanti ty. In
in quantity.
enoug h for use in
cheap enough
the
voltage of the
it
exceeds
the
strike
voltage
s
exceed
;
it
the
il,
Counc
the
exhibi t shown by the Council, the
an exhibit
then
diode then
SD
n
^
p-n-p-n
diode
SD,.
This
diode
p-n-py
opacit
information
ation is stored as the opacity
inform
first
the first
from the
transfe rs the charge from
re-- transfers
be recan be
which can
of a thin metal film which
simiA simi(G 2 ). A
second (C,).
tor
i
capacitor
to
the
second
capaci
and
plated
ly
lytical
electro
ly
versibly
electrolytically
plated
and
versib
charge
this charge
transfe rs this
con-- lar .pulse then transfers
transp arent conunplated
unplat ed on to a transparent
the
on; the
so on;
and so
tor
capaci
e
to
the
third
capacitor
and
charge
ducting
ductin g base, the plating charge
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD , March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
1
INPUT
PULSE INPUT
STORAGE
STORAGE PULSE
SDntl
^n+l Dn+l\ SDr '-'lD1
t'
6
t------nm
SD
SDnn
fC
o
tunn~l-diode
T. tunml-diode
/.C.
I. C. 1.
read-out
reaJ-out amplifier.
Dn
-SUPPLY
Rz
SWITCHING
SWITCHING I
INPUT
INPUT (
~-----____)
TRANSFER PULSE INPUTS
TRANSFER PULSE INPUTS
store.
A..1. dynamic diode-capacitor store.
A../.
HOLD WINDINGS
HOLD WINDINGS
SET WINDINGS
chain
the chain
down the
charge travelling down
end
the end
If the
(from left to right). If
terminated
is terminated
(SDn)
p-n-p-n diode (SD
n) is
misforms aa misthis forms
in a resistor Rm, this
last
the last
of the
discharge of
match to the discharge
capacitor
this capacitor
capacitor so that this
This
charge. This
acquires a negative charge.
back
travels back
then travels
negative charge then
direcreverse directhe reverse
in the
down the chain in
when itit
If when
left). If
tion (from right to left).
trigger
capacitor, aa trigger
reaches the first capacitor,
diode
p-n-p-n diode
the p-n-p-n
pulse is applied to the
mismatchsimilar mismatchSD
SDn ++,1 through aa similar
capacitor
first capacitor
ing resistor, the first
misthis mischarges positively through this
charge
positive charge
match resistor. This positive
beas bechain as
the chain
then travels down the
inforThe inforfore (from left to right). The
continuously
mation thus remains continuously
ordinary
The ordinary
circulating in the line. The
preDn ++ ,)1 ) pre(D 1 . . . Dn
diodes shown (D,
causing
from causing
pulses from
vent the transfer pulses
p-n-p-n
the p-n-p-n
in the
Zener breakdown in
inas inthan as
rather than
diodes to .their left rather
the
over the
striking over
tended, from striking
right.
their right.
to their
p-n-p-n diodes to
shown
system shown
Character recognition system
Steel
and Steel
Iron and
by the British Iron
the
follows the
Association follows
Research Association
of
series of
character's curve in aa series
circular
mal<ing aa circular
equal-length steps, making
equal-length
the
determine the
to determine
each point to
scan at each
(Special
step. (Special
next step.
direction of the next
for
cater for
necessary to cater
rules are necessary
the
in the
breaks in
crossovers, cusps and breaks
charthe charcharacter.) This describes the
character.)
where ss
co-ordinates, where
acter in s, b'if co-ordinates,
the
and ^1/J the
is the distance along itit and
step
elementary step
angle between an elementary
the
If the
axis. If
reference axis.
length and a reference
to
proportional to
made. proportional
step length is made
(which
size (which
character size
the overall character
initial
an initial
by an
could be determined by
of
changes of
of changes
sequence of
scan) the sequence
intereven-numbere d interend and even-numbered

saturA saturrespectively. A
mediate rungs respectively.
set
the set
to the
applied to
is applied
ating pulse is
flux
example, flux
wire (producing, for example,
followed
shown) followed
in the directions shown)
flux
producing flux
pulse producing
input pulse
by an input
Laddie multi- in the opposite
OUTPUT
the
in the
direction in
direction
opposite
aperture device
produce
windings
rung:
first
rung;
the
hold
windings
produce
Mullard;
shown by Mullard.
set
the set
as the
direction as
flux in the .same direction
can
It can
rungs. It
winding in the even rungs.
will
current will
input current
be seen that the input
first
the first
through the
reverse the flux through
winding isis
be even rung whose hold
hold winding
will be
steps will
successive steps
direction of successive
output isis
the not energized. Thus
Thus an output
of the
similar for different forms of
windhold windthe hold
independent only produced if all the
be independent
same character and be
provides
This provides
un- ings are energized. This
An unsize. An
of its orientation and size.
function
OR function
An OR
recog- an AND function. An
be recogknown character can then be
several
winding several
measured may be obtained by winding
its measured
nized by normalizing its
nized
since
rung, since
each rung,
rota- hold windings on each
relative rotaeliminate relative
V-if; values to eliminate
the
hold the
to hold
sufficient to
of any one will be sufficient
squares of
the squares
tion, and summing the
provided
is provided
corres- rung. A fail-safe facility is
the correstheir differences from the
prevents
values: by the fact that any failure prevents
standard ^1/J values:
ponding various standard
produced.
being produced.
smallest an output from being
the smallest
giving the
the standard giving
being
difference being
summed squared difference
circuits
computer circuits
work Tunnel diode fast computer
Initial work
character. Initial
the unknown character.
and
Plessey and
I.C.T., Plessey
the were shown by I.C.T.,
of the
case of
the case
has shown that, in the
were
circuits were
Elliott circuits
scrawled Elliott. The Elliott
roughly scrawled
numerals, even roughly
num{'rals,
Goto
or Goto
Majoritron or
by built round the Majoritron
identified by
correctly identified
figures can be correctly
matched
of aa matched
consists of
am- pair. This consists
some amthis system, although some
series-conoppositely biased series-condrawn pair of oppositely
badly drawn
biguity arises between badly
like
acts like
and acts
nected tunnel diodes, and
6's, 9's and O's.
twoonly aa twois only
this is
Since this
a flip-flop. Since
driw
three-phase drive
devices terminal device, a three-phase
multi-aperture devices
Laddie " multi-aperture
" Laddie"
directhe direcfix the
to fix
Multi- input is necessary to
Mullard. Multiwere shown by Mullard.
when t~
transfer when
general tion of signal transfer
in general
consist in
aperture devices consist
connected
are connected
with aa number of Goto pairs are
core with
of a square-loop ferrite core
hybrid
used hybrid
Plessey used
by in cascade. Plessey
(threaded by
number of holes in itit (threaded
tran~
and trandiodes and
tunnel diodes
the circuits of tunnel
on the
depends on
coils).
coils). Their action depends
sistors.
tors.
volume sis
the volume
in the
fact that the switching in
read-out
simple read-out
I.C.T. showed a simple
depends
hole depends
individual hole
round an individual
discriminaflux amplifier and low-level discriminated flux
both on the locally-genera
locally-generated
from
output from
The output
as aa tor (see diagram). The
core as
the core
and on the flux in
in the
the
by the
integrated by
is integrated
interconnects the core store is
logically interconnects
whole. This
Th,is logically
switch
to switch
applied to
pro- inductor L and applied
coils prothe coils
in the
switching currents in
switching
inductance
The inductance
inter- the tunnel diode. The
this interand this
viding these fluxes, and
high
required high
the required
up can provide both the
build up
to build
be used to
. connection can be
and
diode and
tunnel diode
circuits, impedance for the tunnel
Such circuits,
computer circuits. Such
since
core, since
the core,
re- low impedance for the
and~. reslower and.
although possibly slower
much
is much
ency is
switchingfrequ
frequency
more the core switching
than more
power than
more_drive power
quiring more
The
diode. The
the diode.
less than that of the
are lesscircuits, are
conventional transistor circuits,
conventional
by
adjusted by
be adjusted
can be
level can
and triggering level
smaller and
more reliable, simpler, smaller
the
to the
bias to
standing bias
tht; standing
square-loop varying the
the square-loop
laddie the
lighter. In a laddie
Since
R22. Since
and R
R 1 and
by R,
ladder tunnel diode set by
of aa ladder
form of
in the form
material is in
integrated
the integrated
(see this diode is fed with the
rungs (see
of rungs
with an even number of
this
inductance, this
the inductance,
odd- output from the
interlinks oddwire interlinks
diagram): a set wire
transients
by transients
affected by
ladder, circuit is little affected
the ladder,
of the
numbered'
numbered side rails of
circuit.
the in the switching circuit.
coils the
hold coils
and input, output and hold
121
MARCH .1962
Wireless
1962
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
by
shown by
Rapid carry counter shown
saturof saturseries of
of a series
Plessey consists of
by
triggered by
gates triggered
transistor gates
ating transistor
Just
counters. Just
individual binary counters.
the individual
propabe propabefore a carry pulse has to be
counters
binary counters
gated the series of binary
corresthe corresopen the

which then show 11 open
the
that the
ponding series of gates so that
straight
propaga ted straight
is, propagated
carry pulse is,
at aa
than at
through the gates rather than
individual
via the individual
much slower speed via
counters..
counters
MEASUREMENT
TEST AND MEASUREMENT
was aa
generator. There was
Signal generator.
and
ble dearth of new signal and
remarkable
remarka
those
of those
generators, most of
pulse generators,
of
parts of
as parts
observed being used as
interesting
However, an interesting
exhibits. However,
Type
Dawe Type
instrume nt is the Dawe
new instrument
inThis inoscillator. This
six-decade oscillator.
423 six-decade
transistors,
strument,t, which uses transistors,
strumen
and
2Mc/s, and
covers the range 2c/s to 2Mc/s,
analogue
can also be used as an analogue
range.
this range.
frequencyy meter over this
frequenc
frequency
calibrated frequency
The normal calibrated
abits abby its
conspicuous by
control is conspicuous
throughout,
transistors throughout,
which uses transistors
to
up to
operatio n up
is capable of operation
eliminlOOMc/s,
s, which, of course, elimin100Mc/
frequency
ates any necessity for frequency
The
frequency. The
rs up to this frequency.
converters
convene
uses
decade uses
feed-forward decade
lOOMc/s
lOOMcjs feed-forward
transistor.
the 2N769 transistor.
capable
The number of counters capable
increased
operation has increased
of 10 Mc/s operation
and aa
enormously
enormously since last year, and
of
type of
this type
typical example of this
Thompnt is the Langham Thompinstrument
instrume
its
for its
son 6010/8, which is notable for
'^
^ itff
itself
which itself
amplifier, which
cable to the amplifier,
ohms.
100 ohms.
impedance of 100
has an input impedance
used,
are used,
amplification are
Two stages of amplification
being
one being
first one
the current gain of the first
of
impedance of
20 and the transfer impedance
The
the second being 5,000 ohms. The
form
the form
output of the second is in the
for
voltages for
symmetrical output voltages
of symmetrical
for
time-base for
the y-plates. The time-base
from aa
oscilloscope is derived from
the oscilloscope
of
collectors of
the collectors
capacitorr which is in the
capacito
Step
transistors. Step
complementary transistors.
two complementary
the
both the
to both
functions
functions are applied to
then
which then
transistors which
emitters of the transistors
both
into both
supply a constant current into
resultThe resultcapacitor. The
plates of the capacitor.
60V
symmetrical bOV
ing wave form is a symmetrical
which isis
, ramp of 30nsec duration which
x-plates.
the x-plates.
symmetrically to the
applied symmetrically
the
to the
functions applied to
stt:p functions
The step
by
generated by
transistor
transistor emitters are generated
transistor stages.
avalanche
avalanche transistor
the
by the
shown by
oscilloscope shown
An oscilloscope
sensilow sensiU.K.A.E.A.
U.K.A.E.A. is a high speed low
y-sensitivity
with a y-sensitivity
instrume nt with
tivity instrument
magnetically
20kV magnetically
kV /em and a 20kV
of 11 kV/cm
transisor transisfocused tube. No valves or
CR
spark-gap CR
tors are used and aa spark-gap
time
the time
used for the
discharge
discharge circuit is used
of
metres of
15 metres
by 15
base. Signal delay is by
and
helical-membrane
embrane coaxial cable, and
helical-m
two
by two
effected by
is effected
y-deftection is
the y-deflection
c.r.t.,
the c.r.t.,
wires running through the
line.
2000 line.
forming a balanced 20011
shown
oscillator shown
Six-decade oscillator
Above: Six-decade
by Dawe. Left-hand indicator isis
frequency meter.
radiationAutomatic aerial radiationLeft: Automatic
Left;
Barr
pattern recorder seen on the Barr
and Stroud stand.
by
indicate d by
frequency is indicated
sence; frequency
stability
amplitud e stability
Improve d amplitude
meter. Improved
modified
of aa modified
by the use of
is achieved by
frequency,
determin e frequency,
Wien bridge to determine
fretwo-gang frein which the normal .two-gang
by aa
quency control is replaced by
the
At the
resistor. At
single variable resistor.
decade
frequency end of each decade
lowest frequency
meter
frequency meter
the accuracy of the frequency
timesof aa timesimprove d by the use of
is improved
multiplier.
sensitivity multiplier.
three
three- sensitivity
now
is now
measure ment is
Frequency
cy measurement
Frequen
of
province of
almost entirely the province
counters,
or counters,
frequency-meters or
digital frequency-meters
and
accuracy and
which offer extreme accuracy
adAn adoperation. An
simplicityy of operation.
simplicit
the
vanced instrument
this type isis the
ins~rument of .this
Venner
high speed counter which Venner
development.
Electronics
Electronics have under development.
instrume nt,
this instrument,
The first decade of this
pushA pushmechanical design. A

pleasing mechanical
employed,
button function selector is employed,
the
positions the
automatically positions
which automatically
controls
edgewise controls
decimal point, and edgewise
cycling
and cycling
display-time and
are used for display-time
the
extend the
time adjustment.
adjustment. To extend
normal
frequencyy range below the normal
frequenc
trigger
plug-in trigger
limit of 20c/s a small plug-in
low
converts low
unit is available which converts
pulses-.
frequencies
ies to pulses.
frequenc
oscilloscopes
wide-ba nd oscilloscope
A sensitive wide-baud
byr
exhibited by
was exhibited
transisto rs was
using transistors
Northi
of North
College of
Univers ity College
the University
am-transisto r current amWales. Two transistor
im-series imwith aa series
plifiers are used with
pro-to proprobe to
pedance in the sensing probe
Sensi-input. Sensivide constant current input.
upperr
the upper
100mV /em and the
tivity is lOOmV/cm
Thee
100Mc/ s. The
frequency is lOOMc/s.
cut-off frequency
10001
by aa 10011
probe output is coupled by
the
in the
Resistance-tolerance
ce-tolerance testing in
Resistan
resistors isis
producti on of resistors
le production
large-scale
large-sca
InstruCambrid ge Instruthe Cambridge
facilitated
facilitated by the
of
consists of
Deviom eter which consists
ment Deviometer
from aa
resistance bridge, supplied from
a resistance
aman amvia an
oscillator via
thousand cycle oscillator
test isis
under test
compon ent under
plifier. The component
standwith aa standcomparedd in the bridge with
compare
voltunbalance voltard value resistor; any unbalance
amstable amamplified by a very stable
age is amplified
phase-sensitive
plifier, detected by a phase-sensitive
moving
on aa moving
rectifier and indicated on
perin percalibrate d in
coil meter which is calibrated
of
output of
deviation. The output
centage deviation.
to aa
amplifier is fed to
the power amplifier
points
number of pre-set tapping points
give aa
to give
selected to
which can be selected
%
tolerance
tolerance range of between 11%
the
in the
unbalan ce in
to 50%.
50%. Gross unbalance
outthe outbridge causes no damage as the
scale
full scale
1SO% full
put circuit limits at 150%
deflection.
deflection.
of
maximu m reading of
With a maximum
Range
MD the Pye Wide .Range
200,000,000
200,000,000 MH
the
suitable for the
Megohmmeter
meter is suitable
Megohm
capaciin capaciresistance in
measurement
measuremc:nt of resistance
obSOOV supply isis obtors or cables. A 500V
converter
transisto r converter
tained from a transistor
unknow n
the unknown
across the
and applied across
passing
current passing
resistance.
resistance. The current
develops aa
resistance develops
through the resistance
lowcomparatively lowvoltage across a comparatively
voltage
this voltage
value reference
reference resistor, this
extremely
an extremely
by an
amplified by
being amplified
feedback
d.c. feedback
stable d.c.
linear and gain stable
1962
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
122
electroone electroamplifier, which uses one

To
transistors. To
meter valve and two transistors.
the
measuring the
prevent error when measuring
or
capacitors or
of capacitors
leakage resistance of
which
cables, a device is incorporated which
reading isis
the reading
.before the
ensures that .before
charged.
taken all capacitance is charged.
to
Designed to
Noise-level analysis: Designed
annoyance
of annoyance
assess the amount of
Dawe
the Dawe
caused by a given sound, the
numthe numrecords the
Statistical Analyser records
Statisdcal
pre-set
signal exceeds pre-set
ber of times a signal
slowly
or slowly
a.c. or
levels. Either rectified a.c.
to
applied to
be applied
varying d.c. may be
applied
the. instrument. The signal applied
the.
where
circuit where
is fed to a sampling circuit
adjustable
an adjustable
samples are extracted at an
samples
of samples
number of
rate, the total number
counter.
taken being indicated on aa counter.
coincidence
to aa coincidence
Each sample is fed to
one
is one
which is
gate, the other input of which
any
If any
levels. If
pre-selected levels.
of three pre-selected
exceeded aa
one of these levels is exceeded
preassociated prepulse is applied to the associated
set counter.
patterns
Plotting of aerial radiation patterns
basis
point basis
by point
on the traditional point by
any
process; any
is a long-drawn-out process;
obtedium isis obmethod of reducing the tedium
accordviously to be applauded, and accordprohave proStroud have
ingly Barr and Stroud
pattern
radiation pattern
duced an automatic radiation
modulsquare-wave modulrecorder. The square-wave
microrotating microated signal from a rotating
to
wave aerial is frequency-changed to
of
give an intermediate frequency of
amplifier
an amplifier
via an
60Mc/s and passed via
output
The output
to a piston attenuator. The
servo
by aa servo
handled by
of the attenuator is handled
attenuator
the attenuator
amplifier which sets the
outconstant outautomatically to give constant
controlled
servo controlled
put. Linked to the servo
attenuapiston attenuamotor
rr.otor which drives the piston
which is
pen, which
tor is a recording pen,
is
readgive aa readtherefore positioned to give
aerial.
the aerial.
at the
signal at
ing of received signal
the
with the
rotates with
The plotting table rotates
and
aerial giving a polar diagram and
A
dB. A
in dB.
aerial response indicated in
may
response may
cartesian plot of aerial response
obtained.
also be obtained.
MICROWAVES
Royal
the Royal
Pulsed lasers shown by the
the
and the
Radar Establishment and
built
National Physical Laboratory built
by
radiation by
up stimulated light radiation
the
between the
multiply reflecting it between
cylinder
of aa cylinder
ends of
silvered ends
partially silvered
(For aa
material. (For
of suitable solid material.
the
see the
method see
fuller account of this method
our
of our
Section of
Technical Notebook Section
probOne probDecember 1960 issue.) One
suffipump suffito pump
lem in this system is to
the
from the
solid from
the solid
cient light into the
at
and at
used, and
pulse discharge tube used,
focusoptical focusthis exhibition several optical
doing
for doing
shown for
ing methods were shown
gain
the gain
powers the
pump powers
this. At high pump
oscillamay be sufficient to produce oscillain

reflections in
tion after only a few reflections
outconsiderable outthe material, and considerable
unwanted
in unwanted
put may be produced in
reflecdirections by slightly non-axial refleceffect
this effect
tions. A way of avoiding this
unan unuse an
to use
shown by the N.P.L. isis to
of
end of
one end
silvered cylinder at one
reflectfully reflectwhich is placed a fully
ing mirror covered with a diaphragm
the
at the
it: at
in it:
with a small hole in
lens
cylinder aa lens
other end of the cylinder
light
of light
beam of
focuses a parallel beam
mirror
partially':"reflecting mirror
from a partially-reflecting
Since
hole . . Since
diap~Tagm hole.
on to the diaphragm
hole
this hole
through this
only light passing through
light
this light
only this
can be re-reflected, only
output.
laser output.
path can result in laser
L -band
oscillator L-band
Tunnel diode local oscillator
Since
Plessey. Since
source was shown by Plessey.
depends
swing depends
the available voltage swing
outpower outthe power
on the diode material, the
increasing
put can only be raised by increasing
reduces
this reduces
the diode current, and this
powers
the powers
At the
the diode impedance. At
this
oscillator, this
local oscillator,
required for a local
loadthat loadimpedance becomes so low that
oscillaparasitic oscillaing problems and parasitic
of
solution of
Plessey's solution
tions are likely. Plessey's
connect
to connect
simply to
this difficulty is simply
biasing
the tunnel diodes and their biasing
resistors in series.
range
generator range
Klystron signal generator
that
in that
shown by Flann is unusual in
both
tunes both
suitably tunes
a single control suitably
reflector
its reflector
the klystron cavity and its
complivoltage. Rather than use aa complisystem
cated mechanical ganging system
reand rebetween the cavity plunger and
required
flector voltage controls, the required
the
between the
non-linear relationship between
reflector
and reflector
cavity plunger position and
placing
by placing
simply by
voltage is obtained simply
rethe reof the
a shunt across one arm of
potentiometer
flector voltage supply potentiometer
reand aa re(in series with the wiper) and
this
of this
end of
each end
sistor in series with each
resispotentiometer. The two
two end resison
microswitches on
tors are changed by microswitches
becomes
the main control when it becomes
klystron
necessary to use another klystron
voltage mode.
shown
were shown
Strip line components were
comSuch comElliott. Such
Cossor and Elliott.
being
of being
ponents have the advantages of
compact
relatively broadband and compact
and
complicated), and
(particularly when complicated),
printed-circuit
when produced by printed-circuit
the
offer the
p hoto-etching techniques offer
'photo-etching
of
order of
high order
of high
further advantages of
by
~y
lowPlessey tunnel diode lowpower microwave source.

source.
across
Four diodes in series .across
aa parallel plate
plate resonator
used.
are used.
indiCator.
standing-wave indicator.
Mullard dielectric line standing-wave
National Physical Laboratory

laser oscillator (left)
(/eft) with
prototype amplifier (right).
123
1962
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
perform ance
reproducibility
in
performance
cibility
reprodu
cost.
and cost.
weight and
coupled with low weight
" trithe "triin the
were in
The lines shown were
strip
central strip
plate"
plate " form which has aa central
An
betweenn two ground planes. An
betwee
one
on one
strip on
ive is to etch aa strip
alternat
alternative
unthis unbut this
laminat e, but
side of a clad laminate,
both
suffers both
balance
balancedd form of line suffers
losses.
dielectric losses.
radiatio n and dielectric
from radiation
nonto nondue to
effects due
The losses and effects
which
dielectric which
ities in the dielectric
uniformities
uniform
strip
the strip
when the
arise in triplate lines when
solid
of aa solid
centre of
support ed in the centre
is supported
elimina ted
ic can be almost eliminated
dielectric
dielectr
making
and making
air-dielectric and
by using an air-dielectric
of
form of
the form
in the
conduc tor in
the central conductor
sides
opposite sides
two strips etched on opposite
since
septum, since
support ing septum,
of a thin supporting
this
in this
lie in
fields lie
then only fringing fields
septum..
septum
by
shown by
nents shown
ric line -compo
Dielectric
components
Dielect
region
mm-wave region
Mullard for the mm-wave
propaga ted
mode propagated
HE 11 mode
utilize the HE,,
rod.
dielectric rod.
near the surface of dielectric
advantage
components offer the advantage
Such components
contheir conthan their
of being much larger than
counter parts.
wave-guide counterparts.
ventional
vention al wave-guide
probe-t ype
Examples
Exampl es shown were aa probe-type
high-Q
indicato r and high-Q
standing-wave
g-wave indicator
standin
simconsisted simresonator.
resonat or. The latter consisted
between
plates between
reflecting plates
ply of two reflecting
line.
dielectric line.
stretche d aa dielectric
which was stretched
number
of aa number
out of
By making the line out
elongat ed
an elongated
given an
of fibres it can be given
cross-section.
ction. For a given field
cross-se
and
area and
cross-sectional area
spread the cross-sectional
then
are then
dielectric are
thus the loss in the dielectric
peakgerman ium as well as a better peakcross-section, germanium

less than with a circular cross-section,
tempera ture
h ratio. Top temperature
to-trough
to-troug
of
Q's
allows
ue
techniq
and this technique allows Q's of
0
this
above this
l20CCabove
The for these is about 120
4mm. The
at 4mm.
achieved at
90,000 to be achieved
trouble.
s
contact
the
indium
contacts
give
trouble.
of
consisted of
indicato r consisted
standing-wave
g-wave indicator
standin
partially-reflecting
a pair of crossed partially-reflecting
subdetecto rs for subPhotoconductive
nductiv e detectors
die- Photoco
spaced dieof spaced
up of
made up
fiat ""mirro
flat
mirrorsrs"" made
made
be
n
radiatio
tre
millimetre
radiation
could
be
made
millime
beline
ic
dielectr line bethreads : the dielectric
lectric threads:
antimon ide:
each with very pure indium antimonide:
threadin g each
45 o to and threading
ing at 45
of
antimon ide of
unfortu nately indium antimonide
equal unfortunately
r." The mirrors reflect equal
""mirro
mirror."
available.
not available.
is not
d
require
the
required
purity
is
to
g
travellin
powers
the
of
s
portions
travelling to
portion
field
magnet ic field
applica tion of aa magnetic
summin g The application
on summing
line; on
and fro -along
along the line;
to
cooling to
and cooling
any of about 6,000 gauss and
detecto r any
portion s in a detector
these portions
reduce
however, reduce
2 OK can, however,
about 2K
indicated.
standingg waves are indicated.
standin
neighbo uring
interaction
interact ion between neighbouring
obies in the purest samples obimpurities
impurit
by
shown by
compon ents shown
Waveguide
Wavegu ide components
the
_the
tainable
to
the
point
where
direct- photoconductive
of directinclude d ranges of
Sanders included
photoco nductiv e effects can be obmatche d served, not only at sub-millimetre
waveme ters, short matched
reading wavemeters,
sub-mil limetre
(llOdB) wavelengths
high-isolation (UOdB)
loads and high-isolation
1-lOmm
wavelengths but in the l-10mm
high
the high
switches, the
as
is as
switches.
time is
switches. In the switches,
Response time
region
also.
Response
abby abachieved simply by
isolationn is achieved
isolatio
l.u.sec.
short as Imscc.
rather
the
materia l on the rotor, rather
R.R.E. the
sorbing material
by R.R.E.
detecto r shown by
In a detector
This sensitive
resonan t chokes.
liquid
at liquid
than by resonant
This
held at
elemen t is held
sensitive element
advanta ge helium temperature,
addition al advantage
1.5 K.
method has the additional
tempera ture, about 1.5K.
sees aa The use of a permanent
magnet ,
that the isolated section sees
perman ent magnet,
matche d though, has the disadvantage
that
bly good match. The matched
reasonably
disadva ntage that
reasona
nor- the stored heat boils
the norlarge
off aa large
loads can be made about it the
boils off
perfor- amount of helium before stability is
same perforthe same
is
mal length (for the
absor- reached
tapered absorof
man~e) by using two tapered
mance)
reached.. Instead a solenoid of
normal niobium wire (which superconducts
the normal
superco nducts
bent wedges rather than the
wave- at liquid helium temperature)
reading waveis
tempera ture) is
one. In the direct reading
piston used, and a current,
cavity piston
started,
hyperbolic cavity
once started,
meters the hyperbolic
current , once
re- continues
the reinto the
the
convert ed into
ent is converted
movement
movem
indefinitely. Starting the
continu es indefinitely.
by current is, however,
so,
movem ent by
difficulty, so,
however, a difficulty,
quired linear drive movement
about aa to provide a finite resistance
insuresistance "" insumeans of a wedge pivoted about
of lator" in the zero-resistance
one of
of one
coil, aa
projecti on of
zero-resistance coil,
point on the projection
one segmen
on one
to aa
subjecte d to
its sides: the drive bears on
segmentt of the coil is subjected
cavity strong momentary
the cavity
magnet ization
momen tary magnetization
side of the wedge and the
the
destroy the
to destroy
piston on the other.
from a " quench " coil to
superconductive
superco nductiv e effect.
develop ment
Transistor
Transis tor and diode development
following
been following
the main, been
has,
in
SEMICONDUCTORS
COND UCTO RS
SEMI
the
thus the
paths already laid down; thus
improv ements
news here is more of improvements
through ":
very than of new ""breaks
so aa very
illumination, so
breaksthrough
to is affected by illumination,
prove to
arsenid e may well prove
Gallium arsenide
wide;the widecir- typical _examples
oscillator cirexamples were the
light-sensitive oscillator
future: simple light-sensitive
the future:
of the
semicon ductor of
be the semiconductor
and
circuits and
solid circuits
impors
most
example
d.
examples
of
solid
spread
produce
cuit
is
produced.
Two
most
imporrange
wide
a
with
d
prepare with a wide range
it can be prepared
of
ion
applicat
ce's
substan
mesa
devices.
The
application
of
ies
propert
properties
are
the
substance
s
tant
"norfrom " norranging from
resistivities ranging
of resistivities
Texas,
is
which
ues
techniq
ture
techniques
has
given
Texas,
mesa
tempera
upper
temperature
limit,
which
is
at
to at
up to
semicon ductor up
mal" for a semiconductor
diode,
high for example,
" micro-G " diode,
as high
(possibly as
example, the "micro-G"
typical very much higher (possibly
is aa typical
which is
lMOjcm which
least IMH/cm
resistance
back resistance
the which has a 40-Mn
and the
40-MO
silicon
back
o C) than silicon
as
300
or
400
C)
and
ls
materia
p
ergy-ga
high-en
value for high-energy-gap
materials
long
0.06-in long
be at 10V
can be
lOV and is only about 0.06-in
this ease with which solid circuits can
In this
sulphide. In
cadmiu m sulphide.
such as cadmium
r.
diamete
in
can
form
ng
insulati
by
about
0.04-in
in
diameter.
The
up.
insulating form can
to made
arsenid e is referred to
form gallium arsenide
fruits
be G.E.C. were showing some fruits
can be
and can
te,
substra
be
used
as
the
substrate,
and
unlike
but
ng";
nsulati
as ""semi-i
semi-insulatingbut unlike
co-oper ation "
technical co-operation"
epitaxial of their " technical
provide d with epitaxial
high doped and provided
has aa high
it has
semi-in sulators"" it
other
" semi-insulators
other"
fast)
(U.S.A.
gallium
G.E.
(U.S.A.)
in
three faste,
with
arsenid
of
gallium
arsenide,
gallium
layers
used
carrier mobility
mobility and thus can be used
carrier
Types
ors
transist
g
switching
mesa
transistors
Types
switchin
ium
german
phosphide
and
germanium
with
comalso phosph ide
but also
photo-r esistors but
not only for photo-resistors
High
2N7110. High
most 2N705, 2N710 and 2N7110.
is most
materia l is
parative ease. The material
de- parative
such deother such
transist ors and other
for transistors
province
frequencies
are
not
the
sole
province
cies
.
frequen
S.E.R.L
useful
for
tunnel
diodes
too:
S.E.R.L.
Renics
Electro
Services Electronics Revices. The Services
epi2Sl31 epi(Texas 2S131
junction of the mesa type (Texas
small junction
showing point out that a very small
L aborato ry were showing
search 'Laboratory
/s)
230Mc
of
toxial,
200mW
output
at
230Mc/s)
use
taxial,
the
by
d
obtaine
be
obtained by the use of
gal- area can
of galapplications of
expected applications
some expected
successfully
the thoughMullard
though -Mulla rd have successfully
both
forms,
without
making
the
ect
field-eff
a
as
such
,
lium arsenide,
field-effect
arsenide
techalloy-diffusion techpractical. adapted their alloy-diffusion
ly too fragile to be practical.
assembly
lkc/s, assemb
at Ikc/s,
oscillator running at
device oscillator
of
capable of
nique
to
give
devices
capable
e
arsenid
Experimental
gallium
arsenide
tunental
Experim
A
too. A
ones too.
unexpe cted ones
and some unexpected
dec/s.
l,OOOM
operation
at
l,000Mc/s.
These
den
operatio
A.E.I.
by
shown
were
by A.E.I,
re- nel diodes
property
arsenidee "" repropert y of a gallium .arsenid
transistors, whose bases
velopment
ent transistors,
ob- velopm
curves obcompar ison of the curves
instance , that it departs also: comparison
sistor " is, for instance,
were
wide, were
t.u. wide,
of if
of the order of
are
ium
german
with
those
for
germanium
tained
oscilwill
and
behavio ur
will oscilfrom ohmic behaviour
factor
a noise factor
giving
demonstrated
trated
demons
of
ce
resistan
e
negativ
show
a
negative
resistance
region
of
show
about
late if a field of more than about
lGc/s aa
815Mc /s. At IGc/s
for of 6.8dB at 815Mc/s.
that for
of that
frequen cy about twice the extent of
applied. The frequency
200V/cm
I em is applied.
200V
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
124
insulati on
capsula ted in thermal insulation
pieces capsulated
pole pieces
ic field applied by pole
magnetic
magnet
conto conarrange d to
junction s arranged
rotating with cold junctions
and aa rotating
faces, and
at four of the faces,
can
As can
cooled. As
four tact the device to be cooled.
the four
electric field is applied at the
the
photogr aph the
be
seen
from
the
photograph
bt!
a
then
faces,
these
edges between
faces, then a
Frigistors
are
shaped
to
match
rs
Frigisto
appear
vector-multiplied
vector-m ultiplied output will appear
and
transist ors in Type T03 cans and
between the two free faces. A.E.I.'s transistors
fixing.
centre- stud fixing.
carried diodes having a centre-stud
Laborat ory's stand carried
Researchh Laboratory's
Researc
0.33V.
17A, 0.33V.
of Cooling rate is 3-4W at 17A,
method of
this method
an exhibit in which this
for
used
was
multipl ication was used for
vector multiplication
vector
semiemissio n from cold semiElectro n emission
pro- Electron
to protranslat ion to
frequen cy translation
direct frequency
june..:
reverse -biased p-n juncconduc tor reverse-biased
carrier conductor
the carrier
duce a s.s.b. signal, with the
Hirst
G .E. C. Hirst
the G.E.C.
and tions was shown by the
coils and
(about 20kc/s) fed to the coils
bias
with aa bias
Researc h Centre. Even with
vectors Research
the vectors
the a.f. to the edges. If
If the
field
high
very
only
a
few
volts,
a
very
high
field
of
outthe
n
directio the outrotate in the same direction
junction .
p-n junction.
produce d across the p-n
(one is produced
frequen cy (one
ce frequency
put is the differen
difference
electron s
free electrons
accelera tes any free
contra- rotation This accelerates
sideband)
sideban d) whereas contra-rotation
only
would only
velocities which would
sideban d). there to velocities
other sideband).
gives the sum (the other
semithe semid
obtaine
be
obtained
by
heating
the
d
achieve
be
can
y,
naturall
be achieved
Detecti on, naturally,
fhermoe/eSemiconductor ThermoeleIDetection,
Two of Semiconductor
several
tempera tures of several
conductor
tor if temperatures
input conduc
a.f. input
device -the a.f.
for
Frigistors "'' designed for
merits
fcby the same devicethe
ments " Frigistors
were
degrees were
of degrees
thousan ds of
of thousands
tens
output.
ls
and
terminals
just
become
a.f.
output.
rs
termina
transisto
power
transistors and
t
cooling of
begeneral , bein general,
nately, in
Unfortu
used.
Unfortunately,
t
resultan
Combination
of
the
two
resultant
ation
Combin
C
diodes.
be
can be
s can
electron
"
hot
"
fore
such
"hot"
electrons
phasethe
in
signals,
a.f.
quadrature
in the phasecquadrat ure
through
,
emitted,
they
have
to
pass
through
emitted
produce
to
network s used to produce
obtaine d. sshift networks
be obtained,
can be
tage can
gain of 10dB/s
lOdB/stage
lose
to lose
tend to
n-regio n where they tend
modula tion, the n-region
quadrat ure signals for modulation,
too, cquadrature
techniq ues, too,
assembl y techniques,
Planar assembly
colin colenergy in
all of their energy
or
some
.
.
process
es
completes
the
process.
complet
here c
limits : here
frequen cy limits:
help to raise frequency
made
is made
n-regio n is
lisions,
even
if
the
n-region
tranthe tranof the
compon ent parts of
the component
howeve r,
by very thin. This does not, however,
semicon ductors by
Cooling of semiconductors
form 'Cooling
the form
in the
sistor are laid down in
juncthe
of
apply
around
the
edge
of
the
juncwith
Peltier-effect
effect devices is easy with
of IPeltierof very narrow ""stripe
stripess "" of
immedi ately
tion
where
electron s can immediately
where electrons
tion
Semiby
ents
compon
two
components
shown
by
Semithick,
lO,u thick, 1
material,
materia l, usually about 10r
consequ ently
Named be emitted with aa consequently
Thermo elemen ts. Named
conduc tor Thermoelements.
wide (conductor
1,u wide
as 1m
7/i long and as little as
7p.
much
greater
energy.
inuch
encouples
are
these
are couples enFrigisto rs,"
Volt- " Frigistors,"
Plessey). VoltFerrant i and Plessey).
(G.E.C.
(G.E.C.,, Ferranti
rising- Lucas,
are risingLucas,
too are
age ratings too
n-p-n
instance, were showing aa n-p-n
for instance,
which
transist or for which
silicon power transistor
silicon
collecto r-voltag e
they claimed aa collector-voltage
DEVIC ES
THERMIONIC
THER MION IC DEVICES
SOW).
(dissipa tion SOW).
rating of 500 (dissipation
could
this could
magnet ic fields: this
elec- easily by magnetic
for elecby Experimental
caused by
Experim ental storage tube for
Voltage surge onset caused
difficult
render
the
use
of
the
tube
difficult
by
shown
uses trical read-in and -out was shown by
which uses
equipm ent which
switching
switchin g in equipment
field
stray field
the stray
convers ion as the
double- ended for scan conversion
Century .
Of double-ended
semiconductors,
ductors , can have results 20th Century.
semicon
readupset readmight upset
sid_e might
of
the
read-in
side
tube
ly
ruinous
construction,
a
feature
of
this
tube
ction,
being
constru
from
which, apart
being ruinously
high-ve locity
Conseq uently the- high-velocity
potentia lly out. Consequently
and potentially
the is its great flexibility
turn the
flexibility and
calculat ed to turn
expensive,
expensi ve, are calculated
read-ou t is
image-iconoscope
type
of
read-out
pe
conosco
is
ima-se-i
gun
e
c.r.t.-lik gun is
luna- high resolution.
raving lunaresoluti on. A c.r.t.-like
enginee r into aa raving
soberestt engineer
soberes
for
needed for
voltages needed
used-t he higher voltages
is usedthe
which is
signal, which
series used to read-in the signal,
disastro us series
this disastrous
tic. To avoid this
potentia ls
as potentials
ntage as
disadva
this
are
no
disadvantage
two
the
a
d
designe
have
stored
on
a
target
between
the
two
A.E.I. have designed a
of events A.E.I,
are
read-ou t are
sufficient for read-out
target more than sufficient
the target
in the
tunnel guns by conduction
using tunnel
conduct ion in
detecto r using
voltage surge detector
target
The
gun.
used
on
the
read-in
gun.
The
target
dment
bombar
attenu- caused by electron bombardment
diodes. The surge voltage isis attenuCentury have
20th Century
unusual : 20ih
have
This itself is unusual:
beam. This
sup- from the high-sp
eed beam.
swing . suphigh-speed
ated and the positive swing.
only
riot only
for not
ed
developed
a
means
develop
other
the
on
being
pulse
e
negativ
the
causes
charges
to
appear
on
the
other
,
pressed,
negative pulse being
pressed
doing
making
it
very
thin,
but
also
doing
making
f
read-of
are
diode,
which
tunnel
target,
the
which are read-off
then applied to a tunnel diode, side of the'
resoluti on-limi ting
camera - away with the resolution-limiting
pQint by an assembly
unlike aa camerastable point
assembly not unlike
biased past the upper
upper stable
handle,
(like aa support mesh. The tube can handle,
nega- tube. A low-velocity
beam (like
the negasupply. If
low-velocity beam
by a variable supply.
If the
wcrrking
of working
ent of
adjustm
merely
by
adjustment
has
bias
this
the
exceeds
pulse
vidicon)
could
be
used,
but
this
has
surge
tive
pulse exceeds the bias
soot-an dhalf-ton e or " soot-andconditio ns, half-tone
affected conditions,
switche d the disadvantage
is switched
being affected
of being
diode is
disadva ntage of
voltage the tunnel diode
the
and the
point, and
to the lower stable point,
is
switche d is
has switched
fact that the diode has
collector
the collector
in the
indicated
indicate d by a meter in
amplifier.
transist or amplifier.
of a transistor
Hall-effect
Hall-eff ect devices are usually
multipl icaarrangedd to give scalar multiplicaarrange
of
y-axis of
the y-axis
say, the
tionan
tion-a n input to, say,
x-axis
the x-axis
at the
elemen t will appear at
an element
field
magnet ic field
proport ion to the magnetic
in proportion
Howeve r,
applied in the z-axis. However,
generat ion
single-sideband
ideband signal generation
single-s
multipl ivector multipliachieve d by vector
can be achieved
devices 20th Century high-resolution
high-resolution
Hall-eff ect devices
cation, to which Hall-effect
electrical
ele- storage
storage tube for electrical
cube-sh aped eleare suited. If a cube-shaped
read
out.
rotating
a
with
ed
employ
is
ment
employed with a rotating
tube with phosphor

"Pipe"
" Pipe " tube
projection
on metal plate for projection
(Rank-Cintel).
systems
systems (Rank-Cintel).
125
MARCH 1962
WORLD , March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
whitewash"
whitewash " only. Its uses, of course,
are legion: in addition to scan conversion, bandwidth compression, improvement of signal-to-noise ratio by
integration of repetitive phenomena
and analysis of transients are just aa
few.
>
Split-beam c.r.ts provide a convenient means of producing doubledoublebeam facilities on a c.r.o. without
without
disadvantages.
beam - switching
disadvantages,
Usually, though, only asymmetric deflection is possible with a split-beam
tube: new development-type tubes
from Electronic Tubes Ltd. have the
beam divided at the final anode and
bent so that a pair of miniature yyplates can be provided for
for each
beam, thus allowing symmetrical deflection.
Increasing c.r.t. beam current to
obtain high brightness heats up the
phosphor, so reducing its efficiency:
it is even possible to
to "" burn
burn ," aa hole
hole
through a glass
glass faceplate
faceplate ifif the
the beam
beam
is allowed to rest
rest on one
one point.
point. In
In
a "pipe
" pipe "-shaped
"-shaped tube
tube by
by RankRankCintel the phosphor is
is coated
coated on
on to
to aa
metal plate which
which provides
provides better
better
cooling
cooling than
than can
can glass
glass so
so that
that mean
mean
cathode currents up to lmA
1mA at 30kV
e.h.t. may
may be used.
used. It
It isis thus
thus necesnecessary to view
view the display
display through
through aa
window
" of
window in
in the "bowl
"bowl"
of the
the tube
tube
which forms
forms aa valuable
valuable light
light shield.
shield.
Naturally, trapezium
trapezium correction
correction isis
as is focus-current
focus-current modumodunecessary, as
lation. This
This tube
tube isis made,
made, as
as isis ananvery high mechanical
mechanical prepreother of very
cision, by "sticking together"
together" the
the
pans with aa powdered
powdered glass
glass
"cement"
" cement" of
of melting
melting point
point high
high
allow satisfactory
satisfactory outoutenough to allow
gassing but
but low
low enough
enough to
to avoid
avoid disdisgassing
tortion of optically-worked comperaait the
the joining
joining of
of
ponents and permit
materials of differing
differing coefficients
coefficients of
of
materials
expansion.
MEDICAL AND BIOLOGICAL ELECTRONICS

A receiver designed to accept information from frequency-modulated
radio pills was shown by Electronic
Instruments in conjunction with
Solartron, and takes the form
form of a
double superhet f.m. receiver. The
r.f. signal of between 300 and 600
kc/s is amplified and an i.f. of 1.6
Me/
Mc/ss mixed with the output of a beat
frequency oscillator. The resulting
frequency is converted into constant
area pulses and frequency discriminated by a diode pump integrator.
A transistor forming part of the resistor leg of the diode pump R.C. network is cut off by a second diode
pump if transmission ceases, the
charge remaining on the storage
capacitor being held constant and
used to operate a recorder.
The need to collect data from
from
animals and human beings in free
movement has led to a number of
numature telemetry transmitters.
miniature
transmitters,
However, because of the smallness
of many physiological voltages these
have required separate amplifiers and
modulators. The Bio-Engineering
Laboratory of the Medical Research
Council has developed an Lm.
f.m. transmitter which can be directly modulated by physiological phenomena producing lmV
ImV and over. The transmitter uses the voltage capacitance
capadtance
characteristic of a silicon junction'
junction
diode to modulate an 80Mc/s oscil50kc/s/mV.
lator with a sensitivity of SOkc/s/mV.
Depending on the nature of the sig-
transmitted up
up to
to three
three
nals being transmitted
quantities can
can be
be handled
handled by
by one
one.
channel.
Pulse-rate measurement,
measurement, which
which can
can
be reliably carried out
out at
at low
low cost
cost in
in
the operating
operating theatre
theatre isis the
the aim
aim of
of
the Burndept Body
Body Pulse
Pulse Meter.
Meter. The
The
transducer consists
consists of
of aa carbon
carbon
pressure pad which
which isis pressed
pressed against
against
the terminal
terminal phalanx
phalanx of
of any
any finger
finger
Pulse rate meter by Burndept, showing carbon transducer.

or thumb. The pressure changes due
10 the
to
d16 pulse
pulse causes
causes varying
varying resistance
resistance
in
the
transducer
which
is
in the
transducer
which
is connected
connected
a
in
in a resistance
resistance bridge,
bridge, aa meter
meter conconnected
in
nected
in the
the bridge
bridge circuit
circuit providing
providing
a
a continuous
continuous reading
reading of
of pulse
pulse rate.
rate.
If the pulse meter is used in conjunction with a sphygnamometer the
equipment can also be used for blood
pressure measurement.
Designed for such applications as
Designed tor such applications as
rapid tissue and cell disintegration
and disruption, bacterial activity
stimulation, the
the acceleration
acceleration of
of enenstimulation,
zyme activity,
activity, etc.,
etc., the
the Dawe
Dawe InstruInstruzyme
ments' Soniprobe
Soniprobe consists
consists of
of aa 25
25 kc/s
kc/s
ments'
transistorized oscillator producing a
mean power
power of
of 75
75 watts.
watts. The
The osciloscilmean
lator,
lator, which
which isis pulsed
pulsed atat 100
100 c/s,
c/s, isis
used
used to
to drive
drive aa piezo-electric
piezo-electric transtransducer,
ducer, which
which in
in turn
turn isis coupled
coupled by
by aa
mechanical
mechanical energy
energy transformer
transformer to
to aa
stainless
stainless steel
steel tool
tool bit.
bit. The
The device
device
is
is hand
hand held
held or
or stand
stand mounted.
mounted,
MATERIALS AND MATERIAL TESTING

Glass-insulated
Glass-insulated wire was
was shown
shown by
by
two firms-Glass
firmsGlass Developments
Developments and
and
G. V.
V. Planer.
Planer. The
The insulation
insulation of
of the
the
Planer
Planer product isis formed
formed by
by an
an elecelectro-deposition
tro-deposition process,
process, while
while the
the
Glass Developments wire
wire isis formed
formed
by continuous
" of
continuous "" casting
casting"
of aa copper
copper
or manganin
manganin filament
filament inside
inside aa glass
glass
jacket.
jacket The break-down strength
strength of
of
the glass
glass insulation
insulation isis SkVd;c.
5kVd.c. which
which
means that no special
special interleaving
interleaving isis
required when
when the wire
wire isis used
used for
for
high voltage transformers.
transformers. It
It was
was
pointed out by Glass
Glass Developments
Developments
that in
in the finer
finer gauges
gauges the
the tensile
tensile
strengths of
of copper
copper and
and manganin
manganin
with that
that of
of steel.
steel.
are comparable with
procedures
procedures and
and the
the need
need for
for surface
surface
grinding
grinding may
may be
be damaging
damaging on
on aa small
small
component.
component. In
In aa magnetic
magnetic hardness
hardness
tester
tester produced
produced by
by Fleming
Fleming Radio
Radio
the
the method
method adopted
adopted isis to
to magneticmagnetically
ally saturate
saturate the
the specimen,
specimen, which
which isis
then
then dropped
dropped from
from aa fixed
fixed height
height
through aa pick-up
pick-up coil
coil in
in which
which aa
through
pulse
pulse isis induced
induced of
of aa height
height
which isis proportional
proportional to
to the
the remanremanwhich
ance in
in the
the specimen.
specimen. As
As remanance
remanance
ancc:
is proportional
proportional toto hardness
hardness the
the pulse
pulse
is
height isis aa measure
measure of
of hardness.
hardness. In
In
height
a fully
fully automatic
automatic device,
device, the
the pulse
pulse
$\
could be
be applied
applied to
to two
two trigger
trigger cirdrcould
cuits, the
the thresholds
thresholds of
of which
which could
could
cuits,
be pre-set
pre-set to
to upper
upper and
and lower
lower limits,
limits,
be
pre-ser
and a bin selector fed by the trigger
Metal hardness testing
testing by
by established
established outputs.
outputs. The
The only
only preparation
preparation rereas the
the Brinell
Brinell and
and quired
quired isis the
the removal
removal of
of oxide
oxide coatcoatmethods such as
methods are
are rather
rather lengthy
lengthy ings.
ings.
Rockwell methods
126
12G
Wireless World,
March 1962
WIRELESS
WORLD, MARCH
69
Wireless
World
WmELE SS WoRLD
L ,,
March,
ARCH, 1962
M
\\ r:::;, - If
^Belli^-Lee"
D el IV\&)- ee
S
""BEL
BELLING-LEE
NOTES
LING -LEE "" NOTE
No. 38 of a series
ients
Recording
Transients
Recor ding Trans
F L E X IB L E
Let us explain right away

away that
that this
this
on into
excursion
into "" hi-fi.'~
hi-fi."
is not an excursi
nts ''
We have used the word
word '' transie
transients
FLEXIBLE
g phenomeaning
phenoin its broad sense, meanin
mena which are not lasting
lasting,, and
and we
we
lar with
concer ned in
are concerned
in particu
particular
with
ed
n, i.e.
those of short duratio
duration,
i.e. measur
measured
TERMINAL
milli-seconds.
in milli-seconds.
ng
There are variou
variouss ways of
of recordi
recording
transient
we needed
needed aa
transie nt events, but we
durable visual record,
record, which
which would
would
le for
be rapidly availab
available
for analysi
analysiss
ing
process
undue
ng
withoutt involvi
involving undue processing
withou
ent had
delays, and the equipm
equipment
had to
to be
be
nt
capable of handlin
handlingg several
several differe
different
or
ena,
phenom
the
of
aspects
phenomena, or aa
ely
number
separately
numbe r of related events, separat
At
neously.
but simulta
simultaneously.
At the
the high
high
d, inertia
speeds involve
involved,
inertia effects
effects had
had
ments
require
our
ed, and
exclud
to
be
excluded,
and
our
requirements
o.
hannel
multi-c
rd
standa
a
by
standard multi-channel
were met
C^s
ing twelve
optical system employ
employing
twelve
ometers
ng galvan
reflecti
high speed reflecting
galvanometers
ed
sensitis
a
of
surface
the
e
travers
of a sensitised
to traverse
iolet
paper tape with beams of
of ultra-v
ultra-violet
light. The traces become
become visible
visible in
in aa
d
s, and
matter of second
seconds,
and are
are retaine
retained
7A (nom.) rating
d from
for long periods if
if shielde
shielded
from
n; they
undue further radiatio
radiation;
they may
may be
be
ing for
al process
fixed by chemic
chemical
processing
for
d.
permanent
storage,, if require
required.
perman ent storage
nents
The light does include compo
components
um, and
in the visible ~pectr
spectrum,
and each
each
on at
beam, after reflecti
reflection
at the
the galvano
galvano-meter, is split into two
two paths,
paths, one
one
traversing
and the
the other
other
traversing the tape, and
glass
being directe
directedd on to
to aa ground
ground glass
ion may
deflection
may be
be
screen on which a deflect
The
ed.
instantly
observed.
The galvano
galvano-instant ly observ
se
NEW L1473
LI473
linear respon
response to
to
meters possess a linear
cies up
signals of frequen
frequencies
up to
to 3,500
3,500
SA (nom.) rating
enough
c.p.s., which covers aa steep
steep enough
es.
presentt purpos
purposes.
s wave front for our presen
al block
"Belling-Lee"
terminal
blocks
ng-Le e" vinyl termin
"Belli
ble amoun
To see a reasona
reasonable
amountt of
of
ot break
le and will
takes place
place in
in
are flexib
flexible
will nnot
break detail of an event which takes
must
record
the
econd,
milli-s
a milli-second,
the record must
1/10in.
than
ert
less
the
not
and
t,
occupy
ly
impac
certainly
less
than
l/10in.
or
ock
under sh
shock
impact, and the ter- certain
of tape; this means
means that
that the
the tape
tape
GREATER minal screw
ed at
ion proof.
expended
at aa rate
rate of
of lOOin.
lOOin.
screwss are vibrat
vibration
proof. would be expend
le
desirab
is
it
so
and
,
second
per second,
so it is desirable to
to
ng as
of recordi
recording
as
nientl y restrict the period of
n conve
FLEXIBILITY The right angle patter
pattern
conveniently
event
the
of
that
to
e
possibl
as
nearly possible to that of the event
se waste,
minimise
waste, and
and to
to
ng in order to minimi
ms of
overcomes
problems
ofbringi
bringing
omes the proble
overc
e
vast expans
expanse
avoid having to search aa vast
been
has
what
find
to
l
LIGHTER leads through
materia
of
material
find
what
has
been
ting
obvia
panel,
a
le~ds throu gh a panel, obviating
recorded.
be done
done with
with
recorded. This cannot be
random
of gear when
kind
when
random
this
s,
bushe
cable
te cable bushes, phenomena
WEIGHT the need for
for separa
separate
gated,
investi
being
are
ena
investigated,
phenom
. but
but we
we are
are concer
concerned
with events
events
ned with
ating all
occur
as well as elimin
eliminating
all risk
risk of
of which can be made to
to occur at
at our
our
ng
convenience,
the rupturi
rupturing
convenience, such as the
IMPROVED damage
on
al wiring
onisati
synchr
internal
wiring.. Full
Full1 of fuses. Even so,
the
damag e to intern
so, the synchronisation
ng
ent and
of the experim
experiment
and the
the recordi
recording
s, and
t.
detailss on reques
request.
presen t certain problem
techni cal detail
did present
problems,
and
PERFORMANCE technical
n will
these and their
their solutio
solution
will be
be
ed next month
discussed
month..
discuss
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MARCH, 1962
March,
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In conditions
Radio. In
Multi-channel Radio.
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. . . "it's a good job
...
circuit".
line circuit".
on aa line
through on
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have got
never have
like these we should never
hurricane
flood, hurricane
fire, flood,
accident, fire,
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communications by
Disruption of line communications
unpreusuallyunpresnow, isis usually
of snow,
weight of
sheer weight
by sheer
scene, by
or, as in this Canadian scene,
are
hazards are
such hazards
where such
world where
the world
of the
parts of
In parts
costly. In
dictable and always costly.
construction
the construction
andthe
difficult and
terrain isis difficult
the terrain
when the
particularly when
expected and particularly
expected
.administrations
expensive, administrations
prohibitively expensive,
or prohibitively
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Systems.
Radio Systems.
Multi-channel Radio
are specifying Multi-channel
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Radio equipment
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900 is aa wideband
The A.T.E. Type 900
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carrying 11+
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multiplexing equipment
in-built transistor multiplexing
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radiorequirements
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designed to
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for just this kind of service.
and
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Mcfs, 220-260
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Type 900 covers the frequency
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Feedback, Distortion and Allied Topics

Feedback,
Distortion
and
Allied
Topics
THOMAS RODDAM
By THOMAS
RODDAM
THE
It may seem almost

almost (or
(or comcomThe question of distortion is one
one which
which has
has theorem is needed.
of
lot
a
carrying
saves
it
but
obvious
pletely)
carrying
a
lot
of dead
dead
sound
of
bothered designers since the earliest
earliest days
days of sound
ics.
mathematics.
nnel terms through the mathemat
on of multi-cha
amplification.
introduction
multi-channel
ion. The introducti
amplificat
(/'i +
+ fL2)Sin
M2)Sln
Sout
If S
telephone systems depended on improved
improved methods
methods of
of
out = (ILl
lation,
distortion control, analysed
analysed now as intermodu
intermodulation,
then sS,outut == fLl
Fi Sin
Sin +
4- IL2sin
n2Sia
while later still the designers
designers of
of analogue
analogue computer
computerss
is a constant while
fLt
that
Mi
while IL 2 depends
depends on
on
Suppose
themselves with the
concerned themselves
the linearity
linearity of
of their
their the value of S;u
no
contains
term ILtSin
The
S
.
i^S
contains
no disdisin
ln
difficult for
for readers
readers who
who are
are tortion and can be neglected in favour
systems. It may be difficult
the
2 Sin,, the
favour of
of IL/'^S,
under the age of 40 to realize that
that negative
negative feedback
feedback distortion-producing
as we
we are
are just
just
distortion -producin g term, as long as
feedof
use
wide
invention , that this whole
show
was an invention,
whole wide use of feed- calculating
will
example
. An
g the harmonics
harmonics.
An
example
will
show
calculatin
It
.
back amplifiers has a sharply defined
defined beginning
beginning. It how we make use of this.
is rather hard for all of us to
to realize
realize that
that this
this invention
invention
characteri stic shown in Fig.
The characteristic
Fig. la
la might
might well
well be
be
was not made until after the theory
theory of
of filter
filter design
design the mutual-conductance/bias
aa
stic of
/bias characteri
nductance
mutual-co
characteristic
of
satisfies
still
which
point
the
progresse d beyond
had progressed
which still satisfies valve. In general language itit is
t-signal
aa gain/inpu
is
gain/input-signal
in
rules
filters from
from the
the simple
simple rules in characteristic
most of us who design filters
having aa gain
gain of
of ILt
^ at
at the
the
characteri stic for a system having
the reference books.
nominal
the
be
will
which
range,
the
centre
of
which
will
be
the
nominal
On and off through the years II have
have recorded,
recorded, in
in working point. This can be split
split up
up in
in the
the way
way
yellowing, some notes on
pages now yellowing,
on various
various aspects
aspects shown in Fig. lb, in which we see
have
we
that
see
that
we
have
to
tend
jottings
of these problems. Nowadays my
my jottings tend to
= constant and
-ILij.11
begin when I have said "" these things
things we
we hold
hold to
to be
be
K2Sin
= âîn
IL2 "
Ma
self-evident",
that they
they are
are not
not so
so
nt", only to discover that
self-evide
signal of
a
a
recorded
We
consider
now
of the
the usual
usual form
form
example,
for
have,
I
all.
I have, for example, recorded a
obvious at
Ssin
= a cos wt
convenient
the distortion
distortion and
and
convenien t way of working out the
to =a
intermodulation
have discussed
discussed and we obviously have
intermodu lation in a valve stage: II have
why negative feedback
feedback does not reduce
reduce distortion
distortion as
as
(undistort ed)
Sout == lIL1
i1 a cos wt
mt ... ......... (undistorted)
Sout
on of
much as you expect. The combinati
combination
of these
these two
two
...... ...... ...... (distorted
a>t
(distorted))
IL
+
2 a cos wt
it
tried
I
When
it?
is
or
straightfo rward:
results is straightforward;
it? When I tried it
the
with
for the
the purpose,
purpose, with the
on a standard reader I keep for
oners of
benevolent
Commissioners
of Inland
Inland
benevolen t aid of the Commissi
Revenue, I found that it needed the
the full
full treatment
treatment..
(a.)
As I cannot and you will not refer
refer to
to the
the previous
previous
the whole
whole question
question of
of
articles, let us go through the
J.l-1
finding just how much distortion reduction
reduction we
we can
can
get for how much feedback.
feedback.
The first step is to find out how much
much distortion
distortion we
we
this out
out previously
previously
actually have. When I worked this
conworked in terms of
of the
the mutual
mutual confor valves I worked
ding exercise
ductance: the correspon
corresponding
exercise now,
now, for
for
transistors,
terms of
of current
current gain
gain or,
or,
transistors , might be in terms
e
convenien tly, in terms of mutual
mare conveniently,
mutual impedanc
impedance
m')re
with a given load, which would
would mean
mean using
using the
the
change-of -base-curr ent
change-of-collector-volts
change-of-collector-volts to _xhange-of-base-current
ratio. There is nothing to lose
lose by
by keeping
keeping the.
the
(b)
analysis general and we shall therefore
therefore work
work in
in terms
terms
of the transfer gain, which is simply
simply the
the size
size of
of the
the
change in output signal produced
produced by aa unit
unit change
change in
in
input signal. The unit must naturally be
be very
very small.
small.
For a valve we might take the unit
unit as
as lOmV
lOmV at
at the
the
ce
V as the mutual
grid, measure 50/LA/lOm
50,/A/10mV
mutual conductan
conductance
describe itit to
to SmA/V:
5mA/V:
and then modify the way we describe
for an amplifier
amphfier we might find it more
more convenien
convenientt to
to
measure in terms of lmV
ImV input, to
to get
get aa gain
gain of,
of, say,
say,
(c)
lOOmV/lmV
V or 100 times.
lOOmV/lm
d to the
We are quite accustome
accustomed
the idea
idea that
that the
the
ce of a valve varies
mutual conductan
conductance
varies with
with the
the bias.
bias.
Expressed in more general terms,
terms, the
the differentia
differentiall
ous signal
gain varies with the instantane
instantaneous
signal value.
value. This
This
Fig. I.I . Typical gain curve (a)
(a) can
can be
be broken
broken up
up into
into
characteristic
are going
going to
to consider
consider in
in
characteri stic is the one we are
constant factor (b) and linear variable
variabie (c).
(c).
tion
though, aa special
special superposi
superposition
detail. First of all, though,
127
Wireless
March 1962
WORLD, MARCH
WIRELESS World,
of
part of
distorted part
the distorted
From the expression for ,., 1 the
is:sout iôut
COS wt
Wt a cos
COS uit.
kK22 . a cos
a
2
wt
=
= KK22a 2 cos 2 oit
+ 1)/2
= cK22a22(cos 2<ut
l)/2
2wt +
=
of
term of
There is thus a second harmonic term
of
2wt)/2 to compare with a fundamental of
K^Ccos
K2 a 2 (cos 2Oit)!2
wt so that the distortion will be
,., 1 a cos oit
O22a/2
a/2,.,
(K
Fl1)100%.
may
gain/instantaneous-signal characteristic may
The gain/instantaneous-signal
,., 1
After ^
2a. After
well be more like that shown in Fig. 2a.
are
we are
out we
taken out
and m,.,22 (the overall slope) have been taken
form
the form
1-'a This is of the
left with the
shape shown, as /<,.
2
subby subK3 is easily found by
where Kg
= KK:j3Sm
1-'a =
1na ,,
This harmonic
1-'a and Sto
stituting known values for /13
1n..
us:term gives
us:
3
33
wt)/4
+ 3 cos tot)/4
wt +
K3 a33(cos 3 tot
wt = k%
KK3a3
3a cos nt
produces aa
You will notice that the jo1-'a3 term produces
error
The error
small contribution to the fundamental. The
significance;
in ignoring this is not of any practical significance;
error
the error
as the
it is of the same order and same kind as
introduced by our loose way of accepting either
ratio
harmonic/fun damental ratio
harmonic/tota l or harmonic/fundamental
the harmonic/total
though
even though
and treating the figures as equivalent even
another
one type of test equipment measures one, another
harthird harthe third
the other. The2 simple result is that the
/4,.,11)) . 100% of the fundamental.
(K33 a 2/4/i
monic is (<f
this
carry this
It is merely a matter of patience to carry
which
sort of analysis further and to see the factors which
govern the higher harmonics and the intermodulaintermodulati on
tion. I have already dealt with intermodulation
want
present II want
in a long-lost article and for the present
that
to go on .in a different direction. Suppose that
you want
you have constructed a bare amplifier and you
want
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sin
(0)
Fig. 2. Here gain curve (a) is brokenves
up (b), (c) and (<Tj
gives third harmonic
,_,3 g'
as in Fig. I. Additional term hs
harmonic
distortion.
get aa
to get
to know how much feedback is needed to
given performance. Let us write down the standard
{3.
(1/ ,.,) +
1/ l't = (l/f)
,.,{3) or 1/%
expression ^
/u./(l +
+ p.
+ pp)
/Lt. = 1'/(1
To give us something solid to talk about we will
has
use the characteristic shown in Fig. 3 which has
^ =
= 100 and KK22a = 20 at the limits of the defined
l't
all second harmonic and
range. The distortion is all
is just 10%.
We now make up a simple table:
H
80
l/V*
0.0125
(l/,x) + 0.1 0.1125
Hi
8.89
100
0.01
0.11
9.09
120
0.00833
0.10833
9.23
This corresponds to what we often call, rather

the
loosely, 20dB of feedback. We can plot out the
of
instead of
1-11 in Fig. 4, and we See that instead
shape of /i,
curve
have aa curve
the straight line of Fig. 3a we now have
already
have already
as we found turning up in Fig. 2. We have
of
seen that this corresponds to the production of
system
third harmonic, which was absent in the system
only
without feedback. As the amplifier itself can only
produce simple product terms, this third harmonic
must be the result of feeding back second harmonic
intermodulati ng it with the fundafundato the input and intermodulating
through
mental on what is in effect a second passage through
us
enable us
the amplifier. The figures in the table enable
come
we come
to work out the various coefficients and we
disto the conclusion that the second harmonic distortion is 0.92% and the third harmonic is 0.16%.
deal
good deal
I think it will be agreed that this is a good
better than the 10% second harmonic we started
the
to the
chary of putting a number to
with, but I am chary
improvement:
improvement: the main reason why we add the
harmonic terms on an r.m.s. basis is that it is conthis
in this
venient to build our measuring instruments in
apply
way. It used to be suggested that we should apply
weighting to the individual harmonics because the
effect
the effect
higher the harmonic the more unpleasant the
as
away as
but this sort of discussion has now died away
in
we have realized that there is not much point in
determining the difference between shocking repro.
absoh.itely horrible.
duction and absolutely
about
There is no reason why we should worry about
Fig. 33
the difficulty of determining the form which Fig.
measure
takes for a practical amplifier. We can measure
the
measure the
also measure
can also
the small-signal gain and we can
An oscillodistortion at our maximum signal level. An
will
bridge will
distortion-factor bridge
scope connected to the distortion-factor
or
second or
tell us whether the distortion is mainly second
to
difficult to
third harmonic. It is not really too difficult
be
must be
estimate the proportions when both must
taken into account. From this information we
can get the form of Fig. 3 immediately. Suppose,
Suppose,
and
for example, that the small-signal gain is 100
100 and
distortion.
that we have 10% second harmonic distortion.
= 20. At
a/2,., 1) = 0.1 and thus <cK22 a =
(K22 <2/2^1)
Then (k
At
gains
the gains
the ends of the gain-signal characteristic the
the
in the
used in
20, the figures already used
will be 100
procedure
table. From this point, of course, the procedure
is exactly as before.
Intermodulation
Intermodulat ion calculations are handled in
exactly the same way except that the expressions
too difficult
are slightly different. They are not too
difficult
rememto work out for yourself so long as you can rememforms
trigonometrical forms
ber, or look up, the standard trigonometrical
B
- sin A sin B
= cos A cos B + B) =
like cos (A +
is
leading, of course, to the one you need, which is
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
128
GAIN
10
120L=------
(d.)
80
100-------
(b)
GAIN JLI
GAIN
Jl-2
-----==== 20
- zo -:::::::::::--=-5 10.
Fig. 3. (a) Gain curve for typical amplifier with nominal

gain of 100:
/00: true gain ranges from 80 to 120.
(b) Broken-up gain curve.
cos A cos B =
= [cos (A +
+ B) +
+ cos (A
- B)]/2.
Harmonic distortion is just a special case with A =
=
B and the first-order sum-and-difference products
are each equal to the second harmonic when the
peak excursion is the same. I have covered this
in much more detail before and I want
wartt to use some
space for a rather different topic which turns out
to impose much more rigorous conditions on the
unhappy designer.
An amplifier with sufficient gain has the property
that it will give a useful output for practically no
input. When an input signal is applied through
a substantial impedance the fact that the amplifier
needs almost no input must imply that all the signal
appears across the impedance.
Several sources
can be used without mutual interference and they
also can provide, by adding suitable networks,
differential and integral terms. The simplest possible version of this sort of computing amplifier,
the basic stuff of the whole field of analogue computers, has just one input and one output. _The
applications of systems of this kind are so wide
that it is difficult to choose an example which can
typical". Let us assume that
fairly be marked ""typical".
our experiment is the determination of the behaviour
of an anti-vibration system with different loadings
and that we have turned the spring deflection into
a voltage, somehow or another, and are using the
amplifier to drive a recorder.
When we load the system we shift the working
point. Let us stick to the amplifier of Fig. 3 and
assume that our three loadings give us values of
/xp. = 80, 100 and 120. We put on over 20dB of
feedback, to give us, in ordinary terms, only 1%
distortion. We produce a unit vibration signal
and we find that the recorder shows records of
8.89, 9.09 and 9.23 units (compare with the table
for /if).
for
f.Lt).
The range of these is 0.34, which is about 3.7%.
be tempted to believe that, as the ampliWe should 'be
fier distortion is only 1%, there is a really significant change in input signal, but the way we have
reached this 3.7%
3. 7% shows thiat
that this is just not so.
The audio-frequency amplifier designer will
recognize this effect as a variation on the intermodulation theme in which one of his two intermodulating signals has been replaced by a simple shift
of the working point, a signal of zero frequency.
The two side-bands with which he is concerned
now fall on top of each other. He will not be surprised to see that the figure for harmonic distortion
gives an optimistic picture of the situation.
It is an exercise for the student to work out the

more- feedback, say 30dB, and to see how
effect of more
this will improve the situation. One of the advantages of the method is that the calculation is extremely
easy, requiring nothing more than a set of reciprocal
tables and the capacity to add two numbers together.
It has always been my belief that if you can calculate
something you should and it has been my experience
that if a calculation looks difficult a good many
engineers will shut their eyes and start building
in the hope that it will all be all right on the day.
In my bursts of literary energy, therefore, I feel
that these useful and important calculations which
really call for no thought are worth drawing to the
attention of those who would if they could.
What the mathematician might call a trivial special
case because it is especially simple has, to my mind,
exceptional significance. In the September 1961
issue of Wireless World ""Cathode
Ray"" discussed
Cathode Ray
the question of whether we should consider transistor
as voltage or current operated. Most transistoramplifier designers nowadays use local negative
feedback produced by a resistance in the emitter
lead. Apart from its importance in stabilizing the
working point this also holds
holds. the gain at a more
defined level so that " limit "
" transistors do not
upset the stability of a multi-stage amplifier with
overall feedback.
an
A simple amplifier of this type will have
1
apparent transconductance of (l/^
(1/gm
+ RJ"
R..,)- 1. In a
m +
rearrangement of this
1/gf
+ Re
l/i = 1/gm +
an equation which is exactly the same as the standard
feedback amplifier expression quoted earlier. It
does not require much consideration to see that
once we have a few values for g,.
gm at different bias
levels we can construct the characteristic for g,
g 1 by
elementary arithmetic. We can also construct a
table of distortion at various signal amplitudes.
Some of the arithmetic is right down to the do-itin-your-head class. Suppose, for example, we have
1,000-H
1,000n emitter resistance and 10,000-U
10,000- n collector
resistance. A typical transistor has a ggm
m reaching
50 at peak-signal current, so that 1/g,
= 1,02012:
1,0200: we
might drive it down to agm
a gm of 25, giving 1/g, =
= 1,040.
In this arrangement we have irK 22a = 10 and the
1%. The gain is equally easily
distortion is only !%
obtained as g,
g1 is almost ImA/V,
lmAjV, giving us a voltage
gain with a 10-kO collector load of just about 10
times.
It all stops 'being
being so simple once we start cascading
9 I
JLt
9'0
8 8 ' - - - - - - - - - - - --
- - -- - -- -
Fig. 4. With 20dB of feedback curve of Fig. 3a

Ja becomes
this, showing appearance of a third harmonic term.
Wireless World,
wnmLEss
WoRLo, March
MARCH 1962
129
impe danc e
input impedance
its input
with its
stage with
single stage
staeess. The single
stage
fed from
happ y fed
very happy
be very
will be
n will
1,000 a
x 1,000
abou t fi{3 x
of about
from,
stage
simil ar stage,
anoth er similar
from another
fed from
but fed
sourc e, but
voltage source,
a voltage
tions
varia
e,
sourc variations
10,000- n source,
like aa 10,000-n
whic h will look like
which
disthe
with
havoc
play
will
gain
nt
curre gain will play havoc with
in the current
dis
itself
wl11
lts
will
ode
electr
base
the
at
ge
volta at the base electrode
tortion.
ftf
tortio n. The voltage
and the
impe dance and
varying impedance
the varying
by the
pre-d istort ed by
be pre-distorted
the
not
will
rting
disto
more distorting
no more
does no
fact that the gain does
will not
help.
ingen uity,
of ingenuity,
deal of
good deal
for aa good
There
Ther e is room here for
type
choose aa type
natur ally choose
will naturally
We will
misplaced. We
ly misplaced.
mostly
_ most
gain in the
curre nt gain
const ant current
havin g constant
trans istor having
of transistor
m
the
0,
OC20
the OC200,
For the
opera ting. For
region
regio n we want for operating.
mum
maxi
flat
a
has
gain
nt
curre
the
m,
rando
taken at random,
current gain has a flatitmaximum
is abou t
OC83 it is
the OC83
for the
while for
1mA, while
at just over 1mA,
about
discourage
to discourage
appe ar to
manu factu rers appear
40mA. Most manufacturers
give us
to give
not
ul
caref
are
they
se
becau
gm
of
use
the
gn because they are careful be
notvery
to
cleveusr,
to
on
go
now
can
You
curves.
can now go on to be
very
clever,
any curves.
ce
balan
to
try
and
you,
with
though
balance
thoug h I will not go with you, and try to
disto rtion.
the Pf3 distortion.
st the
again
rtion
disto
rema ining ggm
the remaining
distortion
against
m
working
best working
the best
finding the
quest ion of finding
It is hist
just a question
bette r,
is
It
.
mum
maxi
flat
this
from
noint,
this flat maximum. It more
is better,
point , away
gain
some
find
to
r,
bette
far
course, far
of course,
better, to find some feedb
moreack.
gain
negative feedback.
overaJl negative
and put on some more overall
very
so very
are so
discussed are
Calculations
Calculations of the type discussed
rstan d
unde
to
ssible
impo
st
almo
it
find
I
that
almost impossible to understand
easy
to any
prelu de to
autom atic prelude
an automatic
why they are not an
any
and
be,
will
they
day
One
const ructio n. One day they will be, and
amplifier
ifier construction.
ampl
join
I
g.
writin
stop
shall stop writing. 1 join
dawn s II shall
th~lt day dawns
when that
hopes.
you in your hopes.
1rECHNICAL NOTEBOOK
HNICAL
10TE
diaph ragm
the diaphragm
making the
damp ed by making
that damped
of that
4.321% of
decays to 4.321%
amplitude
tude decays
the
to the
resistance to
ampli
s so as to add resistance
porous
porou
d
secon
a
d,
opene
was
gate
the
opened, a second
weight
the weight
iwhen
n
motion
of
motio
disthe
gate,
the
closes
the gate, the distrigge r level
ltrigger
directly.
Q directly.
giving Q
playe d count giving
em]played
Meas urem ent emis Eyeball
and is
Press ure Measurement
Q, and
the Q,
Eyeba ll Pressure
on
ds
depen
the
Accu racy depends
.Accuracy
pre~sure/frequency
and
10
ploying
the
pressure/frequency
g
of
Q
ployin
a
for
12%
a Q of 10 and
betwe en 12%
oscillator
Ibetween
crysta l oscillator
Successive characteristic
chara cteris tic of a crystal
1000. Successive
of 1000.
+ 2% for a Q of
al
et al
ll et
Newe
E.
out,
ge
ibed
avera
descr
was
described
by
D.
E.
Newell
ts
measurements
tend
to
average
out,
measu remen
of
issue of
1961,
8,
in
mber
ed
Septe
obtain
is
in
the
September
8,
1961,
issue
acy
accur
r
greate accuracy is obtained in
and greater
to
applie d to
is applied
Electronics.
Electronics. A probe is
way.
this way.
dia3mm diaflattening aa 3mm
eyeball, flattening
the eyeball,
result ant
des- meter circular
the resultant
was desRead -out was
circul ar area, and the
Scale r Read-out
te Sealer
Remote
Remo
rod
glass rod
by aa glass
Intern ation al pressure
the International
transf erred by
at the
pressu re is transferred
cribed by Brun at
in aa
is in
on to the quartz
which is
Confe rence on
crystal, which
quart z crystal,
Energ y Conference
ic Energy
Atomic
Atom
outpu t
The output
Belgr ade 3-Mc/s
at Belgrade
circuit. The
Co!pitts circuit.
Electr onics held at
Nuclear
3-Mc /s Colpitts
Nucle ar Electronics
be
will be
em- of this probe oscillator,
which will
metho d emoscillator, which
The method
1961. The
in May 1961,
Qn
read- varied by an amount
depen dent on
amou nt dependent
non-d estruc tive readaffords non-destructive
ployed
ploye d affords
multi only the pressure
is multiand omy
crystal, is
the crystal,
scaler and
binar y sealer
pressu re on the
OU[ of a binary
out
sigthe sigleads plied by 12 and
with the
two leads
mixed with
and mixed
additi on of two
necessitates
sitate s the addition
neces
worki ng
gener ator nal from a second
oscillator working
pulse generator
A pulse
second oscillator
scaler. A
to each sealer.
is
taps, at 36Mc/s.
which is
has nn taps,
difference, which
delay -line which has
36Mc /s. The difference,
feeds a delay-line
be now 12 times the original
deviation,
to be
bits to
original deviation,
of bits
numb er of
where n is the number
flipthe is used to trigger
and the
mono stable fliptaps and
trigger aa monostable
delay-line taps
read. The delay-line
whose flop
const ant-en ergy
gates, whose
D"
providing
flop,
toggles
AND
" gates,
providing
constant-energy
toggles feed n ""AN
n-inp ut pulses to an integrating
discri minaan n-input
to an
integr ating discriminaoutputs
outpu ts are taken to
the tor. The output
calibrated
from the
be calibrated
can be
signal from
outpu t can
"OR"" gate. The signal
"OR
pen
and pen
iden- and displayed
meter and
second, idendisplayed on aa meter
" OR " is now fed to a second,
provides record
again provides
recorder.
er.
delay-line which again
tical delay-line
gates,
of nn ""AN
one input to each of
ANDD"" gates,
dis- Stabilized-current
the disto the
taken to
devel oped
outpu ts are taken
whosee outputs
suppl y developed
whos
nt supply
re- Stabi lized- curre
the rebeing the
order being
Labo ratory ,
devices, the order
play devices,
Caven dish Laboratory,
at Cavendish
!
by
N.
Bett
the
At
scaler. At the! Cambridge,
tranverse of that in the sealer.
stabilizing tranits stabilizing
has its
the Camb ridge , has
from the
pulses from
from
an instan
in an
instantt which all the pulses
altern ately from
discussed in
are discussed
sw.itched alternately
Q-me ters are
i
sistor
switched
Digital
Digit al Q-meters
the
in
stored in the
powe r
issue sealer
delay-line are stored
keep power
the issue
to keep
in the
scaler delay-line
cut-off to
Heitin g in
to cut-off
tion
satura
article by T. F. Heiting
.
saturation
article
to
fed to
is fed
drop
29, remote
delay-line. a pulse is
poten tial drop
The potential
remot e delay-line,
Septe mber 29,
for September
dissip ation low. The
Electronics for
of Electronics
the, dissipation
of the
each of
of each
tomis comob- the second
are obsecond input of
resist or is
results are
stand ard resistor
Direc t-read ing results
'
across
a
standard
1961. Direct-reading
readthe readthe
D"
10, remote
AND
" gates, and the
cellif the
than 10,
remot e ""AN
stand ard cellif
greate r than
Q-val ues greater
pared with a standard
tained for Q-values
up.
the
of out devices
rises the
devices are set up.
resist or rises
advantages of
potential
attend ant advantages
poten tial across the resistor
with the attendant
deis defreeand freetransi stor is
of the transistor
meas urem ent and
"
"on"
time
on
rapidity
ity of measurement
"
rapid
Reson
er
speak
Loud
n
Cancellation
of
Loudspeaker
Resonthe
show n Cance llatio
is shown
decre ases the
It is
poten tial decreases
error. It
readin g error.
crease d, if the potential
ana creased,
dom from reading
to an
accor ding to
possible according
unAn unoscillations, ances is possible
of osculations,
increa sed. An
is increased.
train of
time is
damp ed train
on"
"
that
e
"on"
the
that, in a damped
in
man
Traut
C.
W.
by
Trautman in theit usual feature
articl e
that
is that
betwe en article
circui t is
the circuit
of the
ampli tudes between
featur e of
the ' ratio of amplitudes
tht'
of
1ourrtal of
October
er 1961 issue of the Journal
stabil izer
equal Octob
and stabilizer
is equal
cycles is
amplifier and
of cycles
numb er of
difference amplifier
which the number
\
the
difference
A
ty.
Socie
eering
Engin
Ay transistor
The the Audio Engineering Society.
self-oscillating
-27.3 dB. The
made self-oscillating
or -27.3dB.
23.14, or
transi stor are made
to Q is 23.14,
symmetrically
suspe nded symmetrically
weigh t is suspended
beby weight
capac itor beinitia ted by
is initiated
of aa capacitor
opera tions is
conne ction of
sequence
y
by
the
connection
seque nce of operations
by
cone
r
peake
louds
the
loudspeaker cone flat
bylt tween the current-stabilized
outpu t
which inside
gener ator, which
curre nt-sta bilize d output
pulse generator,
free-r unnin g pulse
a free-running
le
flexib
it
attaching
it
to
a
flexible
flat
ing
suitab le
under attach
and aa suitable
tuned -circu it under
smoo thing) and
shock-excites
i- (before
(befo re smoothing)
-excites the tuned-circuit
shock
comdiaph ragm comdiaphragm;
ragm ; the diaphragm
the diaph
amplifier:
of the
difference amplifier:
ampli tude of
the difference
the amplitude
in the
:o
point
test. When the
to
n
chose
being
t
weigh
and
e
weight being chosen to
plianc
to
used to
to aa pliance
then tised
is then
fallen to
has fallen
curre nt is
of current
oscillations has
damped
variat ion of
damp ed oscillations
at variation
anti-r esona nce at
suitab le anti-resonance
provi de a suitable
800c/ s
opens provide
this 800c/s
of this
circui t opens
ratio of
trigger circuit
mark- space ratio
reference
nce level, a trigger
refere
is
vary
mark-space
This
ance.
reson
bass
r
peake
louds
bass resonance.suitab
This
sig- the loudspeaker
oscillatory sigthe oscillatory
where upon the
multivibrat or.
ly multivibrator.
a gate, whereupon
ly
also suitably
anti-r esona nce is
the anti-resonance
As the
count er. As
to aa counter.
passe d to
nal is passed
1962
MARCH 1962
WoRLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
of
factor of
by aa factor
Amplification by
Light Amplification
Drs.
by Drs.
obtain ed by
two has been obtained
the
of the
Boyle of
P. P. Kisliuk
Kisliu k and W. S. Boyle
Ruby
Labor atorie s. Ruby
Telep hone Laboratories.
Bell Telephone
desthat desto that
simila r to
maser s similar
optical
optica l masers
of
sectio n or
this section
cribed on p. 614 of this
used.
were used.
issue were
1960 issue
Dece mber 1960
our December
oscillatmaser s, when oscillatAlthough
Altho ugh such masers,
to
sufficiently to
ampli fy sufficiently
ing, must amplify
partly their partlymake up for losses at their
amplificasuch amplificamirro rs, such
silvered
silver ed end mirrors,
meas ured
been measured
tion has not yet been
disin dislies in
probl em lies
ly. One problem
directly.
direct
by
produ ced by
tinguishing
tingui shing any light produced
prothat profrom that
amplification __from
maser
mase r amplification
of
fluorescence of
norm al fluorescence
duced by the normal
this
exper iment this
ruby. In the new experiment
ruby
using aa ruby
problem
probl em was solved by using
coher ent
provi de aa coherent
oscillator to provide
m
iserr oscillator
rouse
swam p
to swamp
enoug h to
brigh t enough
sourc e bright
input source
ampli fyThe amplifylight. The
fluorescent light.
any fluorescent
input
the input
to the
simila r to
ing maser
mase r was similar
the
of the
ends of
excep t that the ends
maser
mase r except
outpu t
The output
silvered. The
ruby were not silvered.
(partl ywith aa (partlycomp ared with
light was compared
input .light
portio n of the input
reflected)
light
reflected) portion
the
and the
photo multi pliers , and
using two photomultipliers,
inthe incomp aring the
meas ured by comparing
gain measured
witho ut
put/output
put/ outpu t ratios with and without
light
input light
the input
in the
mase r in
amplifier maser
the amplifier
beam .
beam.
130
MANUFACTURE
p ODUCTS
ACCESSORIES
AND ACCESSORIES
EQUIPM ENT AND
ELECTRO NIC EQUIPMENT
NEW ELECTRONIC
Cable Covering
dusty
against dusty
wiring against
of wiring
protection of
DESIGNED for the protection
DESIGNED
the
takesthe
HeUermann ""Helazipp"
and humid conditions, Hellermann
Helazipp " takes
each
alongeach
beadingalong
interlockingbeading
with interlocking
form of a p.v.c. tape with
round
wrapped round
be wrapped
may be
tape may
the tape
of which the
edge, by means of
black
either black
in either
Available in
up." Available
a cableform and ""zipped
zipped up."
indicated
being indicated
resonances being
the resonances
thickness, the
to the material thickness,
between
Thickness between
meter. Thickness
the meter.
by the
by headphones and by
to
of 33 to
accuracy of
an accuracy
at an
measured at
be measured
0.09in and Sin may be
from
obtainable from
are obtainable
Details are
5% of the wall thickness. Details
West .
Great West
Avenue, Great
Harlequin Avenue,
Ltd., Harlequin
Instruments Ltd.,
Dawe Instruments
Middlesex.
Road, Brentford, Middlesex.
Receiver
llfeasurin g Receiver
Frequency
Frequency Measuring
Racal
the Racal
from the
instruments from
COMPOSED
COMPOSE D of several instruments
will
Receiver will
Measuring Receiver
Frequency Measuring
RA.78 Frequency
range, the RA.78
an
at an
Mc/s, at
30 Mc/s,
to 30
kc/s to
10 kc/s
handle frequencies from 10
reRA.17 reAn: RA.17
10 An
in 10'.
parts in
than 55 parts
better than
accuracy of better
of
comparison of
by comparison
signal by
received signal
the received
ceiver is tuned to the
SA.77
an SA.77
in an
standard in
crystal standard
100kc/s i.f. with aa crystal
the lOOkc/s
v.f.o. isis
receiver v.f.o.
the receiver
frequency of
of the
comparator. The frequency
allowafter allowwhich, after
meter which,
digital meter
SA.21 digital
measured on an SA.21
indicates
3rd -i.f.'s,
and 3rd
2nd and
the 2nd
-ing
.ing 2.1 Mc/s offset for the
i.f.'s, indicates
inFor indirectly. For
signal directly.
received signal
the received
the frequency of the
may
frequency may
standard frequency
external standard
an external
creased accuracy, an
Engineering
Racal Engineering
from Racal
168C2, from
Leaflet 168C2,
be injected. Leaflet
description.
full description.
gives aa full
Ltd., Bracknell, Berks,
Berks, gives
7
sheathing.
'Helazipp " cable sheathing.
"Helazipp
of
cableforms of
cover cableforms
will cover
tape will
the tape
p.v.c., the
transparent p.v.c.,
or .transparent
be
can be
information can
Further information
diameter. Further
|in
iin to 3in diameter.
Crawley,
Road, Crawley,
Gatwick Road,
Ltd., Gatwick
HeUermann Ltd.,
obtained from Hellermann
Sussex.
Thickness
Thickn~ss Gauge
measuremen t isis
thickness measurement
ULTRASONIC
ULTRASO NIC single-sided thickness
uses
which uses
gauge, which
1103 gauge,
Type 1103
Dawe Type
provided by the Dawe
of
thickness of
the thickness
of the
reading of
meter reading
Direct meter
transistors.
transistors. Direct
selecswitch selecby switch
obtained by
copper isis obtained
steel, aluminium and copper
Platform-scale
Platform-scale Meters
where
situations where
in situations
and in
aircraft, and
DESIGNED for use in aircraft,
to
are to
pollution are
atmospheric pollution
of atmospheric
level of
vibration or a high level
hermetically-sealed
125 hermetically-sealed
Series 125
Pullin Series
be expected, the Puffin
between
temperatures between
in temperatures
use in
for use
suitable tor
meters are suitable
to
both to
used both
scale isis used
platform scale
A platform
85oC.
oC and 85
-40
40C
C. A
clearance
increase clearance
to increase
and to
reading-erro r and
avoid parallax reading-error
three
about three
which isis about
pointer, which
between the scale and pointer,
supplied
are supplied
instruments are
The instruments
length. The
times the normal length.
meters
current meters
direct current
as direct
and as
voltmeters, and
qs a.c. and d.c. voltmeters,
as
1-
:--.,
__
\'
-
' ,~- :, '"'\
,:
~ s, . . ' ~
"'-_.
~~</
Pullin
Above: One of the Pullin
Series 125 hermeticallysealed meters.
transducer.
the transducer.
showing the
f 103 thickness gauge, showing
Dawe 1103
the
give the
to give
calibrated to
be calibrated
can be
tion, and the instrument can
worktransducer workcrystal transducer
A crystal
materials. A
thickness of other materials.
material.
the material.
into the
nransmits into
4Mc/s transmits
ing between 2 and 4Mc/s
related
are related
occur are
resonances occur
which resonances
The frequencies at which
frequenRA.78 frequenRacaf RAJS

Left: Racal
receiver.
cy measuring receiver.
top
the top
The indicator is the
the
it, the
panel with, below it,
comparator.
131
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
details
Furth er details
50J.'A. Further
of 50M.
sensitivity of
maxim um sensitivity
with a maximum
(Pullin)
Instru ments (Pullm)
Measu ring Instruments
from Measuring
obtain ed from
can be obtained
W.3.
Acton , W.3.
Street , Acton,
Winch ester Street,
Works, Winchester
Electr in Works,
Ltd., Electrin
Television
for Television
Batteries
Batteries for
receivers,
television receivers,
portable television
for portable
specifically for
DESIGNED
DESI GNED specifically
available in
are available
batteries are
rechargeable batteries
two new DEAC rechargeable
m
3A resor 3A
ZA or
providing 2A
capacities, providing
res
either 4- or 6-Ah capacities,
r d , charge d
stored
be
can
They
ely for five hours. They can be !^0 p
pectively
pectiv
and 45 o C
C 'and
-30 oC
between -30
tempe rature s between
opera ted at temperatures
and operated
45 ive
L,
corros
or corrosive
s
noxiou
No
ty.
capaci
in
decrease in capacity. No noxious or
with no decrease
ies may
batter
the
,
sealed
being
and,
off
fumes are given off and, being sealed, the batteries may
fumes
Nucleonics
M.K.S.
M.K.S . Nucleonics
C-cores.
clamp for C-cores.
teraccommodate aa terto accommodate

clamping
frames must be used to
clamp ing frames
facilities.
moun ting facilities.
provide mounting
board , and to provide
minal board,
dual-p urintrod uced aa dual-purhave introduced
Nucleonics Ltd., have
M.K.S.
M.K.S . Nucleonics
probandi ng prothe banding
eliminates the
which eliminates
clamping frame which
pose clamping
core
the core
up the
lines up
and lines
locates .and
automatically locates
cess and automatically
separa te
of separate
numb er of
small number
only aa small
elements
eleme nts whilst having only
component^.
to fit
compo nents.
of four pressings designed
ed to fit
DEAC 5DK6 6Ah rebattery.

chargeable
chargeable battery.
The clamp consists of four pressings design
be obmoun ted in any position. Full details may

r0 &
Palme
y
Stanle
A.
s-G.
agent
U.K.
the
from
Tfmm theUâ^-a'^fmnlerPalmer
tained
n,
, Londo^
Street
el
Arund
,
House
ell
Maxw
Ltd.,
Co.
Co^Ltd.,
Maxwell House, Arundel Street, London,
be
be
W.C.2.
w.c.z.
Supp ly
Power Supply
Twin Power
ing
power supplies provid

indep enden t power
completely independent
TWO completely
AS1164.
Solart ron A5ilD4.
the Solartron
in the
contai ned in
n ^nV at 1A are contained
0-30V
can
and can
increm ents and
0.1 V increments
in 0.1V
adjust able in
The omputs
outpu ts are adjustable
propo rA
series.
in
or
el
parall
tely,
be
used
separately,
in
parallel
or
in
series.
A
proporsepara
be used
with pre-se t
protec tion wuh
overload protection
provides overioad
contro l provides
tional control
kc/s is
100 pre-set
to
up
ance
imped
t
Outpu
limits.
t
curren
current
Output impedance
up toratio
1UU
greatejsr
is kc/s
zation
stabili
beuer
than
0.35
ohm
and
the
stabilization
rat.oisgreaer
better
at the proavailable at
is available
instru ment is
The instrument
1000 : 1. The
than 1000-1
the atory
proLabor
Solart ron Laboratory
from Solartron
visional
al price of 135 from
vision
Surrey .
Chessington, Surrey.
Lane, Chessington,
Instruments
Instru ments Ltd., Cox Lane,
moun ting
provide mounting
and provide
C-cores and
round the parts of the C-cores
Over
heads. Over
with heads.
lugs with
two lugs
carryi ng two
pressi ng carrying
holes, each pressing
slante d
so ^nted
slots so
carryi ng slots
plates carrying
dropp ed plates
these heads are dropped
are tightplates are
of plates
pair of
joining aa pair
that, when the bolts joining
each
towardstightforced towards
are forced
plates are
clamp ing plates
ened, the four clamping
and
sectionseach
C-cor e sections
the C-core
aligns the
automatically aligns
other. This automatically
and
them.
betwe en them.
closes the gaps between
.
fixing
Inter- Servic e fixing
with Inter-Service
moun ting with
horizo ntal mounting
For horizontal
coil
are coil
as are
available, as
is available,
plate is
adapt or plate
centres
centre s a simple adaptor
Queen s
Ltd., Queens
Nucleonics Ltd.,
M.K.S . Nucleonics
plates. M.K.S.
shrouding
shrou ding plates.
Herts .
Watfo rd, Herts.
Road, Watford,
Comparator
Frequency
Frequency Comparator
permi ts
Raloc permits
the Raloc
locked-oscillator, the
PSSENTIALLY
a locked-oscillator,
LLY
NTIA
ESSE
broad cast
a
with
tor
oscilla
synchronization
of
a
local
oscillator
with
a
broadcast
tion
roniza
synch
better .
or better.
10 or
in 10
parts m
within 55 parts
to within
standard
standa rd such as GBR to
ive v.l.f.
sensit
a
by
ed
receiv
is
rd
standa
ry
prima
The primary standard is receivedphase
by a ofsensitive
ncy
frequev.li.
the phase of
with the
comp ared with
receiver
aa frequency
receiver and compared
locks the
system
servo
A
tor.
oscilla
local
the
from
d
derive
derived
the local oscillator.to Athat
servoofsystem
the
ed
receiv
the locks
oscillator to that of
ncy of the oscillator
frequency
the
received
freque
phase
the
of the
record ing of
pen recording
provides aa pen
standard
phase
standa rd and provides
which
outpu t which
an output
provides an
difference.
The servo system provides
nce. The
differe
to each
oscillators to
extern al oscillators
synchronize
external
each
can be used to synchronize
orders
two orders
or two
automatically or
10 8 automatically
in 10"
other within 11 part in
Stanlly.
manua
adjust ed manually. Stanare adjusted
controls are
better when the controls
kc/s are
100 kc/s
and 100
Mc/s and
at 11 Mc/s
outpu ts at
frequency outputs
dard frequency
are
ed
receiv
the received
of the
accuracy of
the accuracy
available,
available, each being to the
the
by
ed
factur
manu
is manufacwred by the
instru ment is
standard.
The instrument
standa rd.
available
and isis available
Burns and
and Burns
Picka rd and
American
Amer ican firm of Pickard
Ltd.~ 4,
Labor atorie s, Ltd.,
K. Laboratories,
and K.
B. and
in the U.K. from B.
4,
W.l.
Londo n, W.l.
Str.eet, Park Lane, London,
Tilney Street,
10
standard.
and standard.
comparator and
Raloc frequency
frequency comparator
supply.
Solartron
Solartron twin power supply.
C- Cores
for C-Cores
Clam p for
New Clamp
shell-type
in shell-type
C-Cor es in
of C-Cores
assembly of
metho d of assembly
ONE method
under
applie d under
is applied
wh:ch is
band which
steel band
transformers
transf ormer s is to use a steel
employs aa
metho d employs
Anoth er method
soldered. Another
tension
tensio n and then soldered.
adopt ed
is adopted
metho d is
whichever method
screw-type
screw -type band, but whichever
1962
MARC H 1962
WORL D, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
132
March,
MARCH, 1962
71
~ORLD
Wireless
~IRELESS World
.. / ,~>.No.,~~(..~~~~,
',. i>
"t-=~
.,~~~;~~~;~;~. ~~~ ---
ne\N Mazd a hand book

new
Mazda
This loose-leaf handbook contains in a single

volume comprehensive data on all new and
maintenance types of Mazda domestic valves
eristic
andcathoderay tubes.Numerous
characteristic
s.Numerouscharact
andcathoderaytube
curves and some typical circuits are given.
This Mazda Handbook supersedes the section
dealing with 'Receiving Types' in the former
3-volume Ediswan (Mazda) Valve Handbook.
The new Mazda Handbook has improved layout
using a larger page size. The sheets are secured
in a smart blue PVC cover by square ringfiat opening and easy insertions.
binders for flat
INITIAL CHARGE covering a handbook complete to date, packing and postage
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Purchasers of the new Handbook are invited
to subscribe on 1st
Ist July each year to the followup data service. This brings you periodical
forms: (a) Advance
parcels of data in two forms;
blue.
data on new development types, printed in blue,
(b) Final data on established types, printed in
black.
RENEWAL CHARGE covering subsequent
1.0.0
amendments and new issues
handbook
SPECIAL OVERSEAS EDITION For Overseas use a

special edition is published at the same price covering
domestic type valves and picture tubes marketed
under the EDISWAN brand by our Ediswan Export
Division. In this edition precedence is given to
European type numbers.
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1-
To:: Publicity
Publicity Department,
To
Thorn-AEI
Thorn-AEI Radio Valves & Tubes Ltd.,
1
W .C .2.
155 Charing Cross Road, London, W.C.2.
155
copy( ies) of the handbook
Please send me . . .. . . copy{ies)
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ticked
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A Z D A VALVE COMMERCIAL DIVISION 155 Charing Cross Road, London WC2 Telephone GERrard 9797
M
155 Charlng Cross Road, London WC'2 Telephone GERrard 9797
Thorn House, London, WC'2

DIVISION thornHouse,
]]I])I[w~ EXPORT DIVISION
1ÎTTlHEXPORT
London, WC2 Telex: London 215Q1 (Thorn Ldn)
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& tubes
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MARCH,
WIRELES S WORLD
LIVE WIRES IN INSULATION

LIVE
WIRES
IN
INSULATION
SLEEVING
INSULATING SLEEVIlie
SUFLBX
F.L EX III8UL1TIK8
SU
you
suggest you
We suggest
circuits. We
electrical circuits.
all electrical
to all
essential to
Insulationn in some form is essential
Insulatio
on
produced
materials
those
rly
particula
,
sleeving
of
range
consider the Suflex
sleeving, particularly those materials produced on aa
to
resistance to
and resistance
strength and
mechanical strength
enhanced mechanical
their enhanced
braided fabric base with their
be
can
sleeving can be
the sleeving
wisely the
chosen wisely
If chosen
cycles. If
impregnation cycles.
both heat shock and impregnation
n.
operatio
ble
dependa
very
for
dependable operation.
relied upon
In particula
particularr Periglas
I
I
Periglas PVC Insulated Glass
In
an
such an
(illustrated right) is just such
I
Sleeving (illustrated
example of
B
'
I
characterquality.lItt is charactersupreme quality.
of supreme
example
category
temperature category
I
, j**
ised by aa Class B temperature
and
strength and
dielectric strength
(130oC), 5,000 volt dielectric
(130C),
w
mechanical
resistance to mechanical
unprecedented
B
B^
B
dented resistance
unprece
for
good
as
B
abuse. All Suflex Sleeving is as good for
of
one of
Periglas, one
its particular
B
particular task as is Periglas,
the Suflex range.
E,
BILTON HOUS
SUFLEX
HOUSE,
X LTD., BILTON
SUFLE
W.5
LONDON, W.5
EALING,
LONDON,
G1
EALIN
ROAD,
UXBRIDGE ROAD,
54 UXBRIDGE
54
7733
EALin g 7733
Telephone: EALing
Telephone:
Ba stable
1962
LETI RS 0 THE EDITOR

LETTERS TO THE
EDITOR
corresponde n~ r;
his correspondents
by his
expressed by
opinions expressed
the opinions
The Editor does not necessarily endorse the
Conventions
Circuit Conventions
Transistor Circuit
HAVING spent some considerable time in the last few
tranprocess of tranyears in the arduous but stimulating process
sistorizing myself, I have been continuously reminded
notaof the helpful part which can be played by good notation. I therefore feel reasonably qualified and certainly
to
strongly urged to weigh in with some contributions to
your discussion.
Your editorial in the February issue of Wireless
World expounds an admirable philosophy, though II
tranthis to tranam a little puzzled why you should apply this
sistor notation and not circuit convention in general,
since your " loop and bottle " convention can certainly
be described as " having had its origin in the past and
having ignored the passage of time."
per se,
On the question of notation for transistors per
I feel that the two conventions which you discuss, viz
AND
"
-+
are so nearly alike as to be equally explicit to any reader

and hence acceptable almost interchangeably. I have
than
previously expressed the view that principles rather than
your
rigid rules are the requirement and I fully support your
who
open verdict on this question. However, ""he
he who
for aa
falls down a pit while searching the heavens for
70
page 70
. "; arid it appears to me that on page
sign . . .and
two
of two
(February), while discussing the fine points of
the
by the
alternative conventions, you have ruined both by
non-information-b earing
inclusion of a superfluous and non-information-bearing
Ray"
Cathode Ray
by"
""envelope".
envelope ". The ensuing discussion by
" Cathode
"
the
on the
verges on
(who commands my greatest respect) verges
envelope.
the
is
ridiculous. -But
But what is ridiculous the envelope.
argues
Baxandall argues
As regards ""positive
positive upwards", Baxandall
wrong,
be wrong,
to be
him to
this. I believe him
strongly in favour of this.
personal
of personal
one of
largely one
but must admit that the issue is largely
to
round to
worked round
have worked
taste.
taste. The convention which II have
with
than with
rather than
sense rather
I would describe, with common sense
being
high",
rigour, as ""Ground
Ground low, Rail high
", ""Rail"
Rail" being
in
matter in
not matter
does not
that which feeds the collectors. It does
negaor nega(n-p-n) or
positive (n-p-n)
.the
the least whether the Rail is positive
the
imagine the
to imagine
like to
tive (p-n-p). With Baxandall I like
alongside itit
scale alongside
circuit diagram as carrying a voltage scale
we
If we
mapped. If
be mapped.
on which voltage excursions can be
or
Rail " or
" up, i.e. towards Rail"
describe these excursions as "up,
have
Ground " then we do not have
down, i.e. towards Ground"
""down,
absolute
the absolute
and the
to use the term positive and negative and
not
should not
polarity does not matter. In any case one should
are
Rails are
both Rails
be too d.c. minded; for most purposes both
cases II
some cases
in some
a.c. sense. Further, in
Ground in the a.c.
what II
on what
Earth on
putting Earth
would have no hesitation in putting
Rail. _
as Rail.
regarding as
have previously been regarding
perhave perI am advocating this system as one which II have
makes
it makes
that it
fact that
the fact
sonally found very useful despite the
valve
like valve
certain transistor circuits look extraordinarily like
very
of very
thought of
be thought
circuits, while in fact they have to be
tranthink of trandifferently. We have all been taught to think
always
we always
do we
sistors as current-operated devices; but do
stages
do it? An amplifier of cascaded grounded-emitter stages
exalmost exthink almost
to think
has to
one has
is a good test case. Here one
apQroxiclusively in terms of current gain, and to a first approxi-
the
into the
straight into
mation each collector current flows straight
shunting
to shunting
due to
losses due
next base subject only to current losses
networks.
biasing networks.
effects of the collector feed and base biasing
comor cornto or
Finally, some of your contributors admit to
opinion
my opinion
In my
plain about the redrawing of circuits. In
one
no one
that no
believe that
since II believe
this should be compulsory, since
it.
drawing it.
personally drawing
circuit without personally
can fully grasp a circuit
Better still, then go and make it!
BEDFORD.
H . BEDFORD.
L . H.
Luton.
L.
contriyour contriby your
A SCHOOL of
of circuit-drawing ignored by
January,
World, January,
P . J. Baxandall (Wireless World,
Mr. P.
butor Mr.
the
in the
adherents in
1962), possibly because it has few adherents
United Kingdom, advocates that all power lines and rethe diagram.
b.! assembled at the bottom of the
turns should be
Cirn- p-n transistor cirIn these days of mixed p-n-p and n-p-n
do.
to do.
cuits, I believe that this is the only logical thing to
upper"colleetors upperWithout offending the devotees of "collectors
most," the method can retain, though perhaps not to
Baxandall's
the same degree, the advantages of Mr. Baxandall's
"positive
" positive uppermost" rule.
Admittedly an increase m the number of crossing conscarcely
ductors is almost inevitable, but these are scarcely
obscurantist and are counterbalanced by other benefits.
Signal paths can be conveniently swept clean of interisolati1;1g filters, bias networks, and bric-a-brac of
stage isolating
a.c.that nature. The not-so-bright are reminded that a.c.wise all power lines can usually be regarded as earthed
returns. Even the Holford method of bypassing emitter
resistors is made to look familiar!
BUSH.
H. BUSH.
H. H.
Edinburgh.
SURELY Mr.
Mr. Baxandall exaggerates the importance of
SURELY
does
h .t. supply in suggesting, as he does
the polarity of the h.t.
p-n-p
in the January issue, that a circuit including aa p-n-p
with
transistor should be drawn upside .down compared with
transistor
or
the equivalent circuit containing an n-p-n transistor or
in
valve. Such a system causes unnecessary difficulty in
valve.
resistor drawn
reading circuit diagrams. For example, a resistor
the
if the
load if
above a transistor symbol may be a collector load
transistor is an n-p-n type but an emitter load if itit isis aa
thus
p-n-p type. Careful examination of the diagram isis thus
transistor
the transistor
necessary to confirm the orientation of the
the ""collector
collector
symbol. No such confusion is possible in the
uppermost" system.
the
facilitates
system
his
that
claims
Mr. Baxandall
the
difficulty
understanding of pulse circuits but there is no difficulty
various
the various
through the
in tracing the passage of a signal through
remembers
one remembers
provided one
stages of electronic equipment provided
ru1es, e.g., that there is phase inversion in aa
simple rules,
common-emitter stage but not in common-base or common-collector stages. These rules are independent of
transistor
to transistor
the polarity of the h.t. supply and apply to
valve
h.t. supply as well as to valve
circuits with a negative h.t.
valve
circuits with a positive supply. Indeed, equivalent valve
and transistor circuit diagrams should, as far as possible,
have the same layout to facilitate circuit recognition.
patterns
Circuit diagrams are read by recognizing the patterns
for certain commonly encountered arrangements such
RC-coupled amplifiers, blocking oscillators,
as those for RC-coupIed
each common
etc., and it is a great help to the reader if each
layout
basic layout
arrangement is always drawn with the same basic
arrangement
no matter whether the active element is a transistor, aa
3-terminal network.
valve or any other type of active 3-terminal
The adoption of such standard layouts makes for maxiprese ntation which is the principal aim
mum clarity of presentation
there
ln Mr. Baxandall's system there
of any circuit diagram. . In
133
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
\
geme nt,
arran
circuit arrangement,
every circuit
for every
ts for
stand ard layou
are two standard
layouts
other. This
the other.
to the
respect to
with respect
inver ted with
one of which is inverted
orizin memThis
d
do in
to
work
much
as
twice
nts
stude
to le
gives the students twice as much work derab
1 elem ent of
consi
a
uces
introd
and
ts
layou
ing the layouts and introduces a considerable
element
of.
above
ment ioned
was mentioned
which was
of which
example of
confusion,
above
confusion, one example
by
discussion
active
r
unde
nt
prese
ct
This
subject
is
at
present
under
active
discussion
by
subje
This
doubtless
will doubtless
whic h will
Instit ution which
Stand ards Institution
the^
British Standard^
the British
due course.
in
s
ation
mend
recom
ant
relev
issue
some
relevant
recommendations
m
dueômse^
issue
ector sthe "coll
to the
challenge to
Baxandall offers aa challenge
Mr Baxandall
Mr.
10 and
e W
Figurcollectors
his Figure
conce rning his
propo nents concerning
unoermost"
and
uppe rmos t" proponents
shoul d re-dr aw
We should
challenge. We
this challenge.
accept this
we are glad to accept
rc-draw
A)
Fig.
ng
panyi
accom
the accompanying Fig. A)
in the
(repr oduc ed in
Figur e 10 (reproduced
his Figure
and collector
emitt er and
the emitter
show the
would show
and would
Fig. B and
as in Fig
collecto
included
were indudcd
this were
If this
C. If
Fig. C
in Fig,
waveforms as in
voltage
voltage waveforms
the following
add the
should add
we should
Instr uctio n we
Tech nical Instruction
in a Technical
tollow g
nation.
expla
expianauon-ck^g
he p-mp
oscillator
trans istor
p-n-p transistor
action 0off tthe
ator action
nearly
it rises
and it
C and
of C
period of
charge period
at the end of the charge
rises Durin
nearlyg
short-circuits. During
trans istor short-circuits.
the transistor
to zero volts when the
to a
falls
e
voltag
tor
collec
the
C the collector voltage falls to
perio d of C
the discharge
a
discharge period
volts. At
2
-2.5
voltage, emitt er voltage,
the emitter
slightly above the
value shghtly
^^^!:
.
^
tor
collec
the
and
its
circu
opentransistox open-circuits and the collector
this point the transistot
of the
because of
volts because
- 4.5 volts
the -4.5
overshoots the
voltage
die
voltage falls, overshoots
discharges
then discharges
and then
circu it and
collector circuit
inductance
induc tance in the coUector
back to -4.5 volts."
with
unfamiliar with
comparatively unfamiliar
stude nt, comparatively
^We'claim
that a student,
We claim fhat
our
difficulty our
witho ut difficulty
follow without
would follow
circuitry, would
transistor
trans istor circuitry,
explanation.
diagram
diagram and explanation.
RLE Y.
tLondon,
j
w/1
K
STUAMOS.
K. R. STURLEY.
Lond on, W.l.
s
W. AMO S.
S. w
Depa rtmen t,
Train ing Department,
Engineering
Engin eerin g Training
Corporation.
Broadcasting _Corporation.
British
Britis h Broadcasting
when he says
case when
own case
his own
defeats his
BAX AND ALL defeats
MR BAXANDALL
he have
says
MR.
"seld om
who
,
users
the
of
ons
opini
the
Zt
opinions of the users,
who
"seldom
have
that
inside
happ ens inside
what
l
detai
much
in
der
consi
ion
occasion
to
consider
in
much
detail
what
happens
occas
when stanconsi dered when
be considered
not be
should not
blocks " should
circuit blocks"
the circuit
of a
purpo se stanwhole
the
y
Surel
harni
nre
being
set.
Surely
the
whole
purpose
of
a
are
dards
of the circu it
ion
funct
-4sV
the
y
conve
to
is
am
diagr
+9V
it
circuit diagram is to convey theinly not draw n for the
circu
certa
are certainly
Circu its are
to the user. Circuits
not drawn tor me
benefit of designers.
accompli.
fait accompli.
n fait
desig
a
R
nted
prese
^The
user^L^resented
with
a
design
is
user
The
but with
ulties but
diffic
n
desig
the
rn
Hi!
concern
is
not
with
the
design
difficulties
with
conce
His
d assimilation
Rapi
it.
circu
new
a
of
n
ilatio
assim
rapid assimilation of a new circuit. draw
Rapid
assmulauon
can
he
that
n
so drawn that he can
is so
circu it is
is nractical
practical only if the circuit
draw n
Circu its drawn
ly.
quick
ions
gurat
confi
it
circu
recognize
circuit
configurations
quickly.
Circuits
nize
recog
have
always have
conv entio n always
uppe rmos t " convenDon
to
collectors
ector s uppermost"
the "coll
to the
g 2, 3 and 4).
's Figs.
ndall
Baxa
(Mr.
ion
gurat
confi
same
the
configuration (Mr. Baxandali's
Fi strans, istors
an as
).
upon
look upon
to look
legitimate to
perfectly legitimate
It is perfectlv
transistors
as
same
the sa
in the
put in
be
can
they
es;
devic
d
erate
voltage-operated
devices;
they
can
be
put
ge-op
volta
need
reade r nced
circu it rcader
The circuit
valves. The
therm ionic valves.
category
category as thermionic
P or n-p-n
s, p-n-p
valve
her
whet
elf
hims
rn
conce
not concern himself whetherit confi
valves,
P:":
. L
ê
same
the sa
is
ion is
gurat
circu configuration
tranRiRrnrs
the
sam
transistors are used; the circuit
C= SR
ces the function
dedu
he
that
this
from
is
it
and
each
for
it is from thisampl
thatifying
he deduces
function
vely
is relati
device the
of amplifying
type of
The type
circuit. The
of a circuit.
device
rHanvcly
inal
3-term
be aais3-termina
to
dered
consi
be
nt
unimportant
and
may
be
considered
to
be
porta
unim
ion. No useful
funct
ifying
ampl
an
has
which
e
device
has an amplifying
funcnon.
No r usetul
devic
down
reade
circu it reader
the circuit
bogging the
by bogging
served by
+9V
se is served
purpose
down
purpo
-4sV
cs.
physi
istor
trans
with
Wi
circuit
throu gh aa circuit
signal through
ge of a signal
jn
passage
Fig. B.
tracing the passa
In rcm^ffif
Supp ly
vant. Supply
Fig. A:
irrele
quite
is
lines
y
suppl
ffie
polarity
of
the
supply
lines
is
quite
irre
evant.
ity
polar
the
from a signal
poten tial from
(earth) potenual
refere nce (earth)
lines are at reference
signal
ensees a aconv
r sees
reade
it
circu
a
n
Whe
ooint
of
view.
When
a
circuit
reader
convenpoint
tly
instan
knowsa mstantly
he
stage
ifier
ampl
ed
nonally-connected
amplifier
stage
he
knows
nnect
lly-co
tiona
rise to a negativegives
l
signa
input
ing
ve-go
positi
a
that positive-going mputsignalgivesrisc
3-ter mina l
of an^'ve
type to
the type
of the
regardless of
signal regardless
+ 9 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . : :.::---- =---outpu t signal
going output
of
3-termmal
ode
sees aa "cath
he
n
Whe
e
devic
amnlifving
device
used.
When
he
sees
cathode
ifying
ampl
"-'
vepositi
that aa posmves
know
he
n
ectio
conn
wer"
follower
type
connection
he
knows
that
<
follo
outpu t
positive-going output
a
l
going
input
signal
gives
rise
to
a
positive-gomg
signa
input
going
~
is denie d to
recognition is
>
insta nt recogmuon
of instant
facility of
signal
to.
signal. This facihty
diagr am
entio ndenied
conv
"
ost
pperm
w
ive-u
posit
"
a
of
user
the
" positive-uppermost"
convention
diagram.
........
and
istors
trans
p-n-p transistors and
for p-n-p
think ing for
his thinking
inver t his
He must invert
~ -25
transistors.
re-invert
j u*
re-in vert it for n-p-n transistors.
he and his colwork he
the work
of the
natur e of
the nature
of the
By virtue of
Bv
and
hiscome
colhave
well
may well have
Baxandall may
Mr. Baxandall
doing, Mr.
es are doing,
leagues
come
leagu
onas comm
circuits as
awkward circuits
more awkward
toTok
commonto look upon the more
of the
majority of
vast ma)ority
the vast
that the
UJ
recognize that
place. He must recognize
nal
conventiothe
into conventional
soldered into
are soldered
produ ced today are
transistors
trans istors produced
~
stabilized
ers,
receiv
radio
,
uters
comp
0
l
digita
circuits
in
digital
computers,
radio
receivers,
stabilized
its
circu
>
this
cloud this
not cloud
must not
We must
power
supplies and the like. We
powe r supplies
cases.
awkward cases
of
rity
mino
small
a
ng
looki
fssue
by
looking
at
a
small
minority
of
awkward
issue
up-n egati ve
tive upnegauve
the "posi
quote s the
Baxa ndall quotes
positive
Mr. Baxandall
as an
repre senta tion as
graphical representation
in graphical
entio n in
conv
"
down"
convention
an
down
positively
TIME~
think positively
to think
prefe r to
people prefer
argument.
argum ent. I think most people
less
is
ively
negat
varying negatively is less
quan tities varying
of quantities
conce pt of
Fig. C.
and the concept
prefe r his tranBaxandall prefer
Mr. Baxandall
Does Mr.
appreciate. Does
his Prob
tran-easy to appreciate.
quad rant?
third
the
in
s
curve
tic
cteris
chara
sistor
re
characterisuc
curves
in
the
third
quadrant.
Probe
voltag
the
this
when
that
ver,
tes
Howe
nstra
demo
this demonstrates
+ 9 volts. However,ctwhen
think this
towards +9
charges
the (mak
voltage
charges towards
ll ably he does and II think
that
ing
earth
to earth
ach.thisI
respe to
appro
with respect
individual approach
positive with
of
r
slightly positive
matte
a
acrosss C is slightly
(making
ct
acros
subje
e
whole
subject
is
a
matter
of
individual
I
whol
transistQr
the transistor
negative) the
slightly negative)
Mr. Baxandall's school
the
voltage slightly
deny Mr.
to deny
seek to
base-emitter voltage
not seek
the base-emitter
certa inly not
would certainly
e
would
Baxandall
s
schoo
ne
ve voltagge
ive
negat
a
recog
to
also
arged
must
disch
he
but he must also recog-conducts
f the
" collector
negatively but
cond ucts and C is discharged to a
think negatively
to think
or their right to
of Ae
action of
divider action
to think positively.
potential divider
wish
who
dependent
collcctor
dent on the potential
those
of
depen
rights
the
nize
-n
rights of those whoatewish
to
think
posmvely.
(Thiss is given
and R.
ation on
ardiz
resistance and
stand
that
internal resistance
advoc
trans istor internal
load, transistor
R.
(Th'
is
given
gly
stron
fore
nI
therefore
strongly
advocate
that
standardization
there
then open
trans istor then
to
The transistor
It is up on
sition . . It
Baxandall.) The
propo
ical
pract
- 2.5 volts by Baxandall.)
a
as -2.5
openion
quest
rs
this
question
is
not
a
practical
proposition
up it~
to
volts.
+99 ltstowards +
again towards
charge again
to charge
each caseis on
treat each
begins to
to treat
am
circuits
diagr
it
circuits and C begins
circu
r
autho
Ite
the
author
of
a
circuit
diagram
to
case
on
us
volts
-4.5 volts
nearl y -4.5
very nearly
is very
collector is
voltage on the collector
" The voltage
1962
MARC H 1962
WORL D, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World.
134
"The blocking oscill

Durin g
const ant CR. During
time constant
the time
by the
controlled by
(Fig. B) is controlled
(Fig
C
capacitor C
trans istor CR.
the transistor
period of the
the
capacitor
open -circu it period
the open-circuit
(.!)
0::
(.!)
merits bearing in
in mind
mind first
first and
and foremost
foremost the
the needs
needs of
of
the ultimate user of the
the diagram.
diagram.
transistor symbols.
One last point on transistor
I
agree
with
symbols. I agree with
Baxandall's preference for
Mr. BaxandalTs
for symbol
symbol (a)
(a) in
in Fig.
Fig. 1.1.
Symbol (b) has, however, been
been agreed
agreed upon
upon internationinternat~<?n
ally at a recent meeting
meeting of
of the
.the I.E.G.
I.E.C. The
The British
Br~tls?
Standard will no
no doubt
doubt remain
remam unchanged
unchanged when
when it1t isIS
Since no
republished. Since
is
or
will
be
provided
no alternative
alternative is or will be provide?
in B.S.530 in respect
respect of
of transistor
transistor symbols,
symbols, II submit
submit
that we must now recognize
recognize the
the B.S.530
B.S.530 transistor
transistor symsymbol whether we like itit or
or not.
not.
Wimbledon Park.
A.
Park:
A. C.
C. B.
B. CAIN.
CAIN.
I WOULD like to comment
comment on
on aa few
few of
of the
the ideas
ideas put
put
forward by Mr. Baxandall
Baxandall in
in his
his article
article in
in the
the January
January
issue. As regards transistor
transistor symbols,
symbols, the
the use
use of
of his
his
Fig. 1(b) is so widely
widely established
established that
that itit isis difficult
difficult to
to
believe that any alternative
alternative will
will prove
prove acceptable.
acceptable. My
My
complaint about his
his Fig.
Fig. 1(a)
1(a) isis that
that aa totally
totally different
different
symbol would be required to
to indicate
indicate aa tetrode
tetrode whereas
whereas
a straight continuation of
of the
the base
base line
line serves
serves this
this purpurpose in (b). Moreover,
Moreover, (a)
(a) looks
looks too
too much
much like
like aa concontrolled rectifier, requiring
requiring merely
merely the
the addition
addition of
of aa gate
gate
electrode on the collector
collector side
Side of
of the
the base
base line.
line. There
There
are so many semiconductor
semiconductor devices
devices that
that itit seems
seems hopehopeless to devise symbols
symbols for
for them
them based
based either
either on
on funcfunctional properties or constructional
constructional details.
details. How,
How, for
for
example, could one show on
on aa diagram
diagram that
that aa particular
particular
transistor was intended
intended to
to operate
oper;ne in
in an
an avalanche
avalanche
mode? We are left then
then to
to choose
choose some
some purely
purely diagramdiagrammatic representation which
which isis easy
easy to
to draw,
draw, unambiguous
unambiguous
in meaning and recognizable
recognizable at
at sight.
sight. To
To my
my mind,
mind, the
the
devices should
should give
originators of new devices
give much
much more
more
thought to this question
question since
since itit isis so
so difficult
difficult to
to make
make
modifications. The
retrospective modifications.
The situation
situation isis not
not new
new
parallel in
and it has a parallel
in the
the field
field of
of nomenclature,
nomenclature, particuparticularly that associated with
with the
the fundamental
fundamental particles
particles of
of
and
modern physics. If "A" discovers
discovers aa negative
negative particle
particle -and
then ""B
calls it an electron then
B "" must
must take
rake note
note of
of this
this when
when
he finds its positive counterpart.
counterpart. After
After hearing
hearing gracious
gracious
words like proton and neutron,
neutron, what
what are
are we
we to
to think
think of
of
a physicist who digs out
out aa "hole"?
" hole"?
Turning now to the
the question
question of
of circuit
circuit diagrams
diagrams of
o,f
waveform generators, there
there isis aa great
great deal
deal to
to be
be said
said
for Mr. BaxandaU's
Baxandall's point
point of
of view
view that
that the
the most
most positive
positive
be drawn
drawn at
supply line should be
at the
the top,
top, proceeding
proceeding toto
the most negative at
ar the
the bottom.
bottom. II believe
believe this
this convenconvention should always be used
used when
when describing
describing aa new
new circircuit, when drawing a waveform
waveform generator
generator in
in isolation
isolation
and, more generally,
generally, until
until every
every such
such circuit
circuit becomes
becomes
an established unit, well
well known
known in
in the
the art.
art. But
But when
when
such circuits form minor elements
in
some
more
elements in some more comcomplex device the overriding
and
simple
overriding need
need isis for
for clear
clear and simple
draughtsmanship giving segregation
segregation of
of various
various functional
functional
blocks, involving the minimum
minimum number
number of
of crossing
crossing
of detached earth
wires. The use of
earth points
points isis aa useful
useful dedeif, in the text
text of
vice even it,
of the
the article,
article, the
the author
author stresses
stresses
multiple earths.
earths.
the need for avoiding multiple
with amplifiers,
When dealing with
amplifiers, oscillators,
oscillators, modulators,
modulators,
demodulators and the
the whole
whole paraphernalia
paraphernalia of
of conconmanipulation II am
tinuous wave manipulation
am in
in favour
favour of
of aa scheme
scheme
which treats the circuits
circuits in
in the
the most
most logical
logical way
way from
from
the signal
the point of view of the
signal and
and regardless
regardless of
of the
the
polarity of the power
P?Wer. supplies.
supplies. Some
Some years
yea~s ago,
ago, parparticularly in America,
Amenca, itIt was
was standard
standard practice
practice to
to draw
draw
receivers and amplifiers
amphfiers with
with the
the h.t.
h.t. feed,
feed, bias,
bias, a.g.c.
a.g.c.
and decoupling circuits
circuits below
below the
the earth
earth line,
line, leaving
leaving an
an
uncluttered signal flow line
line above
above this
this datum.
datum: In
I~ some
some
instructive. For
For example,
example, considering
ways this was instructive.
considermg RC
RC
amplifiers, it was easy
easy to
to see
see which
which elements
elements were
~ere; effeceffectively in parallel (e.g.
(e.g . .the
the anode
~node load
load and
and grid
gn? bias
bias reresistors). Bass lift due
due to
to inadequate
madequate decoupling,
decouplmg, treble
treble
cut due to valve output
output capacitance,
capacitance, coupling
coupling capacicapacivalve input
input capacitance
tance to ground and valve
capacitance could
could easily
easily
understood. The scheme
scheme made
made itit easier
be understood.
easier to
to visualize
visualize
the interstage phase
phase shifts
shifts which
which might
might be
be expected.
expected. The
~he
idea lost its elegance and
and simplicity
simplicity as
as soon
soon as
as negative
negauve
feedback, push-pull
push-pull - working,
working, a.f.c.
a.f.c. and
and a.g.c.
a.g.c. caused
caused
WIRELESS
Wireless World,
WORLD, March
MARCH
- - - - - - - - - - -12V
+45V
i
INPUT
i
p-n-p
EARTif
FEEDBACK
Fig. I.
to appear
appear below
below the
too much wiring to
the earth
earth line.
line.
points to
to be
be emphasized
In an oscillator, the points
emphasized in
in the
the circircuit diagram
diagram. are the a.c.
a.c. connections
connections between
between the
the tuned
tuned
maintaining amplifier.
amplifier. The
circuit and the maintaining
The power
power supply
supply
connections, whether series
series or
or shunt
shunt feed,
feed, are
are of
of
Similarly, in
in push-pull
push-pull circuits,
secondary importance. Similarly,
circuits,
complex feedback
particularly those with complex
feedback paths,
paths, itit
impossible to
to follow
follow the
the "" positiveproves next to impossible
positiveupwards " rule.
upwards"
Fig. 11 is my version
version of
Fig.
of Figs.
F~gs. 66 and
~nd 77 in
in Mr.
Mr. BaxanBax.andall's article. The only
only merit
ment II claim
claim concerns
concerns the
the simsimplicity of the drawing.
drawing; My
My Fig.
Fig. 2~ isis a~ re-draft
re-~raft of
of his
his
Fig. 10, carried out with
wit~ the
the same
same idea
Idea in
m mind.
mm~. II. find
find
to picture
picture the
the waveforms
waveforms in
m Fig.
Ftg. 22
it reasonably easy to
deluded myself
myself by
by learning
learning what
what to
but perhaps I have deluded
to
of his arrangement!
arrangement! The
The n-p-n
expect from a study of
n-p-n
equivalent to Fig. 22 is given
given in
in Fig.
Fig. 3.
3.
. .
To conclude, I have aa profound
profound respect
respect for
for the
the circuit
Circu~t
R.R.E. by
by Mr.
Mr. Baxandall
work carried out at R.R.E.
Baxandall and
and his
hts
colleagues. I recognize
recognize too
too that
that the
the quality
quality of
of this
this work
.wor~
must owe a good deal
deal to
to the
the soundness
soundness of
of the
the circuit
~Irc~tt
conventions which have been
been been
been adopted,
adopted, which
which in
m
+9V
-9V
Fig. 3.
135
13.5
1962
1962
n circu its and
know
of known
unde rstan ding of
facilitate the understanding
turn
circuits
and
turn tacilhate
I feel that
spite of this
In spite
ones. In
new ones.
sugg estin g new
Assistt in suggesting
oas t the preff erre d
l1ssis
.l(b)
Fig
his
shou ld put up with
we
acceptance.
wor ld-w ide acceptance.
its world-wide^
uansistor'sîto^bâuse
ks
tran sisto r symbol beca use of
in
rato rs m
gene
m
efor
wav
new
g
?
desc ribin new waveform generators
that in describing
thin k that
I think
entio n of "po si-
IB
,......._
5- 14
his conv
isolation we mig ht well adop tcom plex circuits the aim
tive -upw ards ," but that inof drau ghts man ship . In conlicit y of ^^tsmanship. In c aoverall simp
should
simplicity
ld be overall
shou
ct shou ld be to show
tinu ous- wav e devices the obje ply voltage pola rity conSup
.
path
al
sign
r forw ard ssys
clea
sstss
this over ridin g
to this
rdin ated to
be subo
shou ld be
ventions
subordinated
overriclin0
ventions should
mquirement.
irem ent.
butler
requ
LER
BUT
F.
Cheltenham.
lten ham .
Che
Wire sure ITircam sure

symbols is,
STANDARDIZATION
is, II am
ND ARD IZA TIO N of symbols
STA
desiirrabl e
very
a
a
er de
e,
agre
will
ers
read
its
less World
agree, that
^ yIT am
^l,
Wor ld and all its readers will
less
surconv ictio n that
this conviction
condition,
am ing
sura
cond ition , and it is with this
)I join
issue
y
ruar
(Feb
ld
Wor
less
Wire
prised
World appe
(February
ed to find Wireless
pris
alter the
to 'O^ga
be to
to issue)
ars to
aim appears
who se aim
" snlinter
be
the
grou p," whose
inte r group."
"spl
r.
sistoalter
tran
for
!.
symbol
recommended
by
B.S.I,
for,
the
transistor.
B.S.
nded
sym bol reco mme
bol repr esen ts a
-sym
!.
B.S.
the
that
ation
The allegation
that the B.S.I,
symbol
represents
alleg
The
poinat
ecause
use
sisto r is
point-contact
transistor
is inco rrec t, base
bbeca
, the PXt
t-co ntac t tran
poin
, whe reas that
the
h
reac
not
does
ad
arro whe
of its arrowhead
does not ereach
the does
base, (in
whereas
the p-n- p
actually does
nativ actually
prop osed alter
of the proposed
alternative
thectiop-n -p
of
of
dire
the(mdirection
s the
cate
indi
w
arro
The
RSI
arrow
indicares
or
I.
B.S.
The
version).
cons isten t
mor e consistent
is
it
ect
resp
and
emitter
cunent,
arid
in
that
respect
it
is
more
ent,
emit ter curr
show n mus t adop t
as shown
w as
whose arro
nativ e, whose
than is the alter
alternative,
arrow
must adopt
than
n.
n-pand
p
p-nfor
tion
posi
a3 diffe rent
0 infe rred , B.S. !. is not imp ervi ous
been
dy
alrea
If
hafakeady
bee
n
Sed"
B^Tis
not
impervious
As has
is as well to air the subj ect
to enlig hten ed chan ge, and it once we upse t an acce pted
now if a chan ge is sought. But n coul d easily occu1r, with
conf usio could easily oc^ ' last
wide spre ad confusion
standard,
stan dard , widespread
that mig ht
patt erns , that
com petit ive patterns,
several competitive
revival
as
al of several
a reviv
odd s with
at mtgBt
is at
ld is
Wor
less
Wire
ady
Alre
several
years.
Already
Wireless
World
odds
with
s.
year
several
to
e
circl
the
s
ider
rou
wh
o
c0
cons
p, who
a member
own ggrouP'
. f fBeU
mem ber of its own
Bain brid ge Bell
L. Bambndgc
late
the
;
cuit
t-cir
shor
represent
a
short-circuit;
the
late
L.
licu
t
esen
repr
And so
envelope. And
evac uate d envelope.
or evacuated
gas-filled or
considered
so
ider ed it a gas-filled
cons
ad infin itum .
min
not
do
I
and
d,
grin
^/faveZ'particular
and I do not
mindd
I have no part icul ar axe to grind
but I do obje ct
sym bol, but
r symbol,
sisto
tran
Vinw
I
am
to
draw
a
transistor
I
do
objec
am
how
tice with out very good
to chan ging an acce pted prac ent form of sym bol as
hope that the pres
reas'oif10?
^ymbof as
on, and I 'hopf^^fi^presentôrmff
reas
cont inue d.
4) is d^^
plem ent ^ts
30 (Sup
jmblished
BS530
(Supplement
ishe d in BS5
publ
A. W. SPR EAD BUR Y.
E. n..
Harrow.
c,.
row .
Har
16
12
:;:; 10
::f:
........
:I:
1l!l
~
w
>
4
1900
20
20
iO10 1212 1414 16 1818 520
1920
1910
'
1910
YEAR
YEAR
ion conas
time
that
at
ting
ditio ns exis
prop agat ion cond ition s in
com men t. The vari ation of s, due to suns pot activity,
band
e
wav
ium
med
the long and
ine it was prob ably one
is very small inde ed, and I imag
ties- and one certa inly
icul
diff
tical
prac
the
of
of the least
mun icate over
t to com
figh
his
i-in
con
Mar
n
unknown
to
Marconiin
ms
ngr
QOO-metre
band,
unk now
The 2,00 0-m etre band ,
's.
1900
early
the
in
nces
dista
grea t
rs
suffe
,
coni
Mar
by
used
generally assu med to have been
s place in the D-re gion
take
h
whic
n
rptio
abso
the
from
rs of dayl ight , and Mar of the iono sphe re duri ng the hou
ight , mus t
signals,, inte rcep ted in dayl
tran satla ntic signal
coni 'ss transatlantic
. fortunate
of this. It is fortu nate
use
beca
,
rely
seve
red
suffe
have
Ehlfifo'S.r^D-SeSh^
emb er, whe n abso rptio n is
that he chos e the mon th of Dec
tests.
the
for
m,
imu
min
onal
seas
a
at
of the tran satla ntic tests
The sign al/n oise situa tion ived
the cons ider ation it
does not seem to have rec-eto note that , afte r mak ing
ng
resti
S2.?2nj.h.
^
a
deserves and it is inte
nigh t
difference betw een day and
allowances
change
allowances for the difference
in
chan ge in
hand and the cna
one hajrând^die
the one
on the
values on
absorption
g^
rptio n values
abso
the othe r, it is likely
atmo sphe ric nois
nsity of atmospheric,
intensity
ohade âonl0
i/
oise
iminte
noise imsign al/n
dB signa
10 dB
that Mar coni wou ld have his expe rime nt twelve hour s.
dela yed his experiment twelve hours.
frovem'emhad"^
prov eme nt had he delayed
G. A. IST ED,
Essex.
Bad dow , Essex.
at Baddow,
Great
pProp
Gre
ropagation
Gro up,
agat ion Group,
''
p
Hum
the Hump"
W er the
"Over
''Ov
Lab orat orie s.
e arch Laboratories.
ResMarconi
Research
coni
Mar
men t (Dec . 1961) conI HAV E read you r edito rial com
(Geo rge
11
of Mar coni 's first tran seless Over Thirt y Year s."
N. ""Wir
R. N.
Vyvyan, R.
Vyvyan,
Wireless
Over
Thirty
Years."
(Geor
cern ing the 60th anni vers ary Mr. Smi th's subs eque nt
Se
on.)
Lond
,
Sons
and
and
Rout ledge
Trev es,
atlan tic radi o tran smis sion
Frate lli Treves.
SSS
M,
Sh',
,ub,u
A. FratelU
(S. A.
o."
Radi
(Sdella
).
ria
1962
.
"Sto
(Jan
L.
i,
subj ect (Jan. lyo-y.
Solar
same subject
letter
lette r on the same
cont rove rsial
been aa ^ntrrtvprcial
has been
Mila no.)
No.
epis ode has
This transatlantic
controversia
tran satla ntic episode
This
l Soc1ety Arts. 1937, Vol. 86,
Roya
prob ably
'Journal Ra
will
and
^Fîing.
Flem ing, A. Journal
des,
deca
e
yal Socety Arts. 1937, Vol. 86, No.
thre
subj ect for the past
was
4436.
4436.
dou bt that Mar coni
rem ain so for ever. I have nothe long est wav e he was
he mus t use tte longest wave
he
...
that
well awa re ttat
l.
essfu
test was to be succ
Problem
Overall Problem
able to radi ate efficiently if the Mr. Smi th can be righ t
Restoration-the Overall
DD.C
C . Restoration-the
I do not believe, how ever , that likely freq uenc y to have
you r jour nal, H. V. Sims
e
IN an artic le appr opri ate to cons ider ation s involved in
whe n he suggests that the mor
0 kc/s
45-5
of
r
l
orde
nica
the
tech
in
ly
was
pure
deals with the
been used for the test
l clam ping " and it is
D-re gion is small.
the D-region
in the
abso rptio n in
whe re absorption
(f, 0000 metres)
is smal.
" d.c. resto ratio n and blac k leve
metr es) where
(6,00
assisonal
e coul d not be depers
's
spac
e
coni
mor
Mar
of
that
ate
ority
rtun
auth
the authority2 of Marconi's personal
We
it on The
perh aps unfo
have it
We have
used
uati on or loss of
elen gth assiswav
atten
of
the
t
at
effec
-th
e
ri
ectiv
Sola
subj
the su^)
S.'ivA.
w..^
"Jj
voted
rtali fcz-i
tn
the
mcture
vote d to tne
tant s-V yvy an1 and SolatMa.00te
tube .
est
I sugg
pict ure tube,
the
es."
to
metr
fed
"2,0
sign
the
was
in
test
ent
com pon
d.c. component
(W.W.,
January,
1962)) it is
for the tran satla ntic
day,
the da,
ary, 1962
of the
Janu
es
.,
niqu
(W.W
tech
to
S
tlw
techniques'
of
the
rred
with
refe
le
ing
artic r
In the article
i ion chain is concerned,
d,
that this is in keep
transm
engi neer s had
1901 engineers
year 1901
tran smissssion chai n is conc erne
the year
the transmis^
in the
as *e
far as
thin k that in
fnf II do
do not think
shownn that as far
show
for
ent
h d
ble
com ponent
d.c. compon
ems capahad
the
syst
l
that
aeria
see
gn
to
desi
n
to
take
e
is
ledg
care
very grea t
the necessary know
this
In supp ort of tto
that the sign al as tran srXinTlongta^s
atin g long waves efficiently. ng sup^rfoT
is given due cons ider ation and
of radi
prog ress ion
the
the brig htne ss of the
to
trati
ate
illus
h
opri
grap
appr
a
es
nd
valu
appe
?Lpm
a lons-distance
graph illustrating
the
statement
pp
communication
mitt ed has
entt IL append
state men
a~
.
icati on as
munprogression
com
era.
e
cam
tanc
the
-dis
by
long
ed
for
SC
b
g
view
es
g
e bein
scen
to long wav
reas ons
tly for reasons
yan 1, Sola rP
mos
Tn%
ecf
ertYowefer!fhi"er,
mostly
Vyv
er,
by
e
matt
atur
this
,
liter
ever
ant
how
relev
,
the
^Sld
hi 3
St.SVSte
b,ldVyvjan;
In receivers
desc ribe d in
2,000
less successfully
seem thatSolaj.
with
wou
t
it
h
deal
is
grap
re,
this
natu
From
omic
of an econ
and Fler ning
not as satisfactory as it
wav elen gth whic h coul d
and the subjective resu lt is
metr es was abou t the longestIt was not unti l 1907 that
.
1901
in
eved
shou ld be.
have been achi
failing that has been
Mr. Smi th were likely
Con side r a receiver with this ure duri ng the run of a
the freq uenc ies men tion ed by
pict
ry
facto
satis
.
a
used
give
to
been S
adju sted
to
t have
Mar coni 's
that Marconi's
It is reas onab le to
exte nt that
the extent
conc ludi ng. It
Smi th to the
just concluding.
%Ihaagre
arrebeeewith
is just
Mr. Smith
whic h is
with Mr.
programme
is reasonable to
ram me which
prog
cann ot
dayl ight cannot
ntic in
Atla
ss
acro
recepdmoY
signals
across
the
Atlantic
in
daylight
als
sign
of
n
rece ptio
1962
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
r opa
favourable "" Pprop
the -"" favourable
by the
he
. agat
Ptlo?fc?l
expl aine d by
fully explained
be fullv
rial
suggested in the edito
136
properiod before the next proassume that in the short period

source
transmit~ing source
gramme starts, the screens at the transmitting
screen,
rece1ver screen,
will be not only blank but black. Our receiver
however, will depict a degree of brightness intermediate
between black and full brightness, namely grey.
Suppose now that a caption consisting of a small amount
of white lettering on a black background is transmitted.
slight darkenThe effect on the receiver screen will be a slight
be
will be
ing of the grey background and the lettering will
over-bright and perhaps show signs of the tube's
inability to depict this degree of brightness.
At this point the viewer may .adjust his brightness
black and
control so that the background is restored to black
at the same time the lettering will be shown at no more
than maximum brightness, thus matching the picture at
the transmitting source.
If now the caption is followed by a programme with a
degree of average brightness similar to that of the preceding one, the viewer will find that his picture is too
dark and that he has to readjust the brightness control
to something like the original setting.
The Importance of the D.C. ComIn his paper ""The
1953),
('journal of the Television Society, June, 1953),
ponent" {Journal
reaches
Birkinshaw refers to this as ""the
the long arm that reaches
B.i.rkinshaw
out from the transmitter and adjusts the receiver screen
to the correct degree of brightness." However, the receiver
discussed
cussed has made poor use of this facility and the
dis
viewer, if he is to have a satisfactory evening's
viewer,
viewing, will have to make this adjustment himself. The
average viewer will not be aware of these failings beyond
consist.;.
perhaps a vague feeling that the lighting is not consistently satisfactory.
Incorrect rendition
rendition of tonal values in a caption may not
Incorrect
be very important but let us consider a programme of
sce:1e where
mainly average brightness which contains a scene
d.i.mly lit figure moving about
the desired effect is of a dimly
in a dark room. The Control Room monitors will correctly depict this as large areas of blackness with
perhaps little points of light reflected from bright objects,
but the receiver screen will show the black areas as
grey, the bright points will be too bright and the general
grey,
effect will be of a fog-bound atmosphere having no
effect
artistic appeal or dramatic quality.
Here again the viewer, should he be willing to do so,
may turn down his brightness control and once again
get the right sort of picture but he will have to repeat
the process for each and every change in transmitted
viewing.
picture brightness during his period of viewing.
The "distortion of brightness values"
values " can therefore
The
have an important subjective effect on the viewer's
appreciation
appreciat~on of the programme and there will be those
co0.vey a
at the transmitting source whose efforts to convey
dramatic effect by brightness changes will be lost on the
dramatic
viewer to a degree depending on the poorness of the
receiver.
Some efforts might be made to combat this situation
Some
by having available in the studio Control Rooms a
by
monitor with less good d.c,
d.c. characteristics, but the probab.ility
lem is complicated by the wide variations in the ability
lem
of different receivers to handle the d.c. component.
Chipstead, Surrey.
Chipstead,
DANN.
E. G. Dann.
Television Line Standards

THE suggestions put forward in what has been called
the ""I.T.A.
I.T.A. plan
" for changing to 625 lines seem totally
plan"
devoid of imagination.
To assume that the adoption of a national 625 line
To
system in ten years time will be any less a technical
system
catastrophe than was the continuance of the 405 line
imag~nation and
system sixteen years ago shows lack of imagination
ex1st.
fa,ets that even now exist.
total disregard of the facts
Already the go ahead nations (television wise) are
realizing the inadequacy of the 625 line systems with
increasing screen dimensions. If, as it seems, we are
destined to follow the rest of the world in the application
of technical achievements to commercial fields let us
wait until the west Germans or the Japanese produce a

system that is really worth changing to in ten years time.
T. J. BURKETT.
Basildon, Essex.
Output
Power Output
and Power
Negative Feedback and
Mr.
IN AUGUST, 1961, you published a paper by Mr.
comment
S. W. Amos on which, late though it is, some comment
the
of the
must be made. I am not concerned with the slips of
the
i? the
pen (3dB loss does not mean half the current in
complam. I
load); indeed I should be the last man to complain.
am very concerned about the attitude towards feedback
.
which Mr. Amos has adopted.
and
Ray " and I have shown in this and
Both "Cathode Ray"
prothe proother market-places that for the description of the
~e
feedb~ck to be simple it must be
perties of negative feedback
will
Amos will
used to make good amplifiers better. Mr. Amos
1%
to 1%
from 10% to
find that if he hopes to cut distortion from-10%
supvalves, supwith the usual
usual tolerances on components, valves,
Test Room.
the Test
plies, he is going to have a rough time in the
One thousand amplifiers which meet a specification can
number
be a pleasant sight: I would hate to see that number
dis1% disto 1%
relying on feedback to get down from 10% to
tortion.
What has Mr. Amos done? He has taken an amplifier
be
160c/s and might be
which would be 3dB down at 160c/s
regarded as giving a good performance down to, say,
320c/s, added negative feedback and hoped it would
other
work at 50c/s. My guess, indeed, is that with the other
response limiting components taken into account the
be
to be
If the amplifier is to
positive. If
feedback at 50c/s is positive.
used down to 50c/s, it is, quite simply, a 0.35W amplifier.
The two accompanying figures show the difference
If the
in design philosophy which can be encountered. If
WORKING BAND-
RESPONSE
WITHOUT FEEDBACK
(a)
' WITH FEEDBACK
FREQUENCY
FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE ---+1
:+----FLAT FREQUENCY RESPONSE

I
(b)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
attitude exemplified by Fig. (a) is adopted Mr. _Amos'

problem hardly arises: the characteristic of Fig. (b) is
to be opening the door to a
one which appears to me to
fraudulent specification.
In practice, of course, Mr. Amos' bad transformer,
and in his place I should ask for my money back, will
50c/s
itself be producing far too much distortion at 50c/s
137
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
Wireless World,
WIRELESS
behaviour
of behaviour
course of
sensible course
one sensible
only one
y. There is only
anyway.
anywa
en overbetwe
balance between
pay-off balance
the pay-off
decide the
and that is to decide
ov ck,
feedba
Curre nt feedback,
response. Current
frequency response.
load point and frequency
e the
provid
will
r,
resisto
e
cathod
i
uplec;
undeco
from an undecoupled
cathode resistor,
will provide
the
utt curconsta nt 0outpu
at constant
distor tion at
reduc tion in distortion
wanted
UT
Cewante d reduction
transt
outpu
the
by
fixed
se
respon
leaving the response fixed by the output
transrent, leaving
e
low-le
good lo
give aa good
will give
feedback will
Voltage feedback
r. Voltage
former.
w-letwo
vvel
l
forme
the
of
re
mixtu
A
e.
troubl
ad
overlo
response
the
two
respon se with overload trouble. A mixturedoof the
valve
you
ver
whate
But
.
omise
compr
will give a compromise.
But whatever
you
do istheused
valve
as
this
if this
and if
curren t and
much current
so much
produ ce so
will only produce
isload.
used as
the
in
used
be
t
canno
it
t
curren
magnetizing
cannot be used in thea sow's
load. ear.
tizing current
magne
of a sow s ear.
out of
purse out
silk purse
make aa silk
canno t make
But you cannot
RODD AM.
THOMAS
THOM AS RODDAM.
Germ any;
in Germany;
made in
mostly made
expensive; mostly
lently;
lently; very expensive;
good-quality
into good-quahty
perfectly into
around
aroun d 200; work perfectly
ment.
equip e
eq
cost
cost
p.a.
p.a.
suitable
most suitable
produ ct, most
Japan ese product,
Now the
the snags. The Japanese
already
is already
that is
frequency that
uses aa frequency
and at the right price, uses
issue
canno t issue
G.P.O. cannot
the G.P.0.
that the
so that
allocated
allocated to model boats, so
availis availequip ment is
no equipment
presen t no
At present
licence. At
the necessary
necessary licence.
the
issue the
will issue
G.P.O. will
the G.P.O.
which the
count ry for which
able in this country
South end
as ifif Southend
look as
would look
licence, and so it would
necessary
ary licence,
necess
and rely
else and
everyone else
as everyone
same as
the same
remai n the
will have to remain
rely
system.
p.a. system.
the p.a.
of the
use of
intelligent use
making intelligent
on making
WAL KER,
J. WALKER,
ALEX . J.
South Harrow.
ALEX.
Harro w.
South
Secretary,
Hon. Secretary,
Engineers.
Address Engineers.
Association
iation of Public Address
Assoc
replies:
Autho r replies:
The Author
slight
the slight
out the
pointi ng out
for pointing
Rodda m for
grateful to Mr. Roddam
I am grateful
missed
has missed
he
think
I
but
article
cal
technical
error
in
my
article
but
I
think
he
has
techni
enamong entenden cy among
been aa tendency
has been
the main point. There has
universal
as aa universal
feedback as
negative feedback
gineers
gineers to regard negative
perequip ment perin equipment
deficiencies in
correc tmg any deficiencies
method
metho d of correcting
have
Ray " have
Catho de Ray
by " Cathode
articles by
Previous articles
formance.
nce. Previous
forma
there
that there
out that
pointe d out
have pointed
and have
shown that this is not so, and
my
feedback: my
with feedback,
done with
be done
can be
limitations to what can
are limitations
from
Far from
argument. Far
this argument.
extend this
intend ed to extend
article was intended
by Mr.
suggested by
as suggested
cjs" as
SO c/s
at 50
ng it would work at
""hopi
hoping
Mr.
ng
showi
in showing
article m
my article
in my
time in
devoted some time
Roddam,
Rodda m, I devoted
c/s.
SO c/s.
at 50
help at
not help
feedback could not
why feedback
must
but mus
tool but
valuable tool
is aa valuable
feedback is
The point is that feedback
would^
Rodd am would
Mr. Roddam
sure Mr.
am sure
and II am
be used with care, and
agree with this.
^ w_ AMOS
Ignition
Electronic
Electronic Ignition
on
issue) on
(Jan. issue)
letter (Jan.
Butler 'ss letter
REFERRING
REFE RRIN G to Mr. F. Buffer
his SCR
and his
system, and
ignition system,
transi stor ignition
the Lucas transistor
bL>K
IOOV,
his 100V,
from his
curren t from
outpu t current
alternative,
ative, he says the output
altern
for the
plug for
spark plug
substituting aa spark
on substituting
doubled on
dd.c.
c source doubled
the
in the
load m
imposes aa load
plug imposes
average plug
tin point gap. The average
the
!in
highe
the
with
er
togeth with the higherr
which, together
order of 9 to 12pF. (cold) which,
resp::nsible.
doubtless responsible.
impulse
...
impulse ratio, is doubtless
ignitransistorized igniof transistorized
cost of
the cost
doubt ful if the
While it is doubtful
other
ses other
purpo
for
justified for purposes
is Justified
alternatives is
tion or SCR alternatives
eliminathe elinnnais the
advantage is
presen t, a major advantage
than racing at present,
can
timing can
which tuning
with which
cam with
and cam
contac t arm and
tion of contact
top
the top
in the
" play " m
Any "play
accurate. Any
often be far from accurate.
can
wear can
or wear
fit or
poor fit
from poor
resulting from
bearin g resulting
distributor
utor bearing
distrib
eccencam eccenslight cam
and slight
error, and
degrees of error,
several degrees
result in several
produ ce
to produce
bound to
almost bound
S. W. AMO S
inaccuracies are almost
tricities
tricities or inaccuracies
cylinders. These
different cylinders.
betwe en different
timing
These
variations as between
timing variations
high-p erform ance
on high-performance
tolerated on
are factors
factors not to be tolerated
they
s
bound
able
reason
engines,
bounds they
though if kept within reasonable
engine:,, though
proSea
at Sea
Life at
run-of -the-m ill proof Life
on run-of-the-mill
effect on
Safet
Safetyy of
practical effect
may be of small practical
the
says,
ductions.
.
,
ns.
son,
Fergu
ductio
T.
A.
Mr. A. T. Ferguson, says, the
correspondent, Mr.
AS your correspondent,
system
transi stor system
designed aa transistor
and at
Seven or eight years ago I designed
ship and
aboard ship
appar atus aboard
purpo se of radio apparatus
at forSeven
prime purpose
refor reperiod for
that
of
engine
action
atic
nown
a
well-known
racing
engine
of
thai
period
autom
well-k
the
and
life, and the automatic action
of fife,
stations is safety of
coast stations
though
uate, though
inadeq
d
prove
and
ge,
messa
placement
of
coils
which
had
proved
inadequate,
ent
the
placem
secure
to
(a) to secure the message, and
be (a)
should be
opera tor should
of an operator
before
available before
made available
were made
magnetos were
the outcome
outcome magnetos
bearing.
by
(b) to obtain a bearing.
.it may ,be the
, greatest in
effected .by
was effected
timing
this,
In
d.
mente
imple
this
was
implemented.
In
this,
timing
was
essary
unnec
proves unnecessary
Even if (b) proves
it may positi
be the
greatest
permi tting
nts permitting
segme
narrow
the
of
utator
on
comm
a
Sin
commutator
with
narrow
segments
the
3in
to
craft to the position of the
rescue craft
guiding rescue
value to guiding
could
which could
error which
maxim um error
to, a maximum
and itit
resolution
available and
resolution to within i,
metho ds available
other methods
distresss. There are no other
still
distres
would still
etc. II would
wear,
of
ective
exist
irresp
s
nt
system
consta
be
held
constant
irrespective
of
wear,
etc.
other
that
imply that other systems exist
to imply
anyone to
is wrong for anyone
comm uconsider commuto
ers
iment
exper
t
super
and
recommend
present
experimenters
to
consider
presen
te
mend
obsole
s
recom
station
shore stations obsolete and superthe shore
which may make the
involved,
curren ts involved,
control currents
tation
concerned.
is concerned.
tation timing of the very light control
radio is
shipborne radio
fluous, as far as shipborne
existing
of existing
made
be
y
nientl
such
conve
der
surren
because
use
could
conveniently
be
made
of
se
should
becau
n
Britai should surrender such
that Britain
deplorable that
It is deplorable
automatic
the automatic
bly the
proba
and
g,
as
gearin
role
ff
tant
take-o
distributor
take-off
gearing,
and
probably
impor
utor
and
distrib
proud
her proud and important role as
aband on her
services
services and abandon
adjustments
timing adjustments
while timing
interests.
feature as well, while
advance-retard
mariti me interests
ce-ret ard feature
world maritime
advan
of world
fairway of
watch tower in the fairway
comof aa comtution of
substi
The
be
ated.
should
facilit
it
e
servic
would
also
be
facilitated.
The
substitution
such
discontinue such service it should be
Rather
Rathe r than discontinue
would
ement would
arrang
cam
and
sing
increa
ever
the
mutator
for
the
rocker
arm
and
cam
arrangement
or
on
mutat
watch
by watch on the ever increasmg
extended by
increased
increased and extended
perbe percould be
which could
matte r which
Coastguard
mechanical matter
the Coastguard
and the
be mainly
mainly a mechanical
kc/s, and
1625-2850 kc/s,
on 1625-2850
working on
traffic working
leisure.
at leisure.
utor at
distrib
able
hange
interc
.
orated
formed
on
a
spare
interchangeable
distributor
d
incorp
forme
be
well be incorporated.
Servicee might very well
Servic
atmoat atmogap at
!-in gap
that aa jin
give way
well give
doubtless aware that
could well
Mr. Butler is doubtless
Stations could
D /F Stations
massive fixed D/F
The massive
way spheric
Allowance
on. Allowance
criteri
ate
adequ
shipon
ng
re
worki
pressure
is
not
an
adequate
criterion.
ers
pressu
c
receiv
spheri
rous
nume
more numerous
smaller and more
to smaller
receiverspositio
working
by the
determ ined by
that determined
over that
the
butshipmargin over
ns, on
suitaple positions,
in suitable
mu~t be made for a margin
sited in
type frame aerials sited
but
the must
or
8:1 the
be 8:1
might be
which might
both
cover
compression
ratio
of
his
car,
which
or
should
ment
ession
equip
compr
ncy range of such equipment should cover both
frequency
freque
cable
and cable
plug
the
gaps,
t
correc
higher,
and
the
correct
plug
gaps,
the
plug
and
r,
highe
wavebands.
distress
distress wavebands.
for aa
and for
150pF.), and
(say 150pF.),
capacitance (say
plus distributor
distrib utor capacitance
a.
TURN EY.
A. turney.
A. a.
dt,
Joule
0.004 Joule
of
order
Bray.
the
ation
dissip
minimum
energy
dissipation
of
the
order
of
0.004
um
minim
allow
to allow
advisable to
is advisable
general itit is
per spark at the gap. In general
circa
gaps circa
plug
for
lSkV
es
open-circuit
voltages
of
about
15kV
for
plug
gaps
voltag
t
circui
openthough
more,
or
n
0.030i
0.025in
and
20kV
for
gaps
of
O.OSOin
or
more,
though
n
0.02Si
Pioneers''
P.A. Pioneers"
Pipeless P.A.
vary
''"Pipeiess
will vary
deman ded will
voltage demanded
course, the voltage
in practice,
practice, of course,
ity,
the
humid
in
ks
ratio,
se
remar
''
impul
m
Grid's
rando
g,
Free
"
to
openin
e
with
throttle
opening,
random
impulse
ratio,
humidity,
nce
throttl
refere
with
WITH reference
to "Free Grid's
' remarks
in the
of
reduc gap
users
by
for
ed
link
reduc
be
wave
cim
micro
a
of
idea
tion
the
engine
condition
etc.,
and
can
be
reduced
by
gap
reduccondi
issue,
February
of a microwavebeen
link for
users
engine
Febru ary
very
out ofa
prove very
tried out
can prove
far can
too far
has been tried
etc., has
stages, etc.,
on stages,
tion. But to carry the latter too
equip ment on
pa equipment
a tion.
p.a.
starting,
iation
easy
Assoc
n,
our
mptio
of
ers
consu
memb
s
variou
unprofitable
in
terms
of
fuel
consumption,
easy
starting,
by
ago
fitable
unpro
Ions
various members ofNearl
our Association
long time
two years
performance.
and performance.
operation. Nearlyy two
its operation.
tickover, and
in its
even
excellent in
pulling and tickover,
even pulling
and found excellent
to
(12 to
size
theyears
itter,
induc tance (12
transm
primary inductance
stor
transi
ese
ignition coil primary
Japan
the
average ignition
The
average
Japanese transistor
transmitter,
the
size
ago we tried
t
d
circui
house
er
the
in
receiv
ive
a
into
excess
g
be
feedin
ttes,
on)
cigare
of
15mH
is
common)
tends
to
be
excessive
in
the
circuit
t
comm
packe
15mH
of a packet
cigarettes, feeding
intoworks
a receiver
housed
nt,
ently;
consta
excell
time
the
on
That
e
ier.
advers
amplif
p.a.
proposed,
having
an
adverse
effect
on
the
time
constant,
the
beside
amplifier. That worksis excellently,
proposed,
small
capacitor
very smaU
main capacitor
and/ or main
equip ment is very
voltage and/or
d.c. voltage
furthermore
rmore the cost of the equipment
revision of the d.c.
furthe
and revision
energy
rge
discha
ate
adequ
ete.
if
ted
compl
indica
sted
,
indeed,
under
50
complete.
.
.
,
,
,
value
suggested
is
indicated
if
adequate
discharge
energy
sugge
indeed
and
been and
have been
assured.
television have
b_e assured.
to be
is to
indep enden t television
combustion is
nt combustion
Both B.B.C.
B.B.C. and independent
for
efficient
efficie
"Sun
e.g., bunyears, e.g.,
for years,
microphones for
MOO RE.
C. MOORE.
R. C.
still are using radio microphones
Norwich.
Little Melton,
J.J. R.
Melto n, Norwich.
excelwork excelThey work
Pallad ium." They
Londo n Palladium."
day Night at the London
1962
MARC H 1962
WORL D, March
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
138
MARCH, 1962
March,
WIRELESS W
Wireless
World
ORLD
BRITAIN'S
MOST
COMPREHENSIVE
PRACTICAL
in RADIO
COURSE
ELECTRONICS
TELEVISION
THS SPEC/AL
K/TS YOUPS
TPP/A/ZA/G
TO *P
. LEARN
BY BUILDING
NOW for
f
your
CAREER or your
CAREER
0
HOBBY
OWN
BUSINESS
- WN BUSINESS
Multi - Range
TEST METER
YOU RECEIVE
Complete
of equpequip.
ment as illkits of
ment as illustrated.
C
ustrated
omplete set of
.
Complete
experimental manuals.
Complete
manuals.
tComplete set of '"pic.
ure
way'
th
pcture way' theory books.
Modern t eory books.
Modern test - yourself
yourself
examinatioe~texamination sheets.
Study
sheets.
Study
programme.
U I. . ~rogramme.
Unlimited
consultan mated
tion
with T consu
utors. ltation with Tutors.
CATHODE RAY
OSCILLOSCOPE
' c
WK
% Wr *"* / '/
AM and VHF/FM
LUXURY RECEIVER
SIGNAL GENERATOR
BROCHURE
RAD10STRUCT0R
TO: RADIOSTRUCTOR (DEPT. M.66)
READING, BERKS.
NAME
Complete set of
Picture Way books and |
Experimental Manuals I
ADDRESS
ADDRESS .... .. ......
(BLOCK CAPITALS PLEASE)
(Wa do not employ Representatives).
73
MARCH ,
VVIRELESS VVORLD
74
1962
M/Jbi-l
FA ST
OPERATOR
ER AT OR
OP
man ium
min iatu re ger
71 i~
6EX
GEX71
is aa sub
subminiature
germanium
o.ns e, des igne d
sien t resp
e with
gold-bonded
diode
with aa very
very fast
fast tran
transient
response, designed
-bo nde d diod
gold
tchi ng circ uits . Typ ical tota l
ed swi
arily for
primarily
for use
use in
in high
high spe
speed
switching circuits. Typical tota
prim
e rise time <2n s) is 20p C
=-5 V, puls
10m A, VR
rge Ot=
recovered
charge
(lf=10mA,
VR=-5V,
pulse rise time <2ns) is 20pC
reco vere d cha
ils to
te for deta
Write
details
to (
Wri
9. G.
C.) SE MI CO ND UC TO RS
SEMICONDUCTORS
COND UCTO R
KS
DIVIS ION BROA DSTO NE WOR
ED . SEMI
ANY LIMIT
GENE RAL' ELEC TRIC COMP
THE
COMPANY
L.M.TED
SEMiCONDUCTOR
O.V.S.ON BROADSTONE WORKS
THE GENERAL'ELECTRIC
PHON E: HEAT ON MOOR 6351)
HIRE (TELE
KPOR T CHES
REDDISH
STOCKPORT
CHESHIRE
(TELEPHONE:
HEATON MOOR 6351)
ISH STOC
REDD
METERS AND SENSES

METERS
AND
SENSES
By . "CATHODE
" CATHO DE
FOR those who prefer long words, the

the. title ought
perhaps to be " Objective and Subjective Responses
Responses
Compared
Compared."
." Wherever there is aa discussion
discussion on
on
measuring the quality of sound reproduction,
reproduct ion, somesomeone is almost sure to say, "Well,
" Well, of
course,
the
ultiof course, the ultimate decision rests with the human ear." So
So long
long
as " ear " is understoo
understoodd to mean "" mind,
mind, on
on the
the basis
basis
the ears
of responses received via the
ears "" that
that is
is true,
true, but
but II
doubt whether all those who nod their
their heads
heads to
to this
this
propositio n are fully aware how totally
proposition
totally different
different our
our
human responses are from those of
If
of instruments.
instrumen ts. If
they were, quite a lot of breath would
would be
be saved
saved in
in
argument
argumentss on a great variety of subjects, from
from
whether or not it is a cold day to
to how
how much
much disdistortion is tolerable.
Percepti on of Sound
Perception
One of the main causes
caus.es of the confusion
confusion is
is that
that
words are used without clearly defined meanings.
meanings.
We have encounter
encountered
ed an example already;
already: "ear."
"ear."
It can mean the appendages
the sides
sides of
our heads,
appendages at the
of our
heads,
or the acoustico-electrical
acoustico-electrical transducers
transduce rs just
just inside,
inside, or
or
whatever it is in the brain that produces an impresimpression when the impulses sent from them
them along
along the
the
auditory nerves reach
reac h it, or the response
response of
of the
the
brain to these impressions
impressions ("he
(" he plays
plays by
by ear"),
ear "), or
or
a combinati
combination
sound " is
on of these. Even the
the word
word ""sound"
is
used sometimes to refer to a physical vibration of
of
the air or other medium and sometimes to
to the
the mental
mental
impressio
impressionn produced very indirectly by
that kind
by that
kind
of sounda
sound-a vastly different thing. Then
Then there
there is
is
"colour"
" colour ; is it a property of materials or
or aa subjective
subjective
impressio
impression?
n? .
Of course, one can get into very deep philosophical
philosophical
water over this. I don't want us to become involved
involved
in questions of whether or not the physical universe
universe
has any real existence apart from our conscious
consciousness
ness of
of
it. But we agree, presumably,
presumably, that our whole
whole knowknowledge of it is received through our senses. We
We tend
tend
therefore to assume the existence of a close relationrelationship between the sensations we get in this
this way
way and
and
their physical causes. Hence the use of
of words
words such
such
as "sound" and "colour" to refer to
to both.
both.
But there is absolutely no predictable
predictabl e relationship
relationship
between the two things in any pair so
If the
the
so named.
named. If
whole human race had been blind, we might
might by
by use
use
of our other senses have become just as
as knowledgeknowledgeable about light in its physical or
or objective
objective sense,
sense,
but no amount of study of this would have
have given
given
the slightest clue to the sort of sensation
sensation produced
produced
thereby in a being possessing the sense of
If
of sight.
sight. If
you doubt this, try to explain the sensation of
of colour
colour
to a person born blind. (Or read
G. Wells's
read H.
H. -G.
Wells's
"The Country of the Blind.") We have aa wellwelldeveloped science of radio waves, in spite
spite of
of having
having
no sense capable of responding
respondin g to
to them
them directly.
directly.
For all we know, there may exist beings
beings possessing
possessing
WIRELESS
Wireless World,
WORLD, March
MARCH
RAY"
such a sense, giving them sensations

sensations which
which to
to us
us are
are
totally unimaginable.
unimaginable.
surprising,, therefore,
that trying
trying to
It is hardly surprising
therefore, that
to
correlate the objective and subjective
subjective aspects
aspects of
of
sound proves highly baffling, even
even when
when the
the distincdistinction between the two is
is kept
kept clear.
clear. They
They are
are so
so
entirely different in nature.
We can measure various kinds
kinds of
of distortion
distortion by
by
much difficulty.
But
means of instruments
instrumen ts without
without much
difficulty. But
able
to
trace
any
inherent
so far, no one has been
been able to trace any inherent
relationsh
relationship
ip between the instrument
instrumen t readings
readings and
and the
the
unpleasan
tness experienc
unpleasantness
experienced
ed by even average listeners
listeners
(whoever they may be) who hear
hear the
the distorted
distorted
sounds. In general, the more distortion
distortion there
there is
is of
of
a particular kind, other things
things being
being equal,
equal, the
the more
more
unpleasa nt-or unreal-th
unpleasantor
unrealthee reproduction
reproduct ion sour.
sour. Is;
-is;
but even that isn't .universall
universallyy true,
true, and
and if
if it
it were
were
it wouldn't get us very far, because
of the
because of
the restrictrestricttions (e.g., ""...
... of a particular
particular kind,
kind, other
other things
things
being equal ...
. . .").
").
Since the listener is the ultimate judge,
judge, one's
one's
natural instinct is to use
use him.
him. The
The first
first problem
problem
is to find the "average listener."
listener." He
He (or
(or she)
she) bears
bears
no identifying
So it
identifying marks or labels. So
it is
is necessary
necessary to
to
employ a sufficientl
sufficientlyy large sample of
of the
the population
populatio n
for there to be a reasonable
reasonable probability
probabilit y that
that their
their
average is close to the average for
for all
If
all listeners.
listeners. If
one wants to be able to make
make tests
tests at
at any
any time
time one
one
likes, this comes expensive,
if indeed
indeed it
expensive, if
it is
is practicable
practicabl e
at
at all in a period of full -employm
employment.
ent.
Conditio
ned Reactions
Conditioned
Reaction s
The next problem is that the answers . the
the- human
human
"meters
"meters"" give depend very much on
on whether
whether these
these
are fresh, or tired and want to
to go
go home,
home, or
or whether
whether
they like or dislike the sort of sounds
sounds being
being heard,
heard;
distortion apart. Another problem is
is that
that they
they don't
don't
have pointers moving over scales, and
and one
one can't
can't be
be
sure whether any numbers or descriptions
descriptions they
they give
give
are all in the same units. In fact, one
can
be
pretty
one can be pretty
sure they are not.
.
Our ""ultimate
ultimate judge"
judge ,, having proved to
to be
be such
such
an outstandingly
outstandin gly unsatisfactory
unsatisfactory one,
one, we
we naturally
naturally_
look again at instruments,
instrumen ts, which
which can
can be
be readily
readily
bought, ask for no wages, and give definite
definite numerical
numerical
readings. The one thing lacking is
is aa generallygenerallyapplicable relationship
relationsh ip between such readings
and
readings and
the reactions of listeners. The search
search for
for this
this goes
goes
on at no small expenditure
expenditu re of time, money
money and
and effort.
effort;
One of the most determined
determine d quests was
was that
that carcarried out by a team in the B.B.C. Research
Research DepartDepartment under the direction of E. R.
Wigan, who
R. Wigan,
who rere,;
ported the main results in Electronic Technolog
Technology,
y,
April and May, 1961. (A brief summary
summary was
was given
given
in Wireless World, December,
Decembe r, 1961,
1961, p.611.)
p.611.) While
While
an empirical formula was certainly extracted
extracted from
from
the vast amount of experimental
experimen tal work,
work, it
it was
was adad-
1962
1962
139
mitted to be not a complete solution to the problem.

That referred to non-linearity distortion. Some
of the difficulties in tracing any consistent relationship between frequency response curves and listeners' preferences for the reproducers characterized
by them were reviewed by M.G. Scroggie in the
April 1961 issue. The outstanding feature in that
connection is the persistent refusal of listeners to
preferprefer what theoretically they ought to prefer
reproduction level over the whole audible range of
frequency.
Loudness, Pitch and Timbre
""0'
0'
'-.,;
:c
._,
t-
0::
+2
0
-s
w -to
z:
< -15
:c
Cl
._,
g_
FREQUENCY
( cfs)
FREQUENCY (c/s)
~
0
0
o.
0
0
0
0
Fig. I. Results of Harvey Fletcher's comparison between frequency and pitch. Here, pitch is reckoned in terms of
frequency at a loudness level of 40 phons (i.e., at a sound
cfs tone
1,000 c/s
intensity giving a loudness equal to that of a 1.000
hearing)..
40 dB above the normal threshold of hearing)
But why are we starting with the complicated and

notoriously intractable problem of distortion? The
division between objective and subjective can be
illustrated quite emphatically enough if we consider
Quite an effort is required to change over from one
soundsthe most elementary characteristics of sounds
pitch, loudness and tone quality (or timbre). These to the other. Well, it was much the same with the
are the subjective aspects-the
aspectsthe sensations we get. sound. As I made it very loud, I could hear the
It is still often supposed that they respectively cor- pitch change either down or up. At that loudness
there was, in fact, a .sort of ambiguity of pitch that
respond in a simple way to the objective characteristics of the physical sounds-frequency,
soundsfrequency, intensity made it difficult for me to judge it.
Another thing that might seem as if it would go
and harmonic structure. Very approximately, they
wrong if Fig. 11 were true was the relationship to
th(' influence of the other two characteristics
do; but the
c/s
other notes. Since the percentage shift at 200 cfs
on each of the three sensations is not always neglic / s, what happens to
is much greater than at 400 c/s,
gible, and is far from simple.
the octave relationship? Surely that is rigidly fixed
This was demonstrated nearly 30 years ago in a
Loudness, Pitch and the by the necessity for the higher note to make exactly
paper by Harvey Fletcher, ""Loudness,
two vibrations to every one of the lower? Fletcher
Timbre of Musical Tones and their Relation to the
thought of that one, and mentions an experiment to
Frequ,ency and the Overtone StrucIntensity, the Frequency
(Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, illustrate it. At 40 phons, which is fairly quiet, tone
ture " {Journal
cjs respectively, and
A and tone B, 200 c/s and 400 c/s
Oct. 1934, pp. 59-69).
For example, the pitch and frequency of a musical therefore an octave apart, sounded an octave apart,
harriloniously
when played successively, and blended harmoniously
note are often treated as almost interchangeable
when played together. Next, 100-phon notes, C and
things. Yet the pitch depends on intensity and
D, were adjusted to the same pitch as A and B
timbre as well as on frequency. Fig. 11 here is a
Fig. 8 in the paper just cited. - respectively. Their frequencies turned out to be
copy of Fletcher's Fig,
cjs and 421 c/s, in agreement with Fig. 1.
222 c/s
It shows two surprising things: that pitch (to which
When played successively, they appeared to be an
most human listeners are sensitive to within a fracapart-though of course, on a frequency
octave apartthough
% by varytion of 1%)
10%
1 %) can be shifted as much as 10
basis, they are not. But when played together they
ing the intensity of the sound, and that this effect
Presumably-this was not
has a pronounced negative peak at 200 c/s. At sounded discordant. Presumablythis
cjs and 400 c/s (or
stated100-phon notes at 200 c/s
2000 c/s (where the ear is most sensitive to sound) stated-100-phon
210! and 421), played together, would
it is nil, and above that frequency it is positive and 222 and 444, or 210j
sound harmonious, notwithstanding that in succesl)ound

relatively small.
sion they would not seem to be an octave apart.
At first this seems as if it would make nonsense
then. is one example of how conclusions
This, then,
of music. For instance, suppose a trombone is
based on experiments with smgle
single pure tones are apt
aiming at the conductor and is emitting air vibrato break down when applied to more than one heard
tions with a frequency of 196 c/s. According to
familiar is
is the masking effect of one
British Standard 661:1955, this is G below middle at a time. More famihar
Britisl.
another: As we know, a loud sound tends
.C. But according to Fig. 1, at 80 phons (a possible sound on another!
to make a weak one sound weaker or even altogether
loudness level in the circumstances), the pitch is
7% lower. This is more than a semitone flat, and inaudible. The effect depends on the relative inis Sir Malcolm pleased? If he tells the trombonist tensities and frequencies in very complicated ways,
book"" Speech and
shown by Fletcher in his famous book
to pull his slide in a bit to get into tune, the result
".
Hearing".
will sound about a semitone sharp to a distant Hearing
These masking effects apply even when the sounds
hearer.
Differences of about a quarter-tone would quite heard together are in harmonic relationship to one
another; i.e., when their frequencies are exact muloften arise, one would think, and be more excrutitiples of one (fundamental) frequency. So it is
ating still. So, highly sceptical about this phenomenon, II tuned my audio signal generator to 200 necessary to emphasize that Fig. 11 refers only to pure
sine-wave sounds, and one can't apply the results
c/s,
cfs, put on the headphones, and played about with
the attenuator. The effect, on bringing up the of any such experiments to complex sounds. All
sound from quiet to very loud, was most peculiar. musical instruments produce complex sounds, the
harmonics sometimes being much stronger even than
illusion " pictures of a
" optical illusion"
You know those "optical
the fundamental; so Fig. 11 doesn't apply to music.
appei r
lot of cubes stacked together, which can appear
either projecting outwards or hollowed inwards, Knowing the existence of the harmonics, one could
fre~
according to how one happens to look at them first? pretty well guess this, for even if one of the fre-
Wireless
MARCH 1962
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
140
quencies-the
quenciesthe fundamental, sayhappened
say-happene d to
to hit
hit the
the
downward peak, the large pitch-shift
pitch-shift indicated
indicated there
there
would presumably be ""diluted
diluted " by
by the
the relative
relative ababsence of shift at the harmonic frequencies.
frequencies. IncidentIncidentally, the hearing sense, being
being more
more sensitive
sensitive to
to these
these
higher frequencies, would almost certainly
certainly be
be disdisproportionate
proportionately
ly influenced by them.
them.
Because of the unpredictability
unpredictabil ity of
of relationships
relationships
between objective and subjectivewhich
subjective-w hich isis the
the main
main
point of this whole treatisesuch
treatise-such reasoning,
reasoning, though
though
plausible, needs experimental
experimental confirmation.
confirmation. And
And
broadly it gets it, for
for tests
rests with
with musical
musical instruments
instruments
and other complex sounds disclose
disclose no
no appreciable
appreciable
pitch-shift effects. That,
That, then,
then, seems
seems to
to be
be answer
answer
enough to our fears that the
the very
very foundations
foundations of
of
music may be insecure.
insecure.
But there are more answers. Fig.
Fig. 22 shows
shows the
the
results obtained by W. B.
B. Snow,
Snow, also
also published
published
in J.A.S.A. (July, 1936),
1936), quite
quite soon
soon after
after Fletcher's.
Fletcher's.
Here the negative peaks, up
up to
to 100
100 phons,
phons, are
are at
at
100 c/s or thereabouts, and only
only when
when the
the loudness
loudness
level is above 110 phons does 200
200 c/s
cfs seem
seem to
to come
come
into the picture.
But before we waste any time
time arguing
arguing about
about
that, let us come right up to
to date
date with
with the
the (at
(at the
the
time Fm
I'm writing) latest issue of J.A.S.A.,
J.A.S.A., Oct.,
Oct., 1961.
1961.
Here are recorded the results of
of extremely
extremely carefully
carefully
and elaborately conducted
conducted experiments
experiments by
by A.
A. Cohen
Cohen
to re-check the pitch-shift
pitch-shift effect.
effect. Not
Not only
only was
was no
no
expense spared over the
rhe equipment,
equipment, but
but two
two series
series
"0'
0'
40 PHONS^jk^-^
O 40 PHONS
60
70
0::: -10 80
90
!:
100
-'-IS 110
C)
z
120
<
X
500
100
50
0
0
of tests were carried out, using

using different
different teams
teams of
of
young but highly trained musicians
musicians who
who were
were espeespecially gifted in estimating pitch,
pitch, and
and all
all the
the resources
resources
of modern statistical processing were
were brought
brought to
to bear
bear
on the experimental results. In
In particular,
particular, deviations
deviations
from a simple frequency/pitch
frequency /pitch ratio
ratio were
were compared
compared
with deviations as between one
one listener
listener in
in the
the team
team
and another, and between
between different
different results
results for
for the
the
same comparisons,
comp~risons, to try to
to disentangle
disentangle aa genuine
genuine
intensity
intensity/pitch
/pitch relationship
relationship from
from irrelevant
irrelevant variavariations.
Summing up, it appears
appears that although
although there
there isis aa
lowering of pitch with frequency in
in the
the 100-200
100-200 c/s
cfs
region, and a raising of
of itit at
at frequencies
frequencies above
above
1,000-2,000 c/s,
cjs, the average amount
amount of
of this
this at
at the
the
frequency where it is most
most marked
marked is
is quite
quite small
small
-only
only 1-2%.
Before there is time for me to
to be
be hurried
hurried off
off to
to the
the
scaffold for leading you up
up the
the garden
garden so
so long
long with
with
Figs. 11 and 2, I would like to point
point out
out that
that Cohen
Cohen
applied the sounds to
to one ear
ear by
by means
means of
of an
an earearphone, whereas Fletcher used
used aa very
very high
high grade
grade
free-field system with loudspeakers.
loudspeakers. II for
for one
one
would certainly not assume, without
without convincing
convincing evievidence, that such presentations are
are equivalent
equivalent for
for the
the
000
20
t-
000'
SE? i
m
BSSbsb n
....
mumi
v -zo
i i i Mini ^ K TT
0
D3SJ
o.
FREQUENCY
FRE~UENCY (c/s)
(cfs)
Fig. 2. W. 6.
B. Snow's results, for
fig.
for comparison
comparison with
with Fig.
Fig. I.I.
-s
X
._,
purpose. Unfortunately that

that point
point doesn't
doesn't seem
seem to
to
have received much attention.
attention.
But it does all go to show
how
difficult
it
is
to
show how difficult it is to
obtain reliable and consistent
consistent results
results in
in subjective
subjective
tests.
That brings us to the question
question whether
whether all
all the
the
attempts to arrive at scales of
of sensation
sensation are
are not
not
just wild goose chases.
just
chaseso How far
far can
can sensation
sensation be
be
regarded as quantitative?
Judging Loudness
Anyone who can hear them at all
all can
can decide
decide which
which
of two sounds is the louder,
louder, if
if they
they are
are suitably
suitably
presented for comparison
comparison and
and differ
differ only
only in
in intenintensity-even
sityeven if the difference
difference is
is quite
quite small.
small. But
But does
does
it make sense to ask a hearer
hearer to
to say
say how
how many
many times
times
one of the sounds is louder than
than the
the other?
other? For
For one
one
thing, the
the ratio of responses to
to the
the sounds
sounds conveyed
conveyed
along the auditory
auditory nerve to the
the brain
brain must
must depend
depend
to some extent on the efficiency
efficiency of
of the
the hearing
hearing
mechanism in the individual
individual listener,
listener, so
so even
even ifif the
the
brain could give a scale reading
reading itit wouldn't
wouldn't necesnecessarily be the same for all listeners.
listeners. But
But assuming
assuming
the listeners are selected
selected to have
have hearing
hearing systems
systems
free from defects, and are of about
about the
the same
same age,
age,
should they be expected to
to measure
measure loudness
loudness
numerically?
I myself can attach no definite meaning
meaning to
to the
the
statement that one sound
sound is half
half as
as loud
loud as
as another
anothereven though that is the simplest
simplest ratio,
ratio, used
used as
as the
the
basis for most attempts to construct
construct aa scale
scale of
of loudloudness. That may be because my
my mind
mind isis full
full of
of
notions about sones and phons
phons and
and dB
dB and
and dynes
dynes
per square centimetre. But
But II have
have other
other people
people who
who
are undoubtedly free from this
this handicap,
handicap, and
and they
they
too are entirely lacking in
in confidence
confidence that
that they
they
would . recognize when aa sound
sound was
was half
half as
as loud.
loud.
They tend, however, mistakenly of
of course,
course, to
to assume
assume
that there is some definite half-way
half-way mark,
mark, which
which
they would just lack the skill
skill or
or experience
experience to
to hit
hit
upon . .
upon.
Still more unlikely, one would
would think,
think, isis the
the pospossibility of comparing unlike
unlike sounds
sounds numerically;
numerically; for
for
instance, low notes with high,
high, or
or cello
cello with
with flute.
flute.
Nevertheless, a scale of
of loudness
loudness has
has been
been made,
made,
graduated in sones, and related
related to
to intensity
intensity and
and frefrequency. The relationships between
between this
this and
and "loud"loudness level" (phons), ""sensation
sensation level"
level" (dB),
(dB), etc.,
etc., were
were
described in "Loudness,"
"Loudness," W.W., Nov.
Nov. 1957.
1957. But
But
I would suggest
sugges-t that we don't
don't allow
allow ourselves
ourselves to
to
be unduly impressed
impressed by this
this appearance
appearance of
of objecobjectivity that has been given to
to loudness.
loudness. It
It isis based,
based,
after all, on mere personal
personal opinions,
opinions, however
however carecarefully and systematically these have
have been
been collected.
collected.
The results of different authorities
authorities differ
differ numericnumerically by as much as 10-20
10-20 dB. And
And so,
so, in
in place
place of
of
the familiar Fletcher-Munson
Fletcher-Mun son curves,
curves, we
we have
have more
more
recently been offered the Robinson-Dadson
Robinson-Da dson version
version
of the same thing, which
(Fig.. 3).
which differs
differs markedly
markedly-(Fig
3).
Yet loudness must be one
one of
of the
the least
least difficult
difficult
sensations to measure. For
For practical
practical purposes,
purposes, the
the
quality of unpleasantness
unpleasantnes s or
or obtrusiveness
obtrusiveness may
may be
be
even more important; e.g., in
in drafting
drafting laws
laws to
to deal
deal
with road noises. Some
Some members of
of the
the community
community
would ascribe a high negative
negative value
value to
to the
the unpleasunpleasantness of a well-tuned
well-tuned motor
motor cycle
cycle exhaust
exhaust and
and aa
high positive value to the rendering
rendering of
of aa work
work by
by
Schonberg;
Schdnberg; others would entirely
entirely reverse
reverse these
these
assessments.
Coming back to pitch, we find
find that
that it,
it, too,
too, has
has
Wireless World,
WIRELESS
WORLD, March
MARCH 1962
1962
141
141
10
NE
(20 PH0N5
"""'"
::::.......
.......... ::::-..r.....
100
-----
----
r-- _,......
80
(,
I ~e'lzi~
(a.)
-:--- .......
-~--- .......
r- I--I"
100
-~--""
.....
n,,
140
1+0
WilHIIB
_./
I120
20
......_ -~-./
60 r-._
~
--~
'"If~~
~
4or- ....
-6 -r-lc
s..y,
10
ol~ 20-r--..
r-!!,r:- 4~ ....
10-8 f--10- 4
I I
120 PHONS
I
-2
10
,.........
dB
10
,....,., 8080
1-I-'
_,
v
so
60
lo
n
20
always seem to
always
to correspond
corre spond exactlyfor
exact ly-fo r
example, in
in my experiments
exper iment s with the audio
example,
gene rator -but the
the basis
basis for
for my ability
ability to
generatorbut
no
notice
such
effect is
is still
still the musical
musical scale.
iife suc
h effect
The
s.cale, however, has been made
e mel scale
i? ,basis
of
5 stand
however, loudness
has been made
on the
of aa standard
ard loudn ess level
level usually
usually 40 phonsat
phon s-at which
which the
the pitch-shift
pitch- shift
effect, if any, is
effect,
is taken
taken as
as nil.
nil. Fig.
Fig. 44 shows
shows
such a scale (this one
one was
was actually
actually measured
measu red
at 60 phons)
phons ) due to S. S.
S. Stevens,
Steve ns, J.
J. VolkVolkmann an
andd E. B
B. Ncwman
Newm an (J.A.S.A., Janua ry,
T
^
(J-A.S.A.,
January,
1937)
iy57).. It departs
from
depar ts quite
quite significantly
signif
icantly from
ne 0
relati onshi p with
with frequency,
frequ ency,
, ?one-t
"^ o-one
"0ne
relationship
altho
ugh
although
at
1,000
c/s
the
two
cfs the two scales
1012
scales are
are
arbitr arily made to
-20
arbitrarily
coincide,
so
reasonable
to
coinc
4
ide,
so
reaso
nable
ffi
10 -ragree ment must have existed
1I140
40
agreement
I I I
existe d among
.......
amon g the
the
~
I
120 PHONS
2 Kisaffi
120
listen
PHONS
ers whose
whos e estimates
listeners
estimates .were
were obtained
obtain
ed for
10
for
0
r--.
I
20
:z
the
purpo
se. In the book "Hearing"
purpose.
" Heari ng " by
.......... ....... r::::>
by
.......... -~-"".;.
|gH
0
S. S. Steve ns and H. Davis , the following
Vl
~
'-.... .......
Iloo
Stevens
and
H,
Davis,
the
following
00
100
.........
expla nation is given (p.
explanation
I'-. ~ ......
(p. 79);
~
79): "The
"The five
five
10- 2
-~"'
obser vers who took part
r-.... ...........
observers
in
the
experiment
8300
part
in
the
exper
80
iment
r-.....
-I"
~
i'-.
4
r--.show
ed
showed
consistency
in
their
judgments,
consi stency in their judgm ents,
1060
[""-..
even though
"" ..... ,
thoug h some of
~ 60
of them
them had
had previously
~~
previously
I0- 6 1---1 -'
made the statement
âeM
statem ent that
that pitch
pitch is
is not
not the
)'li
4|00
the
~ 40
.........
1'-i--'
sort of thing they would
able
to
cut
~~C's ~......_
would be
be
able
to
cut in
in
J0- 8
II
~KBBSai2:o0
I
half.
20
The
judgm ent is apparently
judgment
appar ently easier
DOf:~
easier
1'-....... ~
~
-10 1- (b)
than one might
iMH
migh t suppose,
II- AuDfB
suppo se, especially
mm
~
i'i:in
especially if
10
if the
the
r-0
obser
ver does not become
observer
becom e confused
confu sed by
I II
by the
the
I
I
II
recog
nition
0
of
music al intervals."
0
0
20
recognition
musical
interv als." To
0
o-20
~
To
0
0
0
0
~
0
0
0
which I would remark
~
0
N
|00
remar k that
that although
althou gh II am
am
q
3q
~
~
0
music ian I can't imagine
o
not a musician
imagi ne aa sense
sense of
of
~
. FREQUE
FREQUENCY
NCY (c/s)
(cJs)
pitch that in an experiment
exper iment of
of this
this kind
kind
could
fail
to
be
"
confused
"
by
the
recogni"conf
used" by the recog niFig. 3. (a) Fletcher-Munson and (b) Robinson-Dod
son equal-loudness
"f-J(o) Fletcher-Munson
and (fa) Robinson-Dadson
equal-loudne
.tion
tion of musical
music al intervals.
ss
udness
II understand
intervals.
curves
unders.tand
, illustra
ting the discrepancies between different experimenter
:me,Vs'
there are "tone
" tone deaf"
FmTn
h SubjeCtlVe
tivediscrepancies
between different experimenters'
deaf " people
findings when
peopl e who
who find
subjec
find no
no
impres
im
r sions are involved, even in a relativ
ely
mvety
significance
I
significance in
simple
in musical
s.mpTway
P îons are involved, even in a relatively
way.
music al intervals,
interv als, and
and I
shoul
shouldd have thoughtbut
be
wrong
thou ght-b ut may
may be wron gthat such
such people
peopl e would be useless
been fitted with a subjective
. that
useless for
subjective scale,
for
scale, calibrated
calibr ated in
in mels
mels
measu ring pitch anyway.
measuring
anyway. Even
Even if
(for
if they
melody!) . . How anyone
(ior melody!).
sets
about
assigning
a
they turned
turne d out
out
anyon e sets about assigning a
to be the only ones
ones fitted
fitted for
for this
nume rical value to the sensation
this purpose
purpo se (because
numerical
(because
sensa tion of
of pitch,
pitch, without
witho ut
uncon
fused by music)
unconfused
music) their findings
refere
findin
nce to musical
gs would
would hardly
music al scales,
reierence
the
hardl y
scales, which
which are
are based
based on
on
the
seem
to
be
of
much
value
for
general
application.
value for gener al application.
objec
tive property
prope rty of frequency,
objective
frequ ency, II just
just don't
don't know
know
.
So
I
remai
remainn in a mood of
As with loudness,
of profound
profo und scepticism,
loudn ess, part of
scepticism,
of my
my trouble
troub le is
is what
what II do
do from which I invite readers
reade rs to
know
to rescue
know.. It is impossible
aa
rescu e me.
impos sible for
me.
for me
me to
to forget
forge t that
that
pure tone having
havin g twice the
the frequency
frequ ency of
of another
anoth er
5,000
blend
blendss with it in a particularly
partic ularly intimate
I
intim ate way,
way, proproI/
ducin
,...--.
4,000
ducingg a distinctive
is
destroyed
bv
distin ctive sensation
sensa tion which
which is destro yed by
Vl
even a slight diyergence
..1
diver gence from
/I I / ~~
from the
the 2:1
2:1 frequency
frequ ency
~ 3,000
ratio. This particular
partic ular sensation
/
sensa tion corresponds
corre spond s pre'-"
7
pre/V
cisely with
with that numerical
nume rical frequency
if
//
frequ ency ratio
5 2,000
ratio, so
so if
if1again st my better
against
pressed
into
bette r judgmentI
judg ment -! am
am press ed into
0::
1,000
assign
ing a pitch ratio to
assigning
to the
the two
two tones
tones it
it can
can hardly
hardl y
be other than 2:1. Even
if
the
tones
are
sounded
Even if the tones are sound ed
- ,.. ......
-~
0
11 \
0
succe
ssively instead
successively
0
instea d of together,
0
0
0
togeth er, II still
0
still mentally
0
menta lly
0
0
0
judge them as a musical
music al octave,
3octave, rather
rathe r than
~
~
than purely
purel
y
~
as pitch
pitch -whi
which,
ch, as
as II said,
FREQUENCY (c/s)
said, has
FREQUENCY
has no
(cIs)
no inherent
inher ent numerical
nume rical
signif
icance whatever
significance
whate ver for me.
me. If
If II didn't
didn' t happen
happe n to
to
Fig. 4. "Meas
ured
redrelati0nsh
" relationship between frequency and
know that the sort of
of pitch
pitch we
we call
call high
high is
is produced
h^h4'u
"MeaS
ip placed
between
frequency
and
produ ced pitch.
How
muchu reliance
on
reliance can
can be
be placed
by the source
second
than
on such
sourc e vibrating
such aa curve?
vibra ting more
curve?
more times
times per
per secon d than
when its
I
might
not
even
give
its pitch is called
called low,
low, I migh t not even give
Most of this discussion
discu ssion has
has been
been about
it
about hearine
hearin g.
numb er. (After
n the larger number.
(Afte r all, one
one might
migh t as
as logiclogic- Perhaps,
Perha
ps,
in
this
hey-day
of
television,
II should
hey-d
ay
of
televi
sion,
ally be guided
by
wavelength!)
shoul d have
guide d
have
wave length !)
given
given more space to seeing.
seeing. Though
Thou gh less
As the ratio between
less informed
inform ed
betwe en the
the two
two alternately
altern ately sounded
sound ed on this
subject,
I
do
know
that
one's
judgment
thissubje
ct,
I
do
know
that one's judgm ent of
notes is varied from
my colou
of
from 2:1
2:1 down
down to,
to, say,
say, IT
1~1, my
colourr depends
on
what
itit is
depen ds greatly
greatl
y
on
what
is compared
sensa
comp ared with
tions due to this ratio-presumably
sensations
my
sensawith.
ratio -pres umab ly my sensa - Turqu
I
urquoise,
compared
with
blue,
looks
green,
and
oise, comp ared with blue, looks green , and
tion
lon of pitchdoesn't
pitch -does n't change
chang e in
in aa continuous
conti nuous way,
way,
comp
ared with green looks
compared
looks blue.
blue. This
but periodically
This is
perio dicall y assumes
is rather
rathe r
assumes special
special significance
significance whenwhen - like
li r the well-known
show
how
well- know n experiment
exper iment to
ever it corresponds
to
show
corre spond s w.th
how ununw:th aa musical
music al interval
interv al.
'
reliab
le
reliable
human
beings
are
as
thermometers.
A
huma
n
being
s are as therm omete rs. A bowl
I would admit
admi t that
bowl
that pitch
pitch and
and frequency
frequ ency don't
don't
(Cont
inued on page 143)
{Continued
::t
..._,
>.,...
iii
10-10
-.......
I-"
a
a
-....
lol .
II
142
WIREL
ESS World,
Wireless
\Y/ORLD, March
MARC H
1962
1962
of luke-warm water feels hot

hot and
and cold
cold at
at the
the same
same
time, if one hand immersed
immersed therein
therein has
has just
just been
been
taken out of cold water and
and the
the other
other out
out of
of hot.
hot.
But even without selective
selective comparison,
comparison, the
the unreliaunreliability remains.
Our impression
impression of
of hotness
hotness and
and
coldness does not correspond
correspond at
at all
all exactly
exactly with
with
temperature. It depends very
very much
much on
on humidity
humidity
and other things. So
So itit is
is really
really futile
futile feeling
feeling
annoyed with somebody who
who insists
insists that
that itit is
is warm
warm
when you are sure it
it is
is cold,
cold, or
or vice
vice versa.
versa.
We would become nicer people

people to
to live
live with
with ifif
we took more care not
not to
to confuse
confuse subjective
subjective imimpressions with objective qualities
qualities on
on the
the one
one hand
hand
or perverse imagination on
on the
the other.
other. And
And ifif you
you
are wondering what
what this
this motto
motto has
has to
to do
do with
with
Wireless World, I would
would point
point out
out that
that communicacommunications is a technology in
in which
which objective
objective equipment
equipment
is devised to produce
produce subjective
subjective impressions,
impressions, so
so itit
is desirable for practitioners
practitioners therein
therein to
to know
know how
how
they are related.
BOOKS
RECEIVED
BOOKS RECEIVED
Electronics, by Paul M.
M. Chirlian
Chirlian and
and Armen
Armen H.
H.
Zemanian. A study of
of the
the working
working of
of electronic
electronic
devices (valves and semiconductors).
semiconductors). The
The authors
authors ememploy the concept of aa general
general three-terminal
three-terminal network
network
to cover both valves and
and transistors
transistors as
as far
far as
as isis possible,
possible,
although the dissimilar features
features of
of each
each are
are treated
treated
separately. Equivalent
Equivalent circuits
circuits are
are developed
developed for
for the
the
devices ^ discussed. Pp. 335;
335; Figs.
Figs. 246.
246. McGraw-Hill
McGraw-Hill
Co. Ltd., McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co,
McGraw-Hill House,
House, 95
95 FarringFarringdon Street, London, E.C.4.
E.C.4. Price
Price 68s.
68s.
Noise in Electronic Devices.
Devices. A
A collection
collection of
of material
material
presented at a conference
conference held
held by
by the
the Electronics
Electronics Group
Group
of the Institute of Physics.
Physics. Subjects
Subjects discussed
discussed range
range
from the physical basis
basis of
of noise,
noise, noise
noise in
in valves,
valves, transistransistors and microwave devices, to
to the
the behaviour
l?ehaviour of
of cracked
cracked
carbon resistors and fluctuations
fluctua6ons in
in valve
valve characteristics.
characteristics.
Chapman and
Pp. 100; Figs. 48. Chapman
and Hall,
Hall, Ltd.,
Ltd., 37,
37, Essex
Essex
Street, London, W.C.2. Price
Price 35s.
35s.
Handbook of Preferred Circuits

Circuits for
for Navy
Navy AeronautiAeronautical Electronic Equipment {Supplement
(Supplement No.
No. 3).
3). This
This
addition to the handbook, which
circuit
"
which lists
lists circuit "blocks
"blocks"
such as stabilizers, and/or gates
whose
reliability
gates etc.
etc. whose reliabilityhas
has
been proved
proved in the field, contains
contains aa list
list of
of modificadons
modifications
to exisdng
existing data (to use more
more recent
recent transistor
transistor types
types for
for
instance) and embodies additional
additional circuits,
circuits, the
the majority
majority
of which use transistors and
computer
and are
are designed
designed for
for computer
and control purposes.
Prepared by National Bureau
Bureau of
of Standards
Standards DepartDepartment of Commerce for Bureau
Bureau of
of Naval
Naval Weapons
Weapons
Department of the Navy
the
Navy and
and published
published by
by the U.S.
U.S.
SHORT-W AVE
SHORT-WAVE
High-frequenc y Magnetic
High-frequency
Magnetic Materials,
Materials, by
by .W.
W. J.J. PolyPolydoroff. The development
development of
of magnetic
magnetic materials
materials from
from
the early dust-iron cores
to
the
modern
ferrite
is
cores to the modern ferrite is disdiscussed, with attention
methods
of
characteristic
attention to
to methods of characteristic
measurement. Ferrites
applications
of
these
Ferrites and
and applications of these
materials are described, the
the last
last chapter
chapter being
being aa discusdiscussion of the use of ferrites in
in microwave
microwave techniques.
techniques. Pp.
Pp.
220; Figs. 109. John
Wiley
&
Sons
Ltd.,
Gordon
John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Gordon
House, Greencoat Place,
S.W.I,
Price
72s.
Place, S.W.l. Price 72s.
TV Trouble Analysis, by Harry
Harry Mileaf.
Mileaf. Logical
Logical fault
fault
finding for the serviceman.
serviceman. The
The theory
theory of
of receiver
receiver
operation is given, and then
then an
an explanation
explanation of
of how
how
circuit faults can produce
produce aa variety
variety of
of symptoms.
symptoms. The
The
construction of components is
is discussed,
discussed, and
and the
the reasons
reasons
for possible failure. Pp.
Pp. 224;
224; Figs.
Figs. 180.
180. Gernsback
Gernsback
Library, Inc., 154, West 14th
14th Street,
Street, New
New York
York 11,
11, N.Y.
N.Y.
Price $3.20.
Untersuchung
en iiber
tiber Freauenz
Untersuchungen
Freauenz stabilization
stabilization im
im
Mikrowellenge
biet by
by Dr. Sc.
Mikrowellengebiet
Sc. Techn.
Techn. Alexander
Alexander Brandli.
Bdindli.
Discusses methods of
of investigating
investigating the
the frequency
frequency
stability of microwave generators,
generators, using
using aa cavity
cavity resonaresonator as a reference. Describes
Describes the
the equipment
equipment required
required
and the technique of measurement.
measurement. Pp.
Pp. 51;
51; Figs.
Figs. 37.
37.
Verlag Leeman, Arbenzstrasse 20,
20, Postfach,
Postfach, Zurich
Zurich 34,
34,
Switzerland. Price 55 Swiss
Swiss Francs.
Francs.
CONDITIONS
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The original handbook (NAVAER
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(NAVAER 16-1-519)
16-1-519) is .i n its
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and Supplements
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No. 11
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MONTREAL
MONTREAL
Prediction for
for March.
March
BUENOS AIRES
40 .---r--r---r-.---.--,-- -.---,----,-...---.--.
JOHANNESBURG
HONGKONG
HONGKONG
Mcts
30
20
ro~-.-.-..-.-.,ro-.~40
20
15
15
10~-:8
10
~~-+-r~+-+-~~~~8
~~~~~+-+-~-+-+4
6~~-+~4-+-+-~-+-+~
5~-+-+-r~+-+-~-+-+~
',I
'-.V
4~-+-+-r~+-+-~-+-+~
12
12
1616 20
20
00 00
G.M.T.
12
16
16
20
20
00 00
G.M.T.
THE full-line curves indicate

indicate the
the highest
highest frequencies
frequencies
likely to be usable at
at any time
time of
of the
the day
day or
or night
night for
for
reliable communications
four
long-distance
communications over
over four long-distance paths
paths
from this country
~ountry during March.
March.
Broken-line curves give the
the highest
highest frequencies
frequencies that
that
will sustain a partial service
service throughout
throughout the
the same
same period.
period.
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
WORLD, March
MARCH 1962
1962
12
G.MJ.
16
20
0 0
12
12
1616
20
20
3
0
G.M.T.
fREQUENCY BELOW WHICH COMMUNICATION SHOULD BE POSSIBLE

FOR 25% OF THE TOTAL TIME
PREDICTED
PREDICTED MEDIAN
MEDIAN STANDARD
STANDARD MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM USABLE
USABLE FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY BELOW
FREQUENCY
BELOW WHICH
WHICH COMMUNICATION
COMMUNICATION SHOULD
SHOULD BE
BE POSSIBLE
POSSIBLE
ON All
ON
ALL UNDISTURBED
UNDISTURBED DAYS
DAYS
fREQUENCY BELOW WHICH COMMUNI CATION SHOULD BE POSSIBLE

FOR 25% Of THE TOTAL TIME
143
FUNDAM
ENTALS OF
FUNDAMENTALS
OF FEEDBA
FEEDBACK
DESIGN
CK DESIGN
3.
-SIMPLE RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS
CHARACTERISTICS
3.-SIMPLE
T
THE
J. HE method which we shall adopt for studying
feedback systems, indeed the .method
method which we
we must
must
adopt, is based on the combination of the relatively
simple individual circuit responses. This method
has certain limitations which in practice seem to
to
affect only the most sophisticated d:!signs:
designs: these
limitations will be discussed very briefly in order to
disarm the critics rather than to suggest that the
reader should adopt the appropriate more elaborate
design methods needed for formal accuracy.
We are concerned with systems made up of a chain
of active elements interconnected by passive networks. Most commonly we have several valves or
transi~tors coupled by capacitors and resistors or by
transistors
transformers. The assumption we make is that the
signal at the output electrode of an active device does
not affect the input electrode. In practical terms this
means that we do not take account of the anode-grid
capacitance of a valve or the feedback resistance of a
transistor. We can sometimes provide a first-order
correction for these without in any way complicating
the situation, but to
to take these factors fully into
account would mean that the system would have
multiple feedback loops all interacting. We shall see
later what the effect of this can be.
It will be necessary to make use of Thevenin's
Theorem and Norton's dual of it. Although these
are discussed in most of the standard textbooks it
may be as well to note the results here, because they
they
are absolutely basic to what we are doing and bitter
experience has shown that it is not difficult to avoid
any knowledge of them. Let us suppose that we have
a two-terminal black box which we know contains aa
linear active device. .If
If the device is an amplifier we
we
can include a unit signal input within the box. We
We
are free to make any measurements we like at the two
terminals. It can be shown that we need make only
two measurements to specify the external behaviour
of the box: there are instrumental reasons why we
we
actually make far more but we shall see these in a
moment.
The first measurement is of either the open-circuit
voltage or the short-circuit current. This defines the
the
activity, if we may misuse this word, of the contents
of the box. The other measurement is of
of the
the
impedance seen looking into the terminals, which we
we
may want to describe as an admittance. Since
Since this
this .
may be frequency dependent we shall probably need
determine
to make a number of data-observations
data-observations to
to determine
this impedance. We can now say that the external
external
behaviour of the black box will be completely
completely
represented by either of the circuits shown in Fig. 9.
In a practical measurement we may have to make
our calculations help us with our measurement. We
We
could in theory measure E with the system openopencircuited and then measure I with the system shortcircuited and just calculate Z00 = E/I and Y00 =
= I/E.
I/E.
However, when we try to do this in practice we
we may
may
find that the system is overloaded and that it becomes
becomes
By G.
EDWIN
non-linear. We can connect a load and vary it

it until
the load
load is
is
the terminal
terminal voltage is halved, when the
equal to Z00,, but in many systems this, too,
too, can
can lead
lead
to overloading. Sometimes we just change
change the
the load,
load,
keeping in the safe region; sometimes we
we make
make use
use of
of
normal bridge measurement methods.
There are two quite separate reasons why this
equivalent circuit pair should be kept in mind all
all the
the
time. The first is that in almost all transistor circuits
circuits
we are dealing with a finite and not too linear input
input
impedance. The current fed into the input electrode,
usually the base, is determined by the sum
sum of
of the
the
generator impedance and the transistor impedance,
so that a high generator impedance will dilute the
the
transistor non-linearity and reduce the distortion.
Wh~n the current gain is fairly independent of
When
of
current, this means that there is some economy
economy of
of
effort in thinking of the transistor as a currentcurrentoperated device.
The second reason is connected with the behaviour
of reactive networks. Suppose that we
we connect
connect one
one
black box
box and
and aa
or more reactances between our black
resistive load: even a single capacitor will do. At
At
some instant the generator feeds energy into the
r----------,
:[I '
I
I
I
Zo
I
I
I
I
I
.
I._ _______ _ _ JI
r----------,
Y.o
I
I
L--------
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
...J
Fig. 9. Two alternative

the external
external
alt(!rnative circuits representing the
behaviour of a two-terminal linear active network.
reactance: some may reach the load resistance
immediately, but some is stored in some of the
reactances. At later times the reactances begin to
to pay
pay
out the energy, usually with a lot of internal transfers
transfers
in the process. There are two possible final
final homes,
homes,
the load, and the internal resistance of the generator,
the resistive part of Z00. The amount of
of energy
energy
which reaches the load thus depends on
on how
how much
much is
is
handed back to Z00. A filter response depends on the
the
source impedance just as much as it does on the load
impedance. This internal to-ing and fro-ing of
of
is rather
rather like
like the
the
energy inside a reactive network is
accounting operations of a large group of companies
companies
each
all paying each other for services and re-paying
re-paying each
other in dividends. The shareholder, who
who is
is the
the
equivalent of the load resistor, may sometimes suspect
suspect
filter or
or
that the equivalent network is a band-stop filter
that the internal elements have high dissipation (this
(this
is not a reference to expense accounts).
is particularlyparticularly
The need for a clear understanding is
exemplified by a practice, common in the thirties but
but
now probably extinct, of the less reputable transtrans-
144
Wireless
1962
WIRELESS World,
WORLD, March
MARCH 1962
frequency
the frequency
represent the
brackets represent
b square brackets
The terms in
effect and are
inductance-resist
and inductance-resistcapacitance-resistance and
Fig. 10. Simple capacitance-resistance
networks.
ance low-frequency coupling networks.
and
capacitance and
(shunt capacitance
networks (shunt
Fig. II. Simple coupling networks
ofaa
response of
high-frequency response
the high-frequency
limit the
series inductance) which limit
system.
itself
practice isis itself
this practice
of this
former makers (the adoption of
They
reputable). They
not reputable).
Soign that a manufacturer isis not
a sign
their
for their
characteristic for
response characteristic
offer aa response
used to offer
voltage
terminal voltage
constant terminal
with constant
transformers measured with
conceals
technique conceals
ingenious technique
This ingenious
on the primary. This
give aa
to give
turns to
enough turns
not enough
are not
the fact that there are
by
that by
and that
response and
low-frequency response
decent operating low-frequency
save .
to save
managed to
also managed
have also
they have
turns they
reducing the turns
on iron.
must
we must
for we
network, for
coupling network,
The most common coupling
the
problem, isis the
the problem,
of the
meat of
the meat
now get down to the
resistThe resistnetwork. The
capacitance-resistance network.
simple capacitance-resistance
in
resistance in
return resistance
grid return
the grid
be the
ance will be taken to be
to aa
in to
looking in
resistance looking
the resistance
is the
arid is
a valve stage and
transformer
or transformer
Inductor or
electrode. Inductor
transistor input electrode.
these
frequencies these
low frequencies
at low
and at
coupling is also used, and
_consider
thus consider
may thus
We may
equivalent. We
can be taken as equivalent.
10.
Fig. 10.
in Fig.
shown in
circuits shown
the two circuits
have
we have
For the first circuit we
1/jwC
E
+ Z00 ++ l/ja)C
Eo0 _ R +
V
simple
any simple
in any
true in
usually true
is usually
which is
and if Z00 = R00,, which
situation,
practical situation,
Eo
+ J_
Ro)+
Eo= /(1+
1 +Ro\
jwCR
R
v
\
r;
jmCR
V
= (
jwC(R + R
+ ~)[ 1 + jcuC(R
1
)]
.jw~/Rv
jw~Rs
+ I^L/RP ]]
and [/1 +
ja)CR^ .] and
these
in these
= 11 in
L!Rv
and ojw00L/R
= 11 and
and if we write a)w00CRs5 =
(, =
get
we get
= nn we
wo/ w =
put wjai
and then put
two forms and
jn]
[1[1[1 jn] and [1
jn]
to
us to
lead us
to lead
chosen to
been chosen
have been
substitutions have
The substitutions
shall
We shall
circuits. We
both circuits.
convenient form for both
this convenient
end
other end
the other
to the
turn to
and turn
leave these for a moment and
of the spectrum.
end
upper end
the upper
which the
in which
ways in
There are two simple ways
limited.
be limited.
may be
response may
of a system frequency response
capacishunt capacicircuit shunt
the circuit
is the
these is
The commonest of these
series
of series
effect of
the effect
overlook the
not overlook
tance, but we must not
of aa
inductance of
leakage inductance
the leakage
usually the
inductance, usually
problems
transformer problems
many transformer
Very many
transformer.
Very
inductance
and inductance
capacitance and
both capacitance
involve both
turn out to involve
become
can become
question can
transformer question
and the whole transformer
confine
shall confine
we shall
stage we
this .stage
At this
extremely complex. At
11.
Fig. 11.
in Fig.
shown in
circuits shown
two circuits
our attention to the two
have
we have
these we
For the first of these
'For
[ 11
L ft
-|jcj wC = ;v
jwCR 1
+ jwCRp
[ 11 _J_
,~ ==_ vYYo0 ++i /clGG ++ :..r^
" Rp .
11]
and for the second
~=
1 + jjwL/Rs]
aiL/Rf
1
i~[
jwL)/R == 5/
+ jcoD/R
+ RR +
R
(R 0
substitutions,
suitable substitutions,
most suitable
the most
before, the
Making, as before,
which are
= 1,1,
w0 CRv =
R00 + R = Rs8,, Y
1/Rv, a-oCRp
+ GG == 1/R,
Yo0 +
= Fin
w/w00 =
taking to/<u
then taking
= 11 and then
ajw00L/Rs8 =
to
reducing to
both reducing
brackets both
we get the terms in square brackets
the form
j n]
[[11 + i"]
deal
to deal
want to
should want
we should
that we
We saw earlier that
response.
phase response.
and phase
amplitude and
the amplitude
separately with the
throughout ifif
form throughout
common form
by aa common
confronted by
We are confronted
the
and _the
[1 jn], and
as [Irhj^L
two forms as
we combine the two
where
region where
the region
to the
referred to
amplitude response, referred
22
phase isis
thephase
while the
dB, while
+ a0 )!) ~ dB,
(1 +
log (1
20 log
just 20
n ~ 0, is just
n.
O.
tan i
= arc tan
by 68 =
.given hy
to
input to
of input
ratio of
the ratio
expressions are for the
These two expressions
of
terms of
in terms
think in
we think
normally we
output although normally
must
we must
that we
means that
merely means
This merely
output/input. This
get
to get
signs to
introduce minus signs
dB
+ a022)l)t dB
20log(1 +
- 201og(l
=
characteristic =
amplitude characteristic
=f an
tan ~
arc tan
= arc
phase characteristic
=
have
we have
circuit we
For the second circuit
0
^=Y
+A+G=i
V = Y00 + j wL + G = R
~R0 +R R [1 + 1 /
0
j wL
+ jwL
+R
R+
jwL(Ro +
RoR
~)]
0 0625 0-125
00625 0125
0'25
0-25
O'S
1616
l-
69-
12-
have
we have
when we
w~ oo, when
First let us take w^-oo,
=- RRs/R
Ro)/R =
+ Ro)/R
(R +
= (R
^
= l1 + R
Ro/R
0 /R =
~0 .=
8/R
,p
+ RR= l/R
Ro0 -f
lo = R
arid lo
R 0R - ^'J)
V = îT
^ v
where Rs8 =
+R
R0 +
= Rq
R)/R 0R.
(R00 + R)/Ri)R.
+ G = (R
and 1/R
1/Rp=Yo
JJ=Y0 +
dB IS ..
1821242730-
simple
of simple
characteristic of
response characteristic
Fig. 12. Basic amplitude response
frst-order
netwcrk.
f.rst-orGer network.
145
1962
MARCH 1962
Wireless World,
WORLD, March
WIRELESS
- 60 ~
-so~
-40
::5
- 30
- 20
- 10
0"25
0125 0-25
0125
os
0'5
II
XL
.0.
44
IS16
firstsimple firstBasic phase response characteristic of simple

order network.
Fig. 13.
Looking back you will see that these shape charon

w 0 on
acteristics depend for their critical frequency o>
the
parallel, of the
the combination, in either series or parallel,
load resistance and the source resistance. This isis
why the concept of source resistance is so vitally
the
important and why such stress was laid upon the
need to keep constantly aware of the implications of
Thevenin's Theorem.
in terms
The frequency characteristic is expressed in
If
of a quantity n which is a normalized frequency. If
wCRP, we can write
= taCRp,
w/w00 =
= ai/co
n=
we take first of all H
W
= log oj
Q =
log H
log wWO0
= log tow +
CRv
+ log CR,,
=
We shall be using a logarithmic scale for n so we
log(frequency).
are quite justified in working with log(frequency).
log ww
when log
1, when
n = I,
n = 0, or L
We see that log D
to
is to
changing a)w00 is
= log (o,
w 0 , and that the effect of changing
=
n sideways. The same result
shift the value of log L
wo/ w, which gives
= cnjco,
n=
is obtained with L
W
- log ai
Wo
Q = log (Oq
log L
n now runs from right to left as ojw runs
except that log Q
thus mirror
from left to right. The two forms are thus
means
images of each other, a feature which in fact means
turn itit
that we can construct a template and simply turn
/ w.
w/ w00 to caw00/co.
over to change from oj/co
The shape is rather simple, too, and in quite a lot
At
of problems has an even simpler approximation. At
3dB down.
just 3dB
L=
= 11 the amplitude characteristic is just
n
n ;> 11 we can write
At L
) ! dB.
log( 0 22)!
- 20 logCL
A=
= dB._
- 20 log Ln dB
= straight
n the response is a straight
th:!t plotted against log L
so that
of
dB of
n we get an extra 66 dB
line. When we double L
we
10 we
of 10
n by a factor of
attenuation; when we increase L
6dB/octave or
get an extra 20dB. This basic slope of 6dB/octave
first-order
20dB/decade is chacteristic of simple first-order
networks.
An amplifier design will involve the drawing of a
the
number of frequency characteristics. Both for the
graph
sake of economy and also because log-linear graph
to
paper seems to differ in size from manufacturer to
either
manufacturer, it is found convenient to work either
squared
directly on a drafting pad or on ordinary squared
of
process of
graph paper. This is done by the simple process
the
thinking in octaves and as we have already seen, the
line
amplitude characteristic approaches a straight line
with a slope of 45 if we have equal scales for 6dB
is
it is
paper it
centimetric paper
and for an octave. Using centimetric
right
2cmjoctave gives the right
found that 3dB/cm and 2cm/octave
sort of size for conventional amplifier designs with
plots
feedback in the region of 20-30dB. Larger plots
much
would use too much area for convenient filing: much
smaller plots would not be accurate enough.
For the phase characteristic we need room for the
limit
180 limit
90 phase shift of a single section and the 180
and
em/octave and
of our whole system. Again we use 22 cm/octave
The
10 /em for the phase. The
it is convenient to use 107cm
The
13. The
basic responses are shown as Figs. 12 and 13.
straight line approximations shown provide all the
with
information needed in a preliminary design, and with
particular
freehand correction if it is required in a particular
by
justified by
region, will usually be as accurate as is justified
It
the tolerances on practical circuit elements. It
closer approximawould be possible to find a slightly closer
shown
the one shown
tion for the phase characteristic, but the
has the great advantage that it has a slope of 45 and
is therefore very easily drawn.
Before we go on to apply these simple graphs to
some
with some
practical amplifier design we must deal with
other R-X circuits with only one kind of reactance
give us an
which we meet in amplifiers. These will give
responses can
opportunity of showing how easily the responses
exact
be composited, both in the approximate and the exact
form. We shall then be in a position to deal with
the
possibly the
except possibly
everything inside the amplifier except
order
transformers, which may behave as second order
networks and may be even more awkward.
Literature
Commercial
Commercial Literature
under
Aerocessories under
Spring
nuts " made by Simmonds Aerocessories
Spring "" nuts"
recent
in aa recent
variety in
Spire " are listed in great variety
the
name " Spire"
the name
in""Spire
Spire Speed Nut Manual" which is comprehensively inblueprints "
dexed
dexed and cross-referenced. Dimensioned " blueprints"
Copies
general information. Copies
are given, as well as much useful general
Row,
Cleveland Row,
Limited, 77 Cleveland
from Simmonds Aerocessories Limitedj
London,
S.W.l.
London, S.W.I.
circuit
in circuit
put in
to put
something to
as something
regarded as
Fuses are often regarded
often
is often
thought is
of thought
ifif one has time: the result of this lack of
protection
unsatisfactory performance, either as inadequate protection
unsatisfactory
Fusing"
on
"Notes on Fusing"
or annoying ""inexplicable"
inexplicable" blowing. "Notes
is aa
Ltd., is
Lee Ltd.,
and Lee
Belling and
of Belling
F. Redgrave of
G. F.
by G.
(14pp), by
(14pp),
their
valuable
valuable guide to the various types of fuses available, their
Gt.
Ltd., Gt.
Lee Ltd.,
performance and proper use. Belling and Lee
Cambridge
Cambridge Road, Enfield, Middlesex.
English
Travelling-wave
Travelling-wave Tubes: 40-page booklet from English
and
hints and
offers hints
work; offers
they work;
Electric
Electric Valve Co. explains how they
E.E.V.
some E.E.V.
on some
tips on their use and lists abridged data on
England.
Chelmsford, England.
types. English Electric Valve Co. Ltd., Chelmsford,
44in a 44Q and
its measurement by meter is dealt with in
and its
issued
meter " issued
" Measurements by Q meter"
page
booklet entitled "Measurements
page booklet
The
by Marconi Instruments Ltd. of St. Albans, Herts. The
notes
service notes
and service
operating and
abridged operating
booklet
also contains abridged
booklet also
for some Marconi Instruments equipments.
Royfrom Royequipment from
television) equipment
(closed-c:Xcuit television)
C.c. TV (closed-circuit
cataston
Industries' " Vistarama " range is described in a cataston Industries'
525405- 525logue.
Vistarama " equipment can be used on 405logue. ""Vistarama"
Full switching
or
62S-line systems and has 2.1 interlace. Full
or 625-line
Ltd.,
Industries
Royston
available.
and control facilities are available. Royston Industries Ltd.,
Canada
Road, Oyster Lane, Byfleet, Surrey.
Canada Road,
are
series are
Londex " series
well-known "" Londex"
Coaxial
Coaxial relays in the well-known
but
rectifier but
bridge rectifier
with aa bridge
available
for use on d.c. (or a.c. with
available for
s.w.r.
without smoothing). Power handling capacity 70W, s.w.r.
conof convariety of
700, variety
SO or 700,
Zo 45, 50
low
to 200 Mc/s, Zq
up to
low up
contact
rated
O.SA
SOV
nectors.
Type
XCX
has
extra
50V
0.5A
rated
contact
for
nectors. Type
other circuits. Leaflet from Londex Ltd. of Anerley Works,
207
Anerley Road, London, S.E.20.
207 Anerley
Synchronous
motor-driven timer, by Elremco, gives time
Synchronous motor-driven
at
SA at
is 5A
cycles
3sec and 24 hours. Switch rating is
between Bsec
cycles between
or
SO- or
for 50250V
24V d.c. and models are available for
and 24V
a.c. and
2SOV a.c.
Control
60-c/s
supplies.
Leaflet
from
Electrical
Remote
Control
60-cfs supplies.
Essex.
Co.,
Elremco Works, Harlow New Town, Essex.
Ltd., Elremco
Co., Ltd.,
listed
Miniature
soldering
irons
in
the
"
Oryx
"
range
are listed
soldering
Miniature
677,
on
W. Greenwood Electronic Ltd., 677,
from W.
broadsheet from
on aa broadsheet
Finchley
Road, London, N.W.2.
Finchley Road,
Wireless
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WORLD, March
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EXHIBITIONS
CONFERENCES AND
CONFERENCES
addresses in
Further details are obtainable from the addresses
Further
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Head, Harrow
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Public
Public Address Exhibition
Northolt Road,
(Assoc. of Public Address Engineers, 394 Northoll
(Assoc.
Mtddx.)
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Court
Earls Court
March 20-24
_
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Earls
March
Electrical Engineers Exhibition
Electrical
23 Blooms(Assoc.. .of Supervising Electrical Engineers, 23
(Assoc
W.C.l)
bury Square, W.C.I)
College
Imperial College
March
Imperial
26-27
March 26-27
High Energy Nuclear Physics Symposium
S.W.1)
Square,
Belgrave
47
Soc.,
Pbys.
(Inst. of Physics && Phys.
Belgrave Square, S.W.I)
(Inst.
College
Northampton College
April 17-18
Northampton
April
LanguJges
Conference on Automatic Programming Languages
2)
Soci~ty, Finsbury Court, E.C 2)
(British Computer Soci-ty,
Court
April 23-May 2
Olympia and Earls Court
London International Engineering Exhibition
New
(Industrial & Trade Fairs, Commonwealth House, New

W.C.l)
Oxford Street, W.C.I)
Hotel
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Audio Festival & Fair
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The Ionosphere
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Oct. 2-4
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(College
EXETER
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&
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Soc.,
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HARROGATE
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Old
Sept.
Standardization in
in Non-destructive Testing
Standardization
Street,
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(Institution
London, W.l)
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A.E.R.E.
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London.
& Phys. Soc., 47 Belgrave Square, London.
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April 10-14
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Sector-focused Cyclotrons
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Street,
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'
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{Continued on page 148)
(Continued
147
Wireless
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WORLD, March
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Paris
Paris
Seminar on Modern Methods of
of Computation
Computation &
&
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Hoffman, 50 av. Franklin D.
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Military Electronics Conference
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Street, New
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june 25-30
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Electromagnetic Theory & Antennas
(J.
(J. Brown, Department of
of Electrical
Electrical Engineering,
Engineering, University
University
College,
College, London)
.
June 27-29
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New York
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Integrated Automatic Control Systems
Systems
(A. J.j. Homfeck,
(A.
Homfeck, Bailey
Bailey Meter
Meter Co.,
Co., 1050
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Road,
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Precision Electromagnetic Measurements Conference
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International Congress on Acoustics
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I 0, Copenhagen)
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Stockholm 70)
70)
Aug. 29-Sept.
Philadelphia
29-Sept. 5
Philadelphia
International Congress on Electron Microscopy
Microscopy
(Prof.
(Prof. T. F.
F. Anderson,
Anderson, Institute
Institute of
of Cancer
Cancer Research,
Research,
Philadelphia
Philadelphia 11, Pa.)
Sept.
Sept. 3-7 _
The
The Hague
Hague
International Congress on Microwave Valves
(Congres Microgolfbuizen, Postbus 62,
62, Eindhoven)
Eindhoven)
Sept.
Sept. 3-7
Brussels
Brussels
International Symposium on Information Theory
(Dr.
(Dr. F.
F . L. Stumpers,
Stumpers, Philips
Philips Research
Research Laboratories,
Laboratories,
Eindhoven)
Eindhoven)
MARCH
MARCH MEETINGS
MEETINGS
Tickets are required for some meetings; readers are
are advised,
advised, therefore,
therefore,
to communicate with the secretary of the society concerned.
LONDON
.
I.E.E.-Discussion on " Methods
2nd. I.E.E.Discussion
Methods
of measuring man's environment
environment temtemperature"
Dr. R. H. Fox
perature
" by Dr,
Fox and
and C.
C. R.
R.
Underwood at
at 6.0
6.0 at
at Savoy
Savoy Place,
Place,
W.C.2.
5th,
5th. Women's
Women's Engineering
Engineering Society.
Society.
~"Colour
"
Colour television
" by
television"
by P.
P. S.
S. Carnt
Carnt
at
at 7.0 at 45 Great Peter
Peter Street,
Street, S.W.I.
S.W.l.
8th. Radar & Electronics Assoc.
Assoc." Video tape recording" by Dr. P.
"Video
P. Axon
Axon
7.0 at Royal Society of ' Arts, John
at 7,0
John
Adam Street, Adelphi, W.C.2.
12th.
12th. I.E.E."
design
and
I.E.E.-" The
The design and perperformance of transistor portable rereceivers"
ceivers
" by Dr. A. J. Biggs
Biggs at
at 5.30
5.30 at
at
Savoy Place, W.C.2.
14th.
Brit.I.R.E.-Papers on
14th. Brit.I.R.E.Papers
on "" DeDevelopments in c.w. position-fixing and
navigation " at 6.0 at the
navigation"
the School
School of
of
Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel
W.C.l.
Street, W.C.I.
Arts.-" The
14th. Royal Society of Arts."
transistors " by
miniature wonders of transistors"
L. J. Davies at 6.0 at John Adam Street,
W.C;2.
Adelphi, W.C.2.
16th.
Navigation.Institute of Navigation.
navigation"
" V.L.F. navigation
" by H. F. Schwartz
Schwartz
and L. C. Stenning at 5.30 at 10 Upper
S.W.l.
Belgrave Street, S.W.I.
B.S.R.A.-" Modern studio
16th. B.S.R.A."Modern
studio
sound equipment" by E. W. BerthBerthJones at 7.15 at Royal Society of Arts,
Arts,
John
John Adam Street, Adelphi, W.C.2.
W.C.2.
20th. Inst. of Physics && Phys,
Soc.
Phys. Soc.Annual General Meeting of Electronics
Electronics
Group, followed by " Semiconductor
Semiconductor
surfaces"
surfaces
" by Dr. P. C. Banbury at
at 5.30
5.30
at 47 Belgrave
Belgrave Square,
Square, S.W.I.
S.W.l.
21st. British Computer Society.
Society." The Atlas supervisor" by
by Dr.
Dr. D.
D. J.
J.
Howarth at 2.30 at Northampton College
College
of Advanced
Advanced Technology, St. John
John
E.C.l.
Street, E.C.I.
I.E.E.-" Xerography" by Dr.
21st. I.E.E."Xerography"
Dr.
A. T. Starr at 5.30 at Savoy Place,
Place,
W.C.2.
W.C.2.
22nd. Television Society."TeleSociety.-" Television camera tube developments" by
by
Dr. R. L. Beurle,
Beurle, W.
W. E.
E. Turk
Turk and
and
D.
A.
D. A. Pay at 7.0 at
at Cinematograph
Cinematograph
Exhibitors' Association,
Ass<Jciation, 164
164 Shaftesbury
Shaftesbury
Avenue, W.C.2,
Avenue,
W.C.2.
148
26th. I.E.E.Discussion
I.E.E.-Discussion on
on "" ElecElectronics or power as
as aa future
future career?"
career?"
opened by Professor M.
M. G.
G. Say
Say at
at 6.0
6.0
at
at Savoy
Savoy Place,
Place, W.C.2.
W.C.2.
28th.
Brit.I.R.E.Symposium
28th.
Brit.I.R.E.-Symposium on
on
" Practical electronic
electronic aids
aids for
for the
the handihandicapped"
capped
" at 2.0 at the
the School
School of
of
Pharmacy, Brunswick
Brunswick Square,
Square, W.C.I.
W.C.l.
28th. Royal Society
Society of
of Arts."
Arts.-" The
The
mir.:roscope : past, present
electron microscope:
present and
and
future" by
by Dr.
Dr. V.
V. E.
E. Cosslett
Cosslett at
at 6.0
6.0
at
at John
John Adam
Adam Street,
Street, Adelphi,
Adelphi, W.C.2.
W.C.2.
30th.
30th. R.S.G.B.V.H.F.
R.S.G.B.-V.H.F. Symposium
Symposium
arranged by
by the
the London
London V.H.F.
V.H.F. Group
Group
at 6.30 at
at the
the I.E.E.,
I.E.E., Savoy
Savoy Place,
Place, W.C.2.
W.C.2.
ARBORFIELD
26
th. I.E.E.
26th.
I.E.E. Graduate
Graduate &
& Student
Student
Section."
Section.-" Principles
Principles and
and programprogramming" by
by D. Rowley
Rowley at
at 7.0
7.0 at
at School
School
of
of Electronic
Electronic Engineering.
Engineering.
BELFAST
13th. I.E.E."The
13th.
I.E.E.-" The characteristics
characteristics
and
and protection
protection of
of semi-conductor
semi-conductor rectirectifiers
fiers"" by
by D.
D. B.
B. Corbyn
Corbyn and
and N.
N. L.
L. PotPotter
6.30
at
David
Keir
Building,
ter at
at 6.30 at David Ke:r Building,
Queen's University, Stranmillis
Stranmillis Road.
Road.
22nd. I.E.E.Faraday
I.E.E.-Faraday Lecture
Lecture "" ExExpanding
panding horizons
horizons in
in communications"
communications "
by
D.
A.
Barron
at
7.30
at
Sir
Wm.
by D. A. Barron at 7.30 at Sir Wm.
Whitla Hall,
Hall, Queen's
Queen's University,
University.
BIRMINGHAM
22nd. Brit.I.R.E,"
Brit.I.R.E.-" Cryotrons
Cryotrons "" by
by
Dr.
Dr. P.
P. R.
R. Stuart
Stuart at
at 6.15
6.15 at
at The
The UniverUniversity.
26th.
26th. I.E.E."
I.E.E.- " The
The use
use of
of compucomputers
ters in process
process control
control applications
applications "" by
by
J. F.
at
the
James
F, Roth
Roth at
at 6.0
6.0 at the James Watt
Watt
Memorial Institute.
Institute.
BRISTOL
BRISTOL
14th. Brit.I.R.E."
14th.
Brit.I.R.E.-" Recent
Recent applicaapplication of and
and refinements
refinements in
in electronic
electronic
digital computers
" by
computers"
by Dr.
Dr. A.
A. D.
D. Booth
Booth
at 7.0 at the
the College
College of
of Science
Science and
and
Technology (Joint
(joint meeting
meeting with
w.ith the
the
British Computer Society).
Society).
CAMBRIDGE
19th. I.E.E."
19th.
I.E.E.-" The
The application
application of
of
electronics to the
the electricity
electricity supply
supply inin-
dustry" by
by Dr.
Dr. J.
J. S.
S. Forrest
Forrest at
at 6.30
6.30
at
at the
the College
College of
of Arts
Arts and
and Technology.
Technology.
CARDIFF
7th. Brit.I.R.E."
7th.
Brit.I.R.E.-" Transistors
Transistors in
in
transmitters and communications
communications rereceivers"
ceivers
" by A. J.J. Rees
at
6.30
at
the
Rees at 6.30 at the
Welsh
Welsh College of
of Advanced
Advanced Technology.
Technology.
CHATHAM
21st. I.E.E. Graduate &
& Student
Student
Section."Transistors
Section.-"
Transistors v.
v. valves"
valves" by
by
A.
A. W.
W. Hart
Hart at
at 7.0
7.0 at
at Medway
Medway College
College
of Technology, Maidstone Road.
Road.
CHELTENHAM
CHELTENHAM
Brit.I.R.E.-" Modern
2nd. Brit.I.R.E."
Modern transtransmitter techniques" by
by W.
W. J.
J, Morcom
Morcom
at 7.0 at the
North
Gloucestershire
the North Gloucestershire
Technical College.
23rd. Society of
of Instrument
Instrument TechTechnology.-" Applications of
nology."
of ultrasonics
ultrasonics
in the processing
by
E.
processing field"
field " by E. A.
A.
Neppiras at 7.30 at
at Belle
Belle Vue
Vue Hotel.
Hotel.
CRAWLEY
CRAWLEY
21st. I E.E."Problems
E.E.-" Problems in
in elecelectronic control of
of machine
machine tools"
tools " by
by
J. A,
A. Stokes and
and M.
M . Monk
Monk at
at 6.30
6.30 at
at
Crawley Technical Institute.
Institute.
EDINBURGH
6th. I.E.E."
I.E.E.-" Women
Women engineers
engineers in
in
the U.S.S.R." by
by Miss
Miss R.
R. Winslade
Winslade at
at
7.0 at
7.0
at the
the Carlton
Carlton Hotel,
Hotel, North
North Bridge.
Bridge.
7th.
Brit.I.R.E."
tele7th.
Brit.I.R.E.-" Carrier
Carrier
telephony
phony"" by
by J. L. Somerv-lle
SomervJie at
at 7.0
7.0 at
at
The University,
The
University, Drummond
Drummond Street.
Street.
FARNBOROUGH
20th. I.E.E."
"
I.E.E.-" Air
Air traffic
traffic control
control"
by Dr. E. Eastwood
Eastwood and
and Dr.
Dr. B.
B. J.
J.
O'Kane at
at 6.15
6.15 at
at Farnborough
Farnborough TechTechnical College, Boundary
Boundary Road.
Road.
27th. Brit.I.R.E."
Brit.I.R.E.-" Heads
Heads for
for magmagnetic tape recording
" by
recording"
by E.
E. C.
C. Wildman
Wildman
at 7.0 at Farnborough Technical
Technical College.
College.
GLASGOW
8th.
8th.
Brit.I.R.E."
teleBrit.I.R.E.-" Carrier
Carrier
telephony"
phony
"byj.
by J. L.
L. Somerville
Somerville at
at 7.0
7.0 at
at
the Institution of
of Engineers
Engineers and
and ShipSh~p
builders, 39 Elmbank Crescent.
Crescent.
29th. I.E.E.Faraday
I.E.E.-Faraday Lecture
Lecture "" ExExpanding horizons in
in communications"
communications "
by
by D. A. Barron
Barron at
at 6.0
6.0 at
at St.
St. Andrews
Andrews
Hall.
Hall.
WIRELESS World,
Wireless
WoRLD, March
MARCH 1962
LEICESTER
LEICESTE R
Tech8th. Society of Instrument TechElectric
English
- "The
nology.
English
Electric
Dr.
by Dr.
''Saturn'
Saturn' analogue computer" by
0. Jeffries at 7.30 at The University.
T O.
LIVERPOOL
LIVERPOO L
ExI.E.E.-Far aday Lecture " Ex1st. I.E.E.Faraday
1st.
communica tions "
panding
panding horizons in communications"
by D. A. Barron at 6.30 at Philharmonic
monic Hall.
8th.
Society of Instrument Tech8th.
he selection of electrical
nology."
The
nology.-"T
W. Nichols at 7.0
transducers"
transducer s" by J. Vv.
Centre,
at
the Electricity Board Industrial Centre,
at the
Paradise
Paradise Street.
re21st.
Brit.I.R.E. -" Video tape re21st. Brit.I.R.E."Video
cording
cording " by A. Harris at 7.30 at the
Walker Art Gallery.
MALVERN
MALVERN
29th.
Brit.I.R.E. -" Tunnel diodes "
29th. Brit.I.R.E."
the
at the
7.0 at
at 7.0
by Dr. G. D. Bergman at
Winter Gardens.
MANCHESTER
MANCHES TER
teleBrit.I.R.E.- " A colour tele1sc.
lsc. Brit.I.R.E."
screen
project:on for medium screen
vision projection
the
at
7.0
at
Lowrie
P.
by
applications
"
Lowrie at 7.0 at the
application s"
oi
College of
Reynolds Hall, Manchester College
Technology .
Science
Science and Technology.
control"
I.E.E.-" Air traffic control
14th.
Hth. I.E.E."
"
J.
B. J.
Dr. B.
and Dr.
by Dr. E. Eastwood and
Club,
O'Kane at 6.15 at the Engineers' Club,
Albert Square.
Soc.& Phys. Soc.
19th.
19th. Inst. of Physics &
satellites"
and satellites
rockets and
Experiment s in rockets
" Experiments
The
at The
7.0 at
by J. A. Ratcliffe at 7.0
University.
MIDDLESBROUGH
MIDDLES BROUGH
disbanana-tub e disI.E.E.-" The banana-tube
7th. I.E.E."
disthe disto the
approach to
system-a new approach
play systema
by
p:ctures" by
telev:sion pictures"
play of colour television
Cleveland
the Cleveland
at the
Dr. P. Schagen at
at 6.30 at
Scientific and Technical Institution.
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE
LE-UPON-TYNE
NEWCAST
and
Performanc e and
Brit.I.R.E. -" Performance
14th.
Hth. Brit.I.R.E."
d.c.
high-gain d.c.
of high-gain
ns of
consideratio
design
design considerations
comamplifiers to be used in analogue com6.0
at 6.0
puters " by Dr. A. E. Freeman at
Mechand MechM :ning
of M
at the Institute of
ning and
Road.
anical Engineers, Westgate Road.
instrumenSatellite instrumenl.E.E.-" Satellite
19th. I.E.E."
6.30
at 6.30
tation" by Dr. R. L. F. Boyd at
Technology ,
of Technology,
at Rutherford College of
Northumberland
Northumbe rland Road.
NOTTINGHAM
NOTTING HAM
Electrolum inescence"
I.E.E.-" Electroluminescence
27th. I.E.E."
27th.
,. by
Acton at 6.30 at the NotR. Acton
J. R.
Dr. J.
by Dr.
College,
tingham and District Technical College,
Burton Street.
PORTSMOUTH
PORTSMO UTH
indi6th:
Brit.I.R.E .-" Radar track indi6th~ Brit.I.R.E."
at
7.0 at
at 7.0
cation " by L. R. Cathie at
Technology .
Portsmouth
Portsmouth College of Technology.
some
of some
review of
I.E.E.-" A review
21st. I.E.E."A
G.
valves"
modern
" by Dr. D. G.
modern microwave valves
Technology ,
Kiely
Kiely at 6.30 at College of Technology,
Park Road.
SOUTHAMPTON
PTON
SOUTHAM
stor13th. I.E.E."A
I.E.E.-" A tunnel diode stor13th.
at
age system" by A. J. Cole at 6.30 at
The University.
*ITics~
QBCLGINJ
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unsurpassable.
illustrate d
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WOLVERHAMPTON
WOLVERH AMPTON
teleBrit.I.R.E. -" Colour teleHth.
Brit.I.R.E."
14th.
servrce
to
implicat:ons
- implications
vision
to
service
engineers" by J. N. McAinsh at 7.15
engineers"
BYE-PASS ROAD, BARKING, ESSEX.
of
College of
Wolverham pton College
at the Wolverhampton
(121ines)
5588 (12
RIPpleway 5588
Telephone;: RIPpleway
TD.
A.F.BULGIN
&CO.LTD.
Telephone
lines)
aCO.I.
LGIN
A.r.BU
Technology..
Technology
149
MARCH 1962
Wireless
WORLD, March
WIRELESS World,
UNBIASED
By "FREE GRID"
M aths
Mesmerized by Maths
THE exhibition staged by the
Science Museum to commemorate
Marconi's bridging of the Atlantic
by wireless on December 12th, 1901,
was of great interest, although small.
But I found the . all-too-frequent interruptions by Marconi's recorded
voice describing his feat, to be very
distracting, as it was audible all over
the room. Surely the organizers
could have cut out the loudspeaker,
and have provided several telephone
hand sets for those wanting to hear.
Since there seems to be some difdif-
ference of opinion concerning Marconi's all-daylight feat with such
primative apparatus, I have often
thought of going to Newfoundland
myself, armed with a kite and the
other necessary odds and ends. The
trouble is that there are no spark
,(yM a1 ml
,0''
y.('J
Manhandling"" Maggie
Manhandling
Maggie".
transmitters now operating. I wonder if it would not be a good idea to
rebuild the original 25-kW transmitter at Poldhu as a memorial to
Marconi, and thus enable his
original experiment to be repeated.
I thought the most interesting
things in the show were the exhibits
relating to a few years after 1901,
when ship-to-shore communication
established. The
had become well established.
magnetic detector of 1902 was particularly interesting, but I don't
think it was made sufficiently clear
to visitors that
thaf although the comcom:..
mercial
mercia! version shown was perfected
by Marconi and
and his
his associates,
associates, it
it was
was
not his invention; in fact, a primitive version was used five years
years
earlier, in 1897, by Rutherford to receive signals sent across Cambridge.

I was very fortunate when gazing
at the instrument to hear two very
academic types discussing the scientific principle of magnetic hysteresis
upon which its working depends.
One, who had a schoolboy with him,
gave a very learned dissertation
upon the subject for the boy's benefit, and mesmerized him and me by
a miasma .of
of mathematics. He
juggled with sines and cosines with
such breath-taking dexterity that the
boy seemed to become a little giddy,
and when the learned man paused
for breath he shot an entirely irrelevant question at him concerning
the function of the two little white
knobs, one on each of the two
grooved wheels which transported
the soft-iron band.
It was at once evident to me from
his reply that although the .savant
was an expert on magnetic hysteresis
he was completely out of his depth
in the matter of the unpredictable
womanlike hysteria of the driving
spring of the clockwork mechanism,
especially in humid tropical conditions. The schoolboy must have
seen the pained look on the face of
an official standing by, because he
turned to him for further guidance.
The knobs were, of course, provided so that the mechanism could
be turned by hand if the driving
spring broke, the operator turning
with his left hand as he wrote with
his right. I have always thought that
the provision of a knob on each
wheel was to make things
thin!!S easy for
a left-handed operator who needed
his left hand for writing. If I am
wrong in my assumption I shall be
glad to know the correct answer.
Etymological Evolution
II WONDER if any of you can tell
me what
what the word " transistor" is
intended to mean? Now please don't
all rush to send me a copy of Scroggie's book on semiconductors. .Actually I already have one,
on.:, and it is at
this very moment propping up one .
leg of the table on which I am writing
these few words, and so forming a
very good example of applied science.
What I want to get at is how this
at by Barmagic word was arrived at
deen, Brattain and Shockley in the
the
Bell Telephone Laboratories where
they minted both the device and,
and, II
presume, the name.
name; We all know
that the word ""radar
radar"" is built up
of the initial letters of a sentence
150
describing its functions, but "tran" tran~

sis
tor" is not quite like that.
sistor"
One is tempted to split up the
: word into our old friend " trans " and
" istor"
is tor" which is a fragment of the
word resistor, such fragmenting being an indication _that the device is
not a full-blooded resistor but only
. partly so, or
or in other words, a semiconductor.
I am told this explanation is quite
wrong as far as the first part of the
word is concerned although correct
: in the case of the "istor." I am
. informed that the initial " tr" of
transistor really represents the first
two letters of the word " triode"
triode "
since the evolving of the transistor
from the crystal diode in 1948 was
virtually on a par with the putting
of the grid in Fleming's thermionic
diode.
It would seem logical to tidy up
our nomenclature and call the photocell a photistor for, after all, it is a
device which varies its resistance and
therefore its conductivity under the
' influence of light. But if we did that
we should have to use the word
thermistor-already
thermistoralready bookedto
booked-to describe a thermionic valve which varies
its inter-electrode resistance and
other characteristics when we turn
the wick up or down, as those of us
who
who used to work with soft-valve detectors know full well.
'Your
' Your Tiny Hand is Frozen''
Frozen'
I .THINK
THINK you will agree that a criticism of pianos has no place in the
pages of this journal but in view of
the fact that they have gate-crashed
into the Radio Show, piano manufacturers cannot hope to escape criticism. In any case I would like to
suggest a small but important imim'provement in their construction involving the use of electrical technique and that can be my excuse
for talking about pianos in W.W.
I am not a pianist although my
father endeavoured to force me to
become one at a very early age. But
he damned any hope of
of success he
Jnay
may have cherished by forcing me to
practise in a bitterly cold room in the
depths of winter. The result was
that instead of acquiring the skill of
a Paderewski, I developed chilblains
on my fingers from contact with
on
with the
the
icy ivory .of the piano keys.
this and .
I have never forgotten this
that is why I would like to suggest
with some bitterness that
that if
if piano
piano
manufacturers want to continue . to
be allowed into the Radio Show, they
should at least arrange to fit their
wares with electrically
electrically heated keys,
keys,
for even
vert in a room at a civilized temtempian'o keys .are uncomfortperature piano
uncomfort~
ably chilly things.
It would be such a very simple
thing to fit each key
key- with aa tiny
tiny rereplaceable heating element; the curcurrent consumption would be negligible. The same thing, of course,
applies to typewriter keys.
Wireless
WIRELESS World,
WORLD, March
MARCH 1962

Wireless World 1962 03

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Wireless World

102 Transistors in Space .

106 Harmonic Analysis

112 World of Wireless

130 Technical Notebook

133 Letters to the Editor

139 Meters and Senses

By " Cathode Ray ",

144 Fundamentals of Feedback Design3

147 Conferences and Exhibitions

By " Free Grid "

Chairman: H. S. Pocock, M.I.E.E,

Please address to Editor, Advertisement Manager, or Publisher as appropriate

'SHORT NECK' PICTURE TUBE

1 'SH0RT NECK' PICTURE

threethat is, the two outer grids of the threeThis

PCLB5 atriode MINIATURE

informain the open country, but would it provide informain

CIRCUITS USED FOR INSTRUMENTATION AND TELEMETRY

ERE and space probes have

modulatorfamplifierfdetector circuit corresponding

The use of solid-state circuitry eliminates need

. UPPER BAND EDGE

GRAPHICAL METHODS DESCRIBED

THERE are several arithmetical methods for

An alternative form is:

known,' and the

of Two Curves: In dealing

Fig. 4. Plotting the

Fig. 10. The "even"

Fig. 13. Harmonic 3.

Febepoch Febthe epoch

cirfew cirover aa few

WORLD OF WJ[ E ESS

Deve lopm ents

Moroccan Television .Service

National Gramophone Conference.During

The Society of Instrument Technology

R.T.R.A.Headquarters of the Radio

"Automatic Tape Stop"a

Wire-:Wharfe dale WireK.F.

R. J. B. Finlay, O.B.E., who, at the age of 41, recently

Larry H. Brace, the author of the article in this issue

Western Electric Company Inc., of New York, a .

closedsmall closedBuses .-Thre e small

The W.V.A. recorder

A heavy mumetal shielded

phone or gramophone amplifier

Many types of music today

VORTEXION LIMITED, 257-263 The Broadway, Wimbledon, London, S.W.19

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ACO S ADV ANC E

^ changer dust bug

changer dust bug

Acos continue to advance

Physical Society Exhibition

debandw idth debulence. The gain in bandwidth

modifiusing aa modifidiscri minat or using

vibration, which is fed

"Shell "" Research.

Digital shaft encoder checking

TRANSFER PULSE INPUTS

TRANSFER PULSE INPUTS

intereven-numbere d interend and even-numbered

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