COCOA..

The cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) is a native of the dense tropical forests of the
Amazon. The term Theobroma means food of the Gods. The word cocoa has
originated from the Aztec word Cacahuati. Cocoadescribes the bulk commercially
dried, fermented beans, as well as powder from cocoa beans. The main procedures
and exporters of the cocoa bean are West Africa (74% of the world production),
North, Central and South Africa (21%) and Asia and Australia (3%). However the
processing of the bean into chocolate is done in several other countries and some of
the best chocolate is produced in Belgium,Switzerland and France.
The Cocoa Plant
The cocoa plant is a small tropical tree, originally grown in South and Central
America; but now commercially grown in West Africa. The cocoa tree requires a good
soil, a huge rainfall and a low altitude. The part of the plant that is processed and
used for the making of cocoa and chocolate is the fruit that grows on the main trunk
of the tree, as well as on the branches. The fruit is a large pod 4 to 12 in length
and about 4in diameter and has a hard leathery rind containing 25-75 seeds in
distinct rows, embedded in a soft pulp.
Classification
Cocoa may be classified under the following headings:
1. By the country of origin (Zambia/Mozambique).
2. By the species of the bean (Criollo/Forastero).
3. By the method of manufacture (For drinking chocolate/for milk chocolate).
4. By their particular use (Vending machines/Icings/Chocolate moulding).
Processing of Cocoa
The processing of cocoa bean into cocoa powder is done in seven stages, as
mentioned under:
1. Fermentation of the Beans
The ripe cocoa pods are collected and split open and the beans and the pulp
surrounding them are scooped out and put into a fermentation chamber, also called
the sweat boxes, where the temperature is allowed to rise to 40 to 50C (104 to
122F). Fermentation will kill the germs and prevent germination and decomposition
of the bean. It will also encourage enzyme reaction reducing the bitterness and
developing flavour. The beans absorb the liquid from the fermenting sugary pulp
which will then turn into alcohol and finally into acetic acid. As soon as the mass
turns into the acid state, the fermentation is stopped. Otherwise unpleasant flavours
and odours will develop.

2. Drying of the Beans

This is done by laying the beans thinly out in the Sun to dry and occasionally turning
them over, or by passing them through a mechanical drying chamber. When
completely dried, there will not be more than 4% moisture in the bean. At this stage,
beans are exported, unless they are to be processed into cocoa chocolate.
3. Roasting the Beans
This stage is essential to develop the flavour and the aroma of the bean and to give
colour. Moisture is lost at the stage, which assists in the removal of the shell from the
beans.
4. Removing the Shell
This stage is also called Winnowing. The shell is removed from the bean by passing
them through a series of rollers and sieves. The de-shelled beans, now mostly broken
bits and pieces, are referred to as Nibs.
5. Alkalization of the Nibs (Dutch Processing)
This stage, that further develops the flavour and colour, is usually done by tumbling
the nibs in an alkali solution. After drying, the nibs may be roasted to correct the
moisture content.
6. Grinding the nibs
The nibs are now ground into very small particles, a process which releases a large
amount of fat and results in the mass becoming a thick syrup. This fat is known as
Cocoa Butter, usually 50% of the nibs.
7. Extraction of the Cocoa Butter
The cocoa fluid/mass is then fed into large felt lined steel pans fitted with a movable
perforated lid. When subjected to hydraulic pressure, some of the fat is forced
through the filter cloths, leaving behind a solid residue, known as the Press
Cake. This is removed from the pan, allowed to cool, then pulverized and sieved. TO
this fine powder, a small amount of salt and vanilla is usually added before it is
marketed as the popular cocoa powder.
Plain Chocolate
The processing of chocolate involves the first six stages as for the processing of
cocoa and then a further three stages:
1. Mixing the Cocoa mass with sugar
The cocoa mass is thoroughly mixed with powdered sugar in large blending kettles.
The fat content is strictly controlled to obtain a standard product. Additional cocoa
butter may be added to adjust the consistency.
2. Refining the mixture
This is done by passing the mixture through a series of five heavy rollers to reduce
the size of the non-fat particles, so that the chocolate will be smooth to the palate.
This stage exposes the particles to the air, reducing the moisture content, partially
evaporating volatile substances, and lightening the colour of the mixture.
3. Conching
The final stage is concerned with producing a standard quality of
chocolate. Conching is the mechanical agitation of the chocolate mass with
additional cocoa butter at a temperature of 60-70C (140-158F). This will further

evaporate volatile substances and also develop the flavour. Additional flavourings
may also be added at this stage and the mixture is standardized. The chocolate is
then set in moulds such as bars, slabs and is also known as courverture.
A chocolate in block has a tendency to collect moisture from the air and this can be
seen in the form of beads of perspiration. This could be wiped carefully and well
scraped before being used for dipping.
Milk Chocolate
The processing of milk chocolate is the same as Plain Chocolate(courverture), except
that milk crumb is added at the refining stage and the conching is done at a lower
temperature, but for a longer time. Milk crumb is a mixture of condensed milk and
chocolate mass, reduced to a powder form.
Cocoa Powder
It is a product obtained by grinding roasted cocoa beans to an oily liquid, pressing
this in a cocoa-butter press, to remove about half cocoa butter and then grinding the
residual press cake to a powder. Chocolate powderis a blend of true cocoa powder,
sugar and starch.
Drinking Chocolate
It is a modern beverage drink, prepared from the chocolate powder or chocolate
flakes and made in similar manner to the cocoa drink, by adding hot water or milk.
White Chocolate
It is a product composed of pure cocoa butter, full of cream milk powder and sugar,
milled together and passed through refining rolls. As pure cocoa butter has a strong
taste and odour of chocolate, the product is similar in flavour to chocolate. It can be
tempered and molded. Provided fat-soluble edible colours are used, white chocolate
can be coloured pink, orange, yellow or green.
Chocolate Spread
It is permanently soft, pasty or semi-liquid product, which can be used in bakery as
flavouring and colouring material for fillings, butter creams and fondants. To make it,
add warmed golden syrup to melted chocolate courverture in the proportion of two
parts of syrup to one part of courverture, mixing them thoroughly and adding the
warm syrup into glass or glazed earthen ware jars and kept for use as needed.
Panache
It is the name given to a blend of chocolate and cream. Boiling fresh cream is mixed
with grated or melted courverture and stirred occasionally till cooled.
Composition of Cocoa and Chocolate
Theobromine is the stimulant in cocoa and chocolate, along with somecaffeine. The
other major constituents of cocoa and chocolate include colour and flavour
compounds, lipids and carbohydrate. The purple colour is due to the presence of
anthocyanins. The chocolate flavour is contributed by the phenolic compounds.
Starch is the chief carbohydrate in cocoa and chocolate and functions as a thickening
agent. Cocoa contains 11% starch while chocolate contains 8%. Cocoa has more
thickening power than chocolate because of its high starch content. For this very
reason, cocoa is not substituted on a direct weight basis for chocolate. Usually 3-3.5

tablespoon of cocoa powder plus table spoon of fat are considered equivalent to
30 Gms of chocolate.
Fat constituent of cocoa and chocolate is cocoa butter. Cocoa varies in fat content
from 10-22%. Chocolate contains 50% fat. The low melting temperature of chocolate
(near 32C) imparts a smooth texture and readily releases flavour components.
Uses of Chocolate
Cocoa powder and Chocolate powder are used:
1. As a hot beverage.
2. AS a flavouring agent.
3. As a colouring agent.
4. For hot and cold sauces.
Courverture is used:
1. As a coating.
2. As a decoration (Piping).
3. Formoulding into Easter eggs etc.
4. For sauces.
5. For ice-creams.
Storage
Cocoa and chocolate deteriorate quickly in the presence of moisture and
heat. Cocoa becomes grayish in colour and lumpy when stored at temperature above
16-21C and in high humidity.
A mottled or grey surface known as bloom may develop on the chocolate when it is
exposed to high heat and moisture. The melting fat and re-crystallizing in a different
pattern on the surface contribute to the formation of bloom.
Appropriate tempering procedures during processing and the use of stabilizers
retards the development of bloom. Sugar bloom, a rough greyish layer, may develop
on sweet chocolate due to moisture; the dissolved sugar re-crystallizes on the
surface.
The chocolate flavour appears not to be altered by the development of bloom or
lumping of cocoa products, but the texture may be grainy. Milk chocolates also
absorb flavours and odours when stored improperly. The quality of cocoa and
chocolate is best when high temperature and humidity is avoided. The best
protection is tightly sealed containers kept in a cool, dry place.
Nutritional Aspect
Cocoa powder and milk chocolate are rich in fats and carbohydrates. Being a highly
palatable and energy concentrated food, it was used extensively in emergency
situations such as wars and during rescue and evacuation situations.
Chocolate Tempering
Chocolate tempering is a process used to prepare pure chocolate liquor for cooking
purposes. During tempering, it is essential that not one drop of water should come
into contact with the chocolate
Procedure

Break chocolate into small pieces and place it in a bowl over hot water. Stir
occasionally until it is melted and the temperature is 46-48C If this temperature is
exceeded, the chocolate is ruined.
Remove the bowl from saucepan and set in iced water, stirring carefully until the
chocolate begins to set on the bottom. Then warm the chocolate carefully over hot
water until the temperature is dark chocolate to 31C, in milk chocolate to 29C and
in white chocolate to 29C. If the temperatures are exceeded, the tempering process
should begin again.
It is only necessary to temper chocolate when using it for moulding or dipping. For
any fillings, pure chocolate or cooking chocolate can be used without tempering.
Butter is the fat of cream that is separated more or less completely from the
other milk constituents by agitation or churning. The mechanical rupture of the
protein film around the fat globules allows the fat globules to clump together. Butter
formation is an example of breaking of an oil-in-water emulsion by agitation. The
resulting emulsion that forms in butter itself is a water-in-oil emulsion, with about
18% water being dispersed in 80% fat and a small amount of protein acting as an
emulsifier.
Butter is made from either sweet or sour cream. Butter from sour cream has a more
pronounced flavour. The cream may be allowed to sour naturally or may be acidified
by the addition of pure culture of lactic acid bacteria to sweet cream, which produces
a butter of better flavour and keeping quality.
It consists of more than 80% butterfat and small amounts of protein, vitamin A and
D, minerals, lactose and water. Butter must have a minimum of 80% fat content, a
non-fat solid content of 2% and a maximum of 16% moisture (water).
Composition

Fat
Protein (Casein)
Lactose
Salt
Water

Average composition of Butter

82.5%
1.5%
2%
2%
12%

Factors that affect quality of Butter

1. The breed of animal (cow or buffalo) from which the milk was obtained.
2. The type of feed that was available for the animal.
3. The method of manufacture (fresh or ripened cream).
4. The efficiency of manufacture (wrong temperature may affect the colour and
flavour of butter).
5. Whether or not the butter was blended.
6. The addition of salt and colour.
7. The method of packing and storing.
Classification of Butter
There are four main types of butter:
1. Fresh or Sweet cream Butter,
2. Ripened cream or Lactic Butter,

3. Blended or Milled Butter and

4. Special Butter
(Fresh and ripened cream Butters are known as Creamery Butters).
Manufacture of Creamery Butter
The manufacture of creamery butter takes place in four main stages, as mentioned:
1. Holding
The cream (35%) is pasteurized at 95C (203F) and held for 2 to 4 seconds. It is
then cooled to 4.5C (40F) and held there for several hours to ensure the uniform
hardening of the fat globules.
2. Ripening
When the end product is going to be a ripened butter or lactic butter, a
starter (which is a laboratory culture of acid-producing bacteria) will be added
during the Holding stage, in which the holding temperature will be 15.5-18.5C (6065F) for 3 to 4 hours before being cooled to 4.5C (40F). This gives the butter a
much fuller flavour. However, the flavour tends to fade and therefore the ripened
cream butter has a shorter life than the sweet cream butters. This stage will be
omitted when making the sweet cream butter.
3. Churning
The churning of cream is done in large stainless steel churns that hold about 1000
gallons of cream. The temperature must not exceed more than 4C. The churns are
rotated while internal rollers pass through the cream. This breaks the envelope of
non-fat particles/solids that surround the small fat globules and coalesce to form
larger groups of butter fat. The envelope is dispersed in the thin liquid part of the
cream to form buttermilk. After about 30 minutes of churning, the butter separates
out in the form of grains and floats in the buttermilk. The buttermilk is carefully
drained away and used for other purposes.
4. Washing and Salting
The butter grains are now washed with ice water to remove any traces of buttermilk
left on the surface of each grain, in order to maximize the keeping quality. Ice water
also helps to harden butter grains. Salting can be done in two ways:
a. By adding fine grains of dairy salt, and
b. By soaking in a brine solution for 10-15 minutes and allowing the butter to absorb
it.
The quantity of salt added usually average 1% for ripened cream butter and 1.5% for
fresh cream butter. Salt contributes to flavour and improves the keeping quality.
The butter grains are then worked into a smooth solid mass by rotating the churns
slowly for 10-15 minutes, then weighed and packed. Colouring (annatto) may also be
added at this stage. If unsalted butter is required, the salting stage is omitted.
Blended Butter
Blended butter is a blend of butters from different regions or countries. These are
mixed together to produce a product of standard quality at a competitive price,
under a brand name.
Special Butters

This group includes some butter that are not commonly available and those which
are not true butters. These include:
1. Whey Butter
Whey is the liquid which separates from the curd while making cheese. The butterfat
obtained from the whey may be used to produce butter, or it may be added to fresh
cream/milk prior to it being processed into butter. Due to its origin, this butter has a
faint cheesy flavour.
2. Milk blended Butter
Quantities of milk are blended into butter, thereby increasing the moisture content to
24% (max.).
3. Powdered Butter
This is spray-dried butter containing 80% milk fat and non-fatty solids. It is produced
on a large scale in Australia and is used mainly in the Bakery trade.
4. Compound Butters
These are made by adding a particular natural flavour or colour to butter, depending
on the type of food with which it is served. It is generally used as an accompaniment
e.g. Lobster Butter, Parsley Butter etc.
5. Cocoa Butter
This is not a true butter, rather obtained by crushing the cocoa beans. It is the most
expensive ingredient used in chocolate making. Cocoa butter substitutes, using palm
oil, are also available.
6. Peanut Butter
It is a paste-like substance obtained by grinding roasted peanuts that may be further
emulsified and flavoured.
Uses of Butter
1. As a spread for bread, toast and scones.
2. As a basic ingredient in pastry-making and cake-making.
3. Used as an accompaniment (compound butter).
4. To enhance the taste and flavour of soups and sauces.
5. As a cooking medium (The smoke point of butter fat is only 127-130C; so a
vegetable oil should be used when high cooking temperatures are required).
6. For butter sculptures.
Butter is available in 10 Gms, 100 Gms and 500 Gms packs in the market.
Storage
Butter is a perishable product and tends to loose flavour and go rancid on prolonged
storage. Exposure to sunlight can make it go rancid faster.
It must be stored at refrigerated temperatures (2C), well wrapped and away from
strong flavoured foods, for it absorbs odours and flavours easily. If purchased in bulk,
it can be frozen at -25 to -35C.
A good quality butter should have a clean flavour and aroma characteristic of the
type of butter, have a close body, a waxy texture, be of uniform colour, have a
uniform distribution of salt (if added), be clean in appearance and have an absence
of any free moisture.

Ghee is obtained by clarifying butter. Butter is heated to evaporate water. Pure ghee
has a higher keeping quality and is a good cooking medium and a shortening agent
used in Indian Cuisine.
Cream is the fat separated from milk. It is the lighter portion of milk containing all
the main constituents of milk, but in which fat content is high and the solid (non fat)
content is lower.
Cream is commercially separated from milk in a creamery, by means of a mechanical
separator. The milk is first heated to between 32-49C (90-120F) before being run
into the separator which operates like centrifugal machine, rotating at very high
speed and forcing the milk, which is heavier, to the outside; while the cream, which
is lighter, remains at the centre. The cream and the skimmed milk are drained out
through separate outlets and by means of a control valve, the fat content is
adjusted. The skimmed milk is then heated to 79.5C (175F) to kill off any harmful
bacteria before being further processed into dried milk etc.
Types of Cream
There are a variety of creams available in the market, each having a different fat
content:

Type of Cream
Single Cream
Whipping Cream
Double Cream
Double Thick Cream
Sterilized Half Cream
Sterilized Cream
Clotted Cream

Fat Content
18%
35%
48%
50%
12%
23%
55%

For general purposes, cream may be classified into:

1. Whipping Cream (>30% fat).
2. Light or Coffee Cream (18% fat).
3. Half-and-half (10.5% fat).
4. Non-dairy or Manufactured Cream.
Half-and-half is a mixture of milk and light cream and it may be used in place of
coffee cream. Cream containing sugar, stabilizers and flavouring is sold in
pressurized containers. Non-dairy products containing water, vegetable fat, sugar,
sodium caseinate, emulsifiers and vegetable gums are also available in pressurized
cans. Nondairy products for whipped toppings, coffee, whiteners and snack dip bases
are also available in the market.
Manufactured Cream
1. Reconstituted Cream
It is made by emulsifying butter with skimmed milk or skimmed milk powder. This is
not true cream, but a substance which resembles it in appearance.
2. Imitation or Synthetic Cream
It is made by the emulsification of vegetable fats with dried egg and gelatin, and
then sugar and flavourings are added. It is a product which is frequently used in

catering and baking trade, but which is very easily contaminated and liable to cause
food-poisoning.
Uses of Cream
1. To serve with hot or cold coffee and chocolate.
2. To serve as an accompaniment (fruit based salad).
3. To be used fro decorative purposes in cakes and gateaux and for garnishes in
soups and desserts.
4. As a main ingredient in certain desserts such as ice-cream and custards.
Storage of Cream
Fresh cream must be treated in the same way as fresh milk, as far as storage is
concerned. Whipped cream must be covered and stored in sterilized containers in
the refrigerator and used in the same day. Reconstituted and intimation cream must
be refrigerated and only small quantities be whipped, when required for immediate
use.
The whipping of Cream
Whipping cream is a product that results from the agitation of cream. During
whipping, air is incorporated, thus forming foam, and fat particles are clumped
together, producing the characteristic stiffness or rigidity of whipped cream. If
whipping is continued too long, the emulsion breaks and butter gets separated. The
air bubbles formed in whipped cream are surrounded by protein films in which
clumps of fat globules offer structural support, which increases the rigidity of the
foam and permits the formation of more air bubbles and the extension of the protein
film to surround them. Homogenized cream is not suitable for whipping.
Points to be considered while whipping Cream
1. Use cream with minimum 30% fat for ease in whipping and for a stiff product.
Increased fat upto 38% improves the whipping quality of cream.
2. Hold cream at low temperature (7C) whips well. Lower temperature increases
viscosity, which increases the whipping property. The beater and the bowl used
should be cold.
3. Whipping property improves with the aging of cream, as viscosity increases.
4. Homogenized cream will not whip satisfactorily. When whipping cream, tiny air
bubbles are trapped and surrounded by the fat globules in the cream. Homogenized
cream will have had the majority of the fat globules broken down and they will not be
sufficient and strong enough to trap and hold the air cells.
5. The utensils must be sterilized. Glass or stainless steel containers are ideal for
whipping cream. Avoid using aluminum as it tends to discolour the cream, turning it
a dull grey.
6. Increased acidity upto the concentration required to give a sour taste (0.3%) has
no effect on whipping quality.
7. Addition of sugar decreases both volume and stiffness and increases time required
to whip cream if it is added before whipping. If sugar is to be added, it is best added
after the cream is stiff or just before service.

We consume the eggs of birds like consume the eggs of birds like hen, goose, turkey,
fowls etc. The eggs of only those birds whose meat is eaten are used for cooking
purposes. But in India, eggs of hen and ducks are used. Eggs serve a versatile and
basic function in diet and in food preparation. They are a pre-packaged container of
nutrients in their own disposable shell.
Grading of eggs
(U.S. weight classes for eggs, minimum weight per dozen for each size)

Jumbo
30 oz/

Extra large Large

Medium

Small

Peewee

75 Gms/egg
(900 Gms per dozen)27oz/
68.5 Gms/egg
(810 Gms per dozen)24oz/
60 Gms/egg
(720 Gms per dozen)21oz/
52.5 Gms/egg
(630 Gms per dozen)18oz/
45 Gms/egg
(540 Gms per dozen)15oz/
37.5 Gms/egg
(450 Gms per dozen)
N.B.:1 oz=30 Gms approx.
Structure of eggs

Courtsey Chef Iyer, IHMCTAN, Mumbai

Structure of an Egg
The egg is composed of shell, white and yolk. The egg white forms 2/3 rdof the whole
egg and the yolk forms 1/3rd.
1. Shell
It is the outer hard covering of the egg and is made up of Calcium,Magnesium
carbonate and Calcium phosphate. The shell gives shape to the egg and holds the
inner contents. The shell contains thousands of pores that allow CO 2 and moisture to
escape, as well as air to enter. The shell is covered by a cuticle membrane
or Bloom and should not be washed. The bloom acts as protective covering blocking
the pores, and prevents moisture loss and bacterial contamination. When eggs are
washed before going to the market, the cuticle is removed. To protect the egg, the
washed eggs are coated with a thin film of edible oil.
2. Membrane
Beneath the shell, there are two semi permeable membranes the outer and the
inner. These membranes act as a protective layer in case the shell cracks.
3. Air cell
On one side of the egg (broader), both these membranes separate to form an air
cell. This is formed by contraction of the contents as soon as the egg is laid, due to
the difference in the outside temperature.

4. Egg white
It has 1/8th part of the protein, which is called albumin; the remaining being water.
The egg white consists of three parts the outer thin albumen, the middle thick
albumin and the inner thin albumin.
5. Egg yolk
The yolk is separated from the white by a membrane called vitelline membrane. This
membrane prevents the mix of both yolk and white. 1/6th parts of the egg yolk
contains proteins, 1/3rd fat and the rest water, Vitamins and minerals like Calcium,
Phosphorus, Iron etc.
6. Chalaza
The egg is kept in position at the centre of the egg with the help of the chalaza. It
has a thick-cord like appearance and is composed of proteins. This chord-like
structure may have to be strained while making custards.
Composition of an Egg

Parts
Whole egg
Egg white
Egg yolk

Number
1
1
1

Weight
50 Gms
33 Gms
17 Gms

H2O
74%
88%
51%

Proteins
13%
11%
16%

Fats
12%
Traces
31%

Selection of Eggs+
Colour
The Colour has no direct effect on the quality of the egg. It depends on the breed,
the type of bird and the food consumed. However avoid any eggs with patches
formed on the surface as they indicate deterioration of eggs.
Size and Weight
It again depends on the type of bird. An average hens egg weighs around 50 gms.
The weight should be proportional to the size of the egg. If the size is big and the
weight is less, the air cell is big, which indicates that the egg is old.
Egg white
It should not be watery but firm. Firm albumen is a sign of freshness.
Egg yolk
Its colour again depends on the type & feed of the bird. The pigment contained is
different feeds are different. Birds that feed on green grass or yellow corn will have a
dark yellow colour because of the carotinoidspresent in the grass. However, avoid
eggs which have blood spots (meat spots). The blood spot means that the egg is
fertilized and nearing hatching (the blood spots caused by the rupture of a blood
vessel during egg formation).
Approximately 1% of all eggs will have these spots which are detected and removed
during grading. Electronic blood detectors are sometimes used for grading. Although
the blood spot may be objectionable to the consumer, the eggs are chemically and
nutritionally fit to eat. In fact, the blood spot is an indicator that the egg is fresh. As
the egg ages, the yolk removes H2O from the albumen and dilutes the blood spot.
Free from cracks
The egg must be free from cracks. If the egg is cracked, there are chances that the
egg is spoilt, since the micro-organisms have an easy access into the egg.

Flavour and Odour

Generally the eggs dont have any odour from the outside, except that of the
packing material, which must not be strong smelling. Sometimes the smell may
penetrate into the egg. Hence, eggs are usually stored away from strong flavoured
foods like fish, onions, garlic etc.
In order to maintain the standard, size, quality, colour and weight, the distributors
buy eggs, usually from on-farm only, where the diet is kept constant.
If the birds are of the same breed and feed, the standard can be maintained.
Test for freshness
There are two basic tests for judging the freshness of an egg externally i.e. without
breaking, as stated under:
1. Water treatment
When egg is placed in water and if it floats, then it is stale. If it sinks completely, it is
good. If it floats half-way, then the egg is neither too fresh, nor stale. The air cell
increases in size as the eggs get older, which results in floating of eggs.
2. Candling
Egg is placed in a dark room before a candle to see the yolk, white and the presence
of blood spots, etc. Now a day, most eggs are graded by passing down on roller over
high intensity lights. The eggs are rotated as they move on rollers, so that all parts
are visible.
Reasons for storage of eggs
1. As soon as the eggs are laid, they start deteriorating as they come in contact with
the atmosphere.
2. The dense albumen becomes thin and watery.
3. Water from the white passes through the yolk; thus lowering its solids as the
vitelline membrane is weakened. Chalaza starts to disintegrate and no longer holds
the yolk in the centre.
4. If exposed to air, the moisture evaporates and the air cell increases in size.
5. The egg may absorb off-odours, shell being porous.
6. Fresh yolk is slightly acidic, whereas white is alkaline. Loss of carbon dioxide from
the egg results in deterioration.
Storage of eggs
Care must be taken in handling and storage of the eggs. They should be stored in
their packing trays with the blunt end upwards and the temperature of 7-13C, at a
relative humidity of 70-80%. This way, it can be kept for a month. It should be kept
away from onions, garlic, fish etc. Frozen eggs are stored at -18C. When defrosted,
it should be used in the same day.
Dried eggs stay upto one year, if kept unopened in the original container in a cold
dry store room. Once opened, it should be used as quickly as possible.
Treating the eggs with oil or wax before refrigeration also extends its shelf life for
several months. An odourless, colourless, tasteless mineral oil is used and the
process is done under controlled conditions.
Recently, it has been found that small amount of CO2 passed into the storage rooms
prevents the loss of CO2 from the eggs, thus enhances the shelf life.

Shelf life of the eggs can be increased by pasteurization at a temperature of 52-55C

for 3 minutes. Thermostabilization is the process in which the eggs are heated in oil
or water at about 54-58C for about 16 minutes to preserve quality during storage.
The whites of thermostabilized eggs are more viscous. It is more difficult to separate
the white and yolk. More time is required for whipping. It has low foam volume,
which leads to decreased volume of the egg products. Other functional properties
are not affected.
Cooking of Eggs
The most important rule of egg cookery is avoid high temperature and long cooking
time. In other words, dont overcook eggs. Overcooking produces tough eggs,
discolouration and it flavour too. Egg white coagulates at 60-65C, yolk at 65-70C,
whole beaten egg at 69C and custard at 79-85C, depending on the amount of milk
used. White coagulates before yolk and hence it is possible to boil eggs with firm
white and soft yolk. Coagulation depends on length of heating and the presence of
added materials like vinegar and salt, which will speed up the coagulation.
Overcooked eggs are tough and rubbery. When eggs are over-cooked, as in case of
scrambled eggs and custards, the egg solids separate from liquids or appear curdled.
This is known as weeping of eggs.
Blue ring formation on hard-boiled eggs is caused by cooking too long at high
temperatures. This is also seen in scrambled eggs, which are cooked on high
temperatures. The iron from the yolk combines with the sulphur from the white to
form ferrous sulphide, which has blue colour and strong flavour. To avoid blue ring
formation, cook at low temperature and arrest the cooking by plunging in cold water
or cracking the shell.
Egg white has the ability to trap or hold air foaming which helps to increase to
seven times its original volume, when beaten. Beaten egg whites give lightness or
raising power to fluffy omelets, pudding and souffls.
Methods of Cooking
Cooking of Egg

In the Shell
Out of the Shell
Soft cooked
Medium cooked
Hard cooked
Unmixed
Mixed
Coddled Egg
1. Poached
2. Fried (Single or Double)
3. Shirred eggs (Baked in individual dishes and served garnished in the same)
4. Cocottes (Eggs steamed in cocotte dishes on a water bath )1. Scrambled eggs
2. Omelets (Plain and foamy)
Poaching

The aim is to keep eggs in compact form, rather than spread out over the pan. This is
done on a shallow pan because the water is simmering and not boiling, as boiling
disintegrates the egg. 5 gms of salt and 10 ml of vinegar for 1 l of water is
advisable. Vinegar helps to increase the coagulation, while salt increases the
coagulation temperature. Ideal time for poaching is 3-5 minutes.
Frittata
Frittata is a flat omelet that originated in Italy. Flat omelets are made by mixing
beaten eggs with a variety of ingredients such as vegetables, meat or cheese and
cooking the mixture over low heat without stirring. To finish, it is either flipped over
or flashed under the broiler until the top is set.
Souffls
Souffls are similar to foamy omelets except that they have a white sauce basis and
have some foods such as grated cheese, vegetable pulp or ground meats used for
flavour. The heat coagulated protein of both yolk and white give structure to souffls.
The expansion of air in the egg foam as these products bake causes them to rise and
appear puffed. Souffls are baked in special oven-proof moulds at 117C and served
immediately in the moulds in which they are baked. All souffls regardless of
flavour should be light, tender, well blended, of good volume, slightly moist and
delicately browned.
Factors affecting the whipping quality of eggs
Season of egg production (Mid-summer eggs beat to lesser volume).
Quality of egg white (Thick whites give more stable foam).
Temperature (Eggs at room temperature whip more quickly and to large volume).
Type of beater (Fine wires divided egg whites easily and air cells remain smaller).
Container (Bowls with small rounded bottoms and sloping sides are preferable as
the beater can more easily be pick up the egg mixture. The size of the bowl depends
on the quantity of whites to be whipped).
Effect of added substances
Milk prevents foam formation due to the presence of fat. Skimmed milk may be
used.
Presence of fat from the yolk, container or beaters may affect the whipping quality.
Salt decreases the volume and stability of the foam and increases the whipping
time.
Acids decrease the alkalinity and increase the stability of the foam. Acid may be
added after the white has started to get stiff foam of good volume.
Sugar retards denaturation of egg proteins. Add sugar only after the whites are
beaten to peaks. Egg white is denatured by beating and heat.
Uses of eggs
Raising agents as in cakes.
Binding agents as in koftas and cutlets.
Flavouring agent (improves taste) as in cakes.
Emulsifying agent helps in mixing of emulsions.
Enrichment in childs feed.
Rich in nutrients.

 First semi-solid food for infants as easily digestible.

Clarifying agent as in consomm.
Garnishing.
The word Farinaceous is derived from the Latin word Farina meaning flour and
the French word Farineux and Farinages. The English term Farinaceous
indicate a wide range of dishes made with different flours, usually as a main
ingredient. These include the vast range of Indian pastas in their many different
forms, shapes and sizes and a range of similar uses and value for the menu.
In the traditional menu, these three types of dish are normally served as a subsidiary
item for lunch, coming up after the soup or frequently acting as a hors doeuvre.
When garnished and with a suitable sauce, they can serve as a substantial main
dishes any time of the day. When plainly prepared and not over garnished, they
make suitable garnishes for a number of fish, meat and poultry dishes. It is usual to
serve gratedParmesan cheese or similar, as an accompaniment for most farinaceous
dishes and rice dishes.
Gnocchi
There are three main types of small dumplings or Gnocchi:
1. Gnocchi Parisienne (Made from flour, egg and butter, which in effect is a basic
choux paste).
2. Romaine (Made from milk, semolina and egg).
3. Gnocchi Italienne (Made from potato, flour and egg).
Basically these are all gratinated with butter and cheese, but can all be lightly
garnished or mixed with mushrooms, cooked sausages, poultry or meat. Tomato
sauce, jus-lie, Bchamel and cream are used as variations.
Pastas
The name Pasta is the Italian word for paste; so called because pasta is made
from a mixture of durum wheat flour and water and sometimes eggs. Durum wheat
(High gluten quality and content) is milled and mixed with water, salt, eggs, oil and
at times, vegetable colouring. Semolina or rawa is preferred to flour because less
water is required to make the pasta dough, which greatly helps in the drying stage.
Types of Pasta
1. Commercial Pastas
It is made from dough that has been shaped and dried (Pasta second-dry pasta).
a. Macaroni (Refers to pastas made from flour and water. These include spaghetti,
lasagna, elbow macaroni etc.).
b. Egg pastas (Contain at least 5.5% egg solids, in addition to the flour and water.
They are sold as flat noodles of various widths).
2. Fresh Egg Pasta
Fresh egg pasta or pasta alluovo are made from flour and eggs and sometimes, a
small quantity of water and/or oil. Soft egg noodle products are also available in
fresh and frozen form from the manufacturer. They take less time to cook than dried
macaroni products.

3. Fancy Pastas
This group contains cut macaroni, which may be straight or slant out and a large
variety of fancy shaped pastas.
Pastas may be classified according to their size and shapes as:
1. Long Pasta
This group includes smooth, solid rod forms e.g. spaghetti, vermicelli, tubular forms
of which the outer surface may be smooth or corrugated like macaroni and flat from
inside.
2. Short pieces of Pasta
e.g. Farafallette (Butterfly shaped Pasta).
3. Pasta suitable for stuffing
These are of two types:
a. Those that are stuffed, while the pasta is in raw stage and then cooked e.g. ravioli,
tortellini.
b. Those that are partially cooked before being stuffed and then cooking is
completed e.g. cannelloni.
4. Small Fancy Pastas
This group consists of a large variety of small pastas which are used almost
exclusively for garnishing. E.g. Capellini (Fine hair-like vermicelli), Alfabeto (Letters
and numbers), Stellette (Small stars).
Cooking of Pastas
All pastas should be cooked in boiling salted water, allowing at least 1 liter of water
and 10 Gms of salt per 100 Gms of raw pasta. They should be gently stirred with a
wooden spoon to prevent sticking together and allowed to simmer gently.
Stuffed pastas like ravioli require very gentle simmering only to prevent breaking.
The actual cooking time is determined by the size or thickness of the pasta, but in all
cases, it should not be overcooked. Cook all pastas to al-dente stage, drain well
and use immediately.
If not served immediately, the cooked pasta can be refreshed and kept in a basin of
cold water or tossed with oil and kept in the refrigerator. Where possible, pasts
should always be freshly cooked and used immediately.
In addition to the standard finishing of butter, cream and grated Parmesan cheese,
there are a number of sauces like Bchamel sauce, Crme, Jus-lie, Demi-glace, Sauce
Italienne, Sauce Champignon, Sauce Tomate, Pesto and Provenoale. Besides these,
there are a few sauces which are special to pasta dishes, as well as some of which
become an integral part of the dish e.g. Bolognaise, Sauce Nicoise or Tomato and
Basil Sauce.
Noodles
The word Noodle is derived from the German word for dumplings Nudeln.
Dumplings seem to have originated from the practice of putting uncooked dough or
bread pieces into soups or stews. Noodles are defined as food paste made of flour,
water and eggs, which may be either dried or fresh. Noodles are also referred to as

vermicelli, regardless of whether they come from Italy or Hong Kong. The main
areas of production are Central Europe, America and the Far East.
The Germans are the first to make noodle dough with eggs. Egg noodles are also
popular with the Italians and the Chinese. Asian noodles may be based on a number
of different flour pastes, with or without eggs, including the flour of mung, soy beans,
sea weed, corn, chick peas, rice and durum wheat. The Japanese have an impressive
range of noodle made of golden buckwheat. Japan shares China for a fondness for
cellophane noodles called in Japan as Harusame.
Dumplings
Dumplings are starch products made from soft dough or batter and are cooked by
simmering or steaming. They are served as side dishes and in soups and stews.
Different National cuisines have their own kind of dumplings e.g. Potato dumplings
and Caraway dumplings.
Spaetzle
Spaetzle are small dumplings or noodles made from a thin egg and flour batter.
Yield
450 Gms of uncooked pasta yields about 1.4 kg of cooked pasta. This is enough for
4-5 portions of main course or 8-10 side dish or first course portions.
Milk is the natural food for mammals in the first stages of life. It is thenearperfect single food containing protein, carbohydrate, fat, minerals and vitamins.
However, it is lacking in iron, vitamin C and D. It is one of the most complete foods,
because it contains the nutrients required for growth and development. Milk
obtained from several species of animals is used for human consumption, but the
most popular are cows, buffaloes and goats milk.
Composition

Components
Water
Carbohydrate
Protein
Fat
Vitamins and Minerals

Cows milk
85-87%
5%
3%
4%
1%

Buffalos milk
80%
5%
4.5%
9%
1.5%

However, the composition doesnt always remain the same. This will vary slightly,
depending upon the species, the age and the feed of the animal. It will also depend
upon the lactation period and as animal advances in age, the fat content will also
increase. Animals who feed on grass pastures produce a high yield of milk, richer in
Vitamin A.
Nutritive Value
Protein
Some of the most complete forms of protein are found in milk. Casein is the main
milk protein. It is insoluble in water and is very easily precipitated by acids. This
results in the curdling of milk. Lactoglobulinand Lactalbumin are the other two
proteins that are found in milk. They coagulate easily on heating and are responsible
for the precipitate found at the bottom and the sides of the pan used for the heating
of milk. They are not easily precipitated by acid.

Carbohydrates
The main carbohydrate found in milk is Lactose or milk sugar. Lactose is not very
soluble in water and it is responsible for the sweet taste in milk. Lactose also tends
to crystallize in milk powder during storage and results in lump formation and caking.
It isnt water soluble and is responsible for the sandy or gritty texture in condensed
milk and ice-cream. In the souring of milk, lactic acid bacteria converts lactose into
lactic acid, giving sour milk its characteristic flavour.
Fat
The fat constituent of milk is present in the form of cream. It is dispersed as fine
globules. When heated, it rises to the surface, where it forms a layer. It contains fatsoluble vitamin A and D. Together with lactose, fat provides the energy in the diet.
Minerals and Vitamins
Milk is rich in calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and all the vitamins known to
be essential for human nutrition are present in milk. Milk is rich in Vitamin A, S,
E and K.
Since milk contains a great deal of water, it is a very dilute food. Because of this, it is
easy to consume and digest. Milk is an ideal food for all, especially infants and young
children. There is no evidence that it is an indispensable constituent of the adult diet.
Processing
From the time it is milked from the animal to the time of sale, milk has to undergo
processing to improve the keeping quality and to make it fit for consumption. The
various stages are:
1. Collection
Milk is brought to the dairy in clean sterilized vessels, preferably stainless steel.
2. Holding tanks
The milk is immediately transferred to holding tanks and is held at 10C to keep it
safe. Cooling is done either in a tank, jacketed with pipes in which runs a brine
solution. Else the milk is run over very cold water pipes.
3. Filtration
The milk is passed through a series screens and filters to remove sediment and
floating particles.
4. Pasteurization
It is the process of heating milk to 63.7C and holding it at that temperature for 30
minutes. This is known as the Holder Process of Pasteurization. Nowadays,
the Flash Pasteurization is more commonly used. It is also called the HTST or High
Temperature Short Time method, where the milk is heated to 71.6C for only 15
seconds. Pasteurization makes milk safe for human consumption by destroying
pathogenic germs (pathogens). It also helps to increase the shelf life. Flavour of the
milk remains unaffected at pasteurization temperature.
5. Homogenization
At temperature of 60C, milk is passed under high pressure through small opening of
a machine called homogenizer. The main purpose is to subdivide the fat globules in
milk and disperse them evenly in the entire mass. Fat has a low density and tends to
rise to the surface during heating. Homogenization prevents this by first breaking up

the fat into tiny particles and then dispersing them throughout the milk. This adds to
the flavour and results in a better body.
6. Bottling
The bottles of selected and uniform size have to be sterilized by steam and hot water
and then they are filled with milk, which are capped automatically. Nowadays milk is
filled in plastic pouches and these are more economical, easily transported and save
storage space. Plastic pouches are easily disposed and are safe to handle.
7. Sterilization
The sealed bottles are now heated for 30 to 40 minutes at temperatures ranging
from 104-110C in steam chambers calledautoclaves and then allowed to cool. Milk
can also be sterilized before bottling. It is subjected to temperatures of 135-150C
for just 1 second. This is called the UHT or Ultra Heat Treatment. This process kills off
all microorganisms and the very short holding temperature reduces the changes in
colour and lined with aluminum foil. Milk is then distributed through various outlets.
Effect of heat on Milk
Digestibility is slightly improved in the heated milk as it tends to form smaller,
tenderer curds in the stomach than are formed from raw milk. Heating to higher
temperatures than those used in pasteurization effects a greater variety of changes
in milk. The tendency of milk to curdle is diminished by the use of low or moderate
temperatures. Casein is not coagulated at the usual temperatures. It coagulates
when heated at too high temperatures or for long period of time at boiling
temperature.
The coagulation of milk protein by heat is accelerated by an increase in acidity.
Heating milk brings about an increase in acidity. The addition of acid foods to milk
may also result in coagulation.
The browning reaction, non-enzymatic browning or Millard reaction occurs when
sugars and proteins are heated together. The prolonged heating of condensed milk in
the can results in a product of brown colour, caramel flavour and thickened
consistency.
Minerals like calcium phosphate is precipitated by heat and sometimes gets collected
at the bottom of the pan with coagulated albumin and some of it gets entangled in
the scum on the top surface of the milk.
Skin formation is one of the most troublesome of reactions that occurs during the
heating of milk. It may be prevented by covering the pan, by diluting the milk, or by
presence of fat floating on the surface. As the temperature is increased, a tough
scum forms, which is insoluble and can be removed from the surface. The scum is
composed of coagulated albumin with some precipitated salts and fat globules.
Scum formation can be prevented by beating the cooked milk with a beater. The
formation of scum on boiled milk is the principal reason for the behaviour of milk in
boiling over. A certain amount of pressure develops under the scum, which later
forces the scum upward and the milk flow over the sides of the pan i.e. spill.
The flavour of milk that has been heated to boiling temperatures or above is
described as Flat. It is due to the loss of dissolved gases, carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Some change that occurs in the protein also influences the flavour of the cooked
milk.
The layer of fat that may form on milk that is boiled is the result of the breaking of
the films of protein that surround the fat globules in unheated milk. The breaking of
the films of emulsifying agent permits the firm coalescence of fat globules.
The scorching of milk placed over direct heat is due in part to the film of coagulated
albumin that collects on the bottom and sides of the pan. Stirring the milk while
heating lessens the thickness of the film, but may not prevent scorching, particularly
if large quantity of milk is heated. Millard reaction is responsible for the brown colour
of the scorched milk. Heating milk over hot water will retard or completely prevent
scorching.
Acid coagulation of milk
Acid either that which is formed by bacterial action in milk, or by added acid
precipitates casein as curd. The acid curdling the milk is a desired reaction in the
making of some cheese and curd, but is undesirable in food products such as
curdling of tomato soup, fruit cream and causes the casein to precipitate.
Rennin is an enzyme present in the stomach of man and animals which helps to clot
milk during digestion. Commercially the enzyme is available in the form
of rennet tablets or extract, which are prepared from the inner lining of the stomach
of calves and lambs.
The action of vegetable enzyme bromelin from pineapple also clots milk, but later
digests the clot. Other enzymes in fruits are responsible for some of the curdling
action that occurs when milk or cream and certain fruits are combined. All fruits and
vegetables contain some organic acids but not always in sufficient concentration to
cause the curdling of milk. Destroying the enzymes before combining the fruit with
the milk will prevent curdling caused by enzyme action. Curdling of milk may occur if
tannin containing foods, such as potatoes are cooked in milk. Tannins are also
present in brown sugar and in cocoa product.
Besides enzymes, acids and tannins, salts present in the milk, in the food combined
with the milk, or added sodium chloride may also influence coagulation of the casein.
Of the meats commonly cooked in milk, ham usually causes more coagulation than
chicken, veal or pork. The high sodium content of ham may be responsible for the
excessive curdling that occurs when cooked with milk.
Type of Milk
A. Fluid Milk
1. Whole milk
Milk that has none of its fat removed. It generally contains 3.25% fat. This fat is not
homogenized so that the milk will have cream line.
2. Skimmed Milk
This type of milk became popular because of the emphasis on low-fat diet. Cream is
separated by machine. Skimmed milk resembles fresh whole milk, except that the fat
content is less than 0.5%, but rest of the nutrients remains the same, except for fat
soluble vitamins. It is often fortified with vitamin D and minerals. Skimmed milk is
usually pasteurized and may also be homogenized.

3. Homogenized Milk
It has the same composition as the whole fluid milk, but the fat content is dispersed
throughout the mass through the process of halogenations. There wont be any
cream line when the milk is heated.
4. Toned Milk
Toning is done to make buffalo milk resemble in appearance and flavour to cows
milk. It is done by dilution and addition of skimmed milk powder. 40 % of skimmed
milk is added to 60% of buffalo milk. The addition of skimmed milk powder makes up
for the dilution of the nutrients, the fat content remains diluted and equal to that of
cows milk.
5. Fortified Milk
Additional nutrients such as Vitamin D may be added to milk to improve the quality.
6. Flavoured Milk
Addition of flavouring agents such as essences like vanilla, strawberry and masalas
to improve the flavour, appearance and to add more variety.
B. Concentrated Milk
1. Evaporated Milk
This is unsweetened concentrated milk. After pasteurization. The milk is evaporated
under reduced pressure in steam heated vacuum pans, till the volume has been
reduced to 60%. It is then homogenized, cooled and canned.
2. Condensed Milk
The term usually implies whole milk, which has been partially evaporated and to
which sugar has been added. This is sweetened concentrated milk. 27% moisture
remains out of 80%. It has a 62% sugar concentration. The milk is cooled very
carefully, so that the crystallization of the lactose is in very fine crystals before being
canned.
3. Dried Milk or Milk Powder
In this case, the water content is removed completely and thereby the bulk is
reduced. It requires no special storage facilities and is an outlet for the skimmed milk
from cream and butter production. There are two processes for drying milk:
a. Roller Drying
The milk is usually concentrated in an evaporator until it has 97% total solids as
against 11.5% in normal fluid milk. The milk is then fed into the very smooth surface
of single or twin heated drums, operating at temperatures of 150C (303F). The
water content of the milk evaporates very quickly, leaving behind a thin film of dried
milk, which is then scraped off by a blade that is attached to the drums. This is then
cooled before being ground into a very fine powder. It is then sieved and packed into
airtight containers. Milk powder is hydroscopic and will quickly absorb moisture from
the air and the powder will deteriorate, becoming stale in flavour and less soluble in
reconstitution. Although roller drying is cheaper and produces a product that is
practically free from bacteria owing to the severe heat treatment it receives, it does
develop a cooked flavour and will not reconstitute easily. The structure of the fat
globules in milk is destroyed, causing an oily layer on the surface when reconstituted
in warm water.

b. Spray Drying
The milk is pre-heated to 80-90C for 10 seconds. It is homogenized and
concentrated at 43C to about 40% total solids. The milk is then atomized to a fine
mist in a drying chamber containing hot air at 165C (330F). The very minute milk
particles give off their moisture content almost instantaneously and drop to the
bottom of the drying chamber as tiny grains of dried milk. The powder is removed to
cool as quickly as possible, before being packed into airtight containers. This method
is more expensive than Roller drying, but has 98% solubility with less pronounced
flavour changes than Roller dried milk.
c. Instant Milk Powder
This type of powder will dissolve easily and completely when added to water, tea or
coffee. The process is a modified spray-drying method in which the dried milk
powder is moistened with steam to give a lumpy porous structure; the lumps of
powder are being dried, cooled and then reduced to a more standard size. When
added to a liquid, they quickly absorb it and dissolve completely. The cost of this
type of milk powder is high and it is mainly used in hot beverages
The concentration of milk serves three main purposes:
1. It reduces bulk by the reduction of the water content.
2. The heat treatment and high sugar content in condensed milk gives the product a
good shelf life.
3. It is convenient outlet for skimmed milk from the production of butter and cream.
Substitute milk powder
It doesnt contain any milk constituent at all, but are especially processed from
products such as dried glucose, syrup and vegetable fat.
Imitation milk
Also known as Substitute milk, it is a recent development. The products dont contain
any milk constituent, but contain glucose syrup and vegetable fat. It has a very low
calorific value. Another substitute being promoted as a healthier alternative to milk
is Soya milk. Soya milk is much cheaper, but leaves an unpleasant after-taste and
flavour. Imitation and substitute milk are ideal for those who are lactose intolerant
i.e. allergic to milk.
C. Cultured Milk
The process consists of deliberately souring the milk by adding specific harmless
bacteria, which will then produce an acid and so control the growth of possible
harmful bacteria. The process originated by mans attempts to prevent milk from
being totally unusable and develops into a variety of products, which are nutritious
and easily digestible. Cultured milk can be classified into three groups, as listed:
1. Butter Culture
These include butter-milk and cultured cream.
Butter-milk is a byproduct from the manufacture of butter. It is made from
pasteurized skimmed milk, which is incubated with an acid producing butter culture.
Cultured cream is prepared from pasteurized single cream, which is incubated with
an acid producing butter culture. It is often marketed as fresh soured cream to

distinguish it clearly from cream, which has soured by accident or carelessness. It

may be used in recipes instead of sour cream.
2. Yogurt Culture
These include yogurt (in many forms and flavours), curdled milk and soured milk
drinks. Yogurt can be made from whole, skimmed, evaporated or dried milk or a
mixture of these. Various types of yogurt are available natural yogurt made from
milk products, natural yogurt sweetened with sugar, fruit yogurt, which may be
flavoured with pieces of fruits or just fruit juice or a flavouring essence.
3. Weak alcoholic beverages
This group differs from the previous groups in that yeast cultures, which produce
alcohol, are added, in addition to bacterial cultures. This group includes:
a. Kefir (Poland)
It is made from whole or skimmed cows milk to which the kefir grain is added. The
milk is incubated for three days, during which the alcohol and acid percentage
increases. The finished product resembles single cream in appearance and has a
lactic acid flavour.
b. Koumiss/Kumis (Russia)
It was originally made from mares milk and is now produced from cows milk. Two
cultures are added to milk and is incubated at 37C for about 4-6 hours and cooled
to 30C and yeast added and incubated for 4 hours at 25C. Matured for 3 days
during which the alcoholic and acid percentage increases. The product resembles
single cream in appearance, but is slightly grey in colour and has smell gas bubbles
throughout, sour in taste and has a faint alcoholic smell.
c. Whey Champagne (Poland)
This is made from clarified way with the addition of yeast and caramel. The product
is of a clear, light amber colour with a slight sparkle to it and a faint caramel flavour.
d. Feliwsoka (Poland)
It is made from buttermilk, which is fermented at 15-18C for 8-10 hours, until the
required acidity is reached. The liquid that has separated to the top is removed and
sugar and yeast are added. The buttermilk is then bottled, sealed and kept at 1820C for 4 hours, cooled below 8C and stored. The final product appears foamy due
to carbon dioxide production and has a sweet, yeasty and refreshing taste.
Uses of Milk
1. Served as a refreshing drink both hot and cold.
2. Served as a beverage with tea and coffee.
3. The main ingredient in some sauces like Bchamel.
4. Used to enrich dishes like soups and to give a smooth texture.
5. The main ingredient in several desserts like ice-cream, puddings and custards.
6. The first food for new born infants.
7. Acts as a cooking medium for Indian sweets like Kheer or Payasams.
Storage of Milk
The rich nutritional composition of milk makes it readily infected with microorganisms, which may be derived from the animal, the equipment or the people
handling the milk. Fresh milk should be purchased daily. Old and new milk should

never be mixed. Leftover milk can be easily converted into curds. Fresh milk should
be stored at refrigerated temperatures of 2C after boiling and cooling. Milk should
never be stored near strong smelling foods such as cut onions and peeled garlic as
milk readily absorbs flavours and odour. Milk must never be exposed to direct
sunlight as riboflavin is very easily lost. UTH and canned (evaporated and
condensed) milk must be stored at slightly lower than room temperatures. When
opened, they must be refrigerated immediately and used within two days. Dried milk
must be stored in airtight containers in a cool and dry area of the storeroom.