TMP-00218; No of Pages 5

Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2015) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tourism Management Perspectives

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tmp

Review

Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez

Michele Carboni a,, M'hammed Idrissi Janati b
a
b

CRENoS, Centre for North South Economic Research, Via San Giorgio, 12, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
Universit Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Launched in 2008 by Moroccan authorities, Ziyarates Fs is a project intended to establish a bed and breakfast
network in the Medina of Fez, within the framework of spiritual tourism. About 30 disadvantaged local families
host tourists in their own traditional houses. Every aspect of the guests' visits is in line with Islamic prescriptions.
Nevertheless, no effort has been made to intercept and embrace the demand for halal tourism market so far. This
research investigates the opinions of 11 families involved in this project concerning the possibility of selling their
product as halal (or Islamic) tourism. The study shows that interviewees are not familiar with these notions. Even
if the idea of exploiting a potentially promising market is not rejected by all of them, in their view the adoption of
such a label should not imply restrictions on tourists' nationalities and, above all, faiths.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Available online xxxx

Keywords:
Halal tourism
Islamic tourism
Islam
Morocco
Fez

Contents
1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.
The vagueness of a booming segment
3.
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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1. Introduction
Over the last few years, the relationship between Islam and tourism
has attracted an increasing interest. Islam is growing faster than any
other world religion: in 2010 the global Muslim population exceeded a
billion and a half and is predicted to rise to 2.2 billion by 2030 (Pew
Forum, 2011). Muslims' spending power and mobility for tourism purposes are also increasing (Sandikci, 2011; Stephenson, Russell, & Edgar,
2010). All these trends as well as geopolitical issues (Al-Hamarneh &
Steiner, 2004; Stephenson & Ali, 2010) have called industry attention
to Muslims' needs and expectations as tourists (Prayag & Hosany, 2014).
Concepts such as Muslim tourism (Scott & Jafari, 2010), halal tourism (WTM, 2007), Islamic tourism (Battour, Ismail, Battor, & Awais,
2014), Sharia-compliant hotels (Henderson, 2010b) and halal hospitality are receiving increasing attention, both by researchers and the tourism industry. Nevertheless, they are often surrounded by a certain
vagueness (Hamza, Chouhoud, & Tantawi, 2012; Henderson, 2010a).
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: michele.carboni@crenos.unica.it (M. Carboni),
idrissijanati@yahoo.com (M. Idrissi Janati).

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The very denition of halal, Islamic or Muslim tourism can vary, and
so can its meaning, contents, implications and extensions. Islam itself
is by no means monolithic, and the Muslim world is extremely heterogeneous (Sandikci, 2011; Stephenson, 2014), which might imply that
Halal, Islam and Muslims will always cause brand academics and practitioners problems (Mohd Yusof & Wan Jusoh, 2014, p. 180).
This paper explores the issue of halal tourism from the perspective of a
group of Muslim families based in Fez, the spiritual capital of Morocco
as part of a project called Ziyarates Fs, logement chez l'habitant.
Tourism is a key sector of Morocco's economy. In 2013, it accounted
for 8.6% of the national GDP and directly supported 814,000 jobs (7.6%
of total employment) (WTTC, 2014). In 2013, the country received over
10 million international tourists, of which almost 20% were from France.
Morocco has traditionally hosted most Western-European tourists, developing a risky over-dependence on a small number of countries (France,
Spain and the UK). Apart from Europeans, Morocco attracts a signicant
number of Moroccan citizens living abroad, which in 2013 constituted almost half of all arrivals. However, the vast majority of these tourists stay
in second homes or at those of their relatives or friends. On the contrary,
Europeans choose registered accommodations (Observatoire du
tourisme, 2014). In 2013, Fez was the fth most popular Moroccan

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007
2211-9736/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Carboni, M., & Idrissi Janati, M., Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez, Tourism Management Perspectives (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007

M. Carboni, M. Idrissi Janati / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2015) xxxxxx

destination (after Marrakech, Agadir, Casablanca and Rabat), receiving 6%

of all tourists visiting the country and collecting 5% of overall tourists'
nights and 5% of their spending (Observatoire du tourisme, 2014).
The Ziyarates Fs project was launched in 2008 by the Conseil Rgional du Tourisme de Fs within the framework of heritage and tourism policies aiming at promoting the socio-economic development of
the city. This pilot project of proximity tourism (Chiffoleau & Madoeuf,
2005) established a network of 30 bed and breakfasts in the Medina of
Fez. Tourists and hosts share common spaces and spend some
timetogether. Hosts are supposed and willing to introduce tourists to
Moroccan culture, traditions and lifestyle. Indeed, most visitors are foreigners, and a large number are not Muslim. Tourists have to respect
family rules and habits. Alcohol or drug consumption is not allowed.
As the hosting families are Muslim, every aspect of the guests' visits is
in line with Islamic prescriptions. Several themes and key words (e.g.
spiritual tourism, tangible and intangible heritage, culture, human development, intercultural dialogue, solidarity tourism) are mentioned
and used to promote, describe and market the Ziyarates Fs network
(http://www.ziyaratesfes.com/), but none of them explicitly refers to
Islam. Indeed, no effort has thus far been made to reach the booming
segment of halal tourism.

segmentation, Sandikci (2011) also observes an over focus on differences: Muslims are generally depicted as consumers inherently different from consumers in general (Sandikci, 2011, p. 252).
Relying on such segmentation and differences, however, risks underestimation of the extreme heterogeneity of the Muslim world
(Stephenson, 2014). The way Islam inuences politics, economics, culture and society varies from country to country (Henderson, 2003). Interpretations of religious practices are not uniform, and Islamic
practices and observance also vary greatly within the same country
(Henderson, 2010a; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010).
As a consequence, developing a tourism product in line with Islam
entails the consideration of several tangible and intangible elements.
The availability of halal food does not simply end the question. Several
material and immaterial aspects must be called into question: clothing,
availability of places of worship, the gender and religion of staff in hotels, entertainment, sexual conduct and public expressions of affection
(Battour et al., 2011; Henderson, 2010b; Weidenfeld & Ron, 2008). Similarly, non-Islamic behaviour and the conduct of non-Muslim tourists,
such as nudism, consumption of pork and alcohol, gambling and prostitution, may clash with Muslim values (Burns, 2007). Therefore, in some
destinations the coexistence of Muslims and non-Muslim tourists may
prove to be challenging.

2. The vagueness of a booming segment

3. Methodology

Nowadays, a broad variety of products and services are labelled as Islamic and halal: food, nance, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, fashion, insurance, pop music, toys, TV and radio stations (Alserhan, 2010;
Minkus-McKenna, 2007; Sandikci, 2011). As Sandikci (2011) observes:

Based on primary research undertaken as part of a broader study on

tourism and Islam in Northern Africa, this article explores one of the key
outcomes of the research related to locals' perceptions of tourism products in line with Islamic prescriptions.
The study focuses on a specic case, the above-mentioned Ziyarates
Fs project. The choice to focus on this project was based on two main
reasons: Firstly, Fez is considered the spiritual capital of Morocco
(Istasse, 2013). Despite not being representative of the Moroccan tourism industry, research on tourism and Islam in Fez can provide interesting points for analysis for the whole of the country and, more generally,
for the topic. Secondly, Islam as part of Moroccan culture is an essential part of the project. Tourists have to respect hosts' rules, including religious rules. This makes Ziyarates Fs potentially attractive for tourists
looking for halal (or Islamic) tourism, who want to enjoy a Muslimfriendly environment.
Primary research (semi-structured interviews) was carried out in
2014. We interviewed 11 people belonging to 11 families. Respondents
were the persons in charge of running the project within each family,
that is, those who received the specic vocational training organised
within the project. Most of the respondents (n = 8) were women,
which is representative of the gender balance within Ziyarates Fs; indeed, most of the bed and breakfasts are run by women. One of the
three men interviewed is also the current President of the Association
of the Ziyarates Fs families. Three respondents were in their 30s, six
were in their 40s and two were in their 70s.
As it was not possible to meet all the families involved in the project,
the authors made sure to meet a range of families representative of the
whole group. To do this, we took into account several criteria that could
also inuence as later conrmed by the results the kind of tourists
that the single bed and breakfast tended to receive: the socioeconomic conditions of the family (which can be very different, even
if they all are supposed to be families in need), the kind of house (all
the houses are traditional ones, but some are bigger and more sophisticated) and the geographical location of the house within the Medina.
Gaining access to families was not problematic as one of the authors
was born and raised in the Medina and had previously researched on
the project, though for different purposes.
Interviews took place in families' houses and were conducted in
French and Arabic, lasting from one to two hours. The purpose of the interviews was communicated in a general way. On the basis of previous
experiences (Carboni, Perelli, & Sistu, 2014), the decision was made to

The discovery of Muslims as consumers resembles the discovery in

the USA of ethnic communities such as blacks, Hispanics and Asians
as viable market segments. In all these groups there has been a shift
in meaning from disadvantaged or marginalized consumers to a
lifestyle community embedded in the language of consumption.
(p. 251).
Concerning tourism, Battour, Ismail, and Battor (2011) dene this
evolution as an Islamisation of the sector. The development of Sharia-compliant hotels is remarkable in countries such as Turkey,
Malaysia and the UAE (Eid & El-Gohary, 2015), and their number is
growing in different parts of the world, as are the number of destinations marketed as Muslim-friendly. As for other concepts related to
Muslim customers, the popularity of concepts such as halal or Islamic
tourism is steadily growing (Scott & Jafari, 2010).
However, as mentioned in the introduction, these expressions are
characterised by a certain degree of ambiguity. This research adopts a
broad notion of halal and Islamic tourism used here as synonymous
and denes them as tourism in accordance with Islam, not limited
to travel for religious purposes, and not exclusively concerning travel
to or within Muslim countries. The Malaysian Islamic Tourism Centre
(ITC) gives a similar denition of Islamic tourism any activity,
event, experience or indulgence undertaken in a state of travel that is
in accordance with Islam (ITC, 2013) and extends the concept to
non-Muslim tourists who are interested in Islam and travel in the Muslim world. This extended denition is shared by other authors (Neveu,
2010; Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010), whilst others limit the definition to Muslims (Henderson, 2010b; Scott & Jafari, 2010). Denitional
ambiguities can be connected to different factors, such as the fact that
the phenomenon is relatively new and there is a lack of full
institutionalisation (Neveu, 2010). As highlighted by Sandikci (2011),
There is an insistence of halal in both academic and managerial writings. However, how halal unfolds in particular markets and product categories is very complex and dynamic (Sandikci, 2011, p. 252).
Furthermore, Muslims are often seen as a homogeneous group, and
their faith is considered far more relevant than other aspects of identity
such as age, social class or gender. Besides this tendency to emphasise

Please cite this article as: Carboni, M., & Idrissi Janati, M., Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez, Tourism Management Perspectives (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007

M. Carboni, M. Idrissi Janati / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2015) xxxxxx

mention certain key words such as halal, sharia or Islamic tourism

only at the end of the interviews.
The rst section of the interview was aimed at collecting general information about the family (e.g. members' number, age, gender, employment) and its previous experience in the tourism and hospitality
sector. Then, respondents were asked about their experience within
the project (the origin of their involvement, the reasons why they decided to participate, whether their lives had changed and, if so, how)
as well as their opinions about it (e.g. strengths, weaknesses, possible
improvements or changes). Afterwards, the focus shifted to tourists'
characteristics (e.g. typology, age, nationality, motivations) and behaviours. Specic questions were asked concerning the cohabitation with
people of different nationalities (possible consequences and implications of their presence). The nal section of the interview explored the
growing popularity of concepts such as halal (or Islamic) tourism. Respondents were asked about their knowledge and opinions concerning
this phenomenon, what these expressions mean to them and if they
would use it to market the Ziyarates Fs project.

revealed by the interviews. Ziyarates Fs was a way for local authorities

to legalise the situation whilst offering certain kinds of tourists (e.g. pilgrims) alternatives to hotels and Maison d'Htes.
Ziyarates Fs was meant to create a new tourism product based on
spirituality and culture, and it was believed it could foster intercultural dialogue: the cultural exchange is at the heart of the project (originally in
French) (Ziyarates Fs, 2008b). Tourists and hosts share some common
spaces and can spend time together. Based on tourists' requests, hosts
can prepare traditional meals (showing and teaching them how) and arrange henna preparation and application or a visit to a hammam. Sharing
can also go further I am hosting a Pakistani tourist who prayed with me
this very morning (Interviewee Number 09) involving the foreigners in
more domestic and private scenarios, in a kind of closer reality.
Hosts are willing (and trained to) introduce foreign tourists to Moroccan culture and traditions:
Tourists are offered the possibility to see our habits and traditions
and to discover our religion. Raise awareness about Islam is also part
of the project. (Interviewee Number 4).

4. Results
Created in the 9th century, the Medina of Fez is the major pedestrian
Medina in the world. Its decay started in the 19th century and accelerated
during the French protectorate (19121956). Consequently, the wealthiest families moved to the ville nouvelle, abandoning the Medina (Istasse,
2013). Although in 1981 UNESCO recognised the Medina as a World Heritage Site, degradation continued (Idrissi Janati, 2001). In the 90s, through
projects supported by international donors (e.g. UNDP, World Bank), the
image of the Medina started changing (Aderghal, Berriane, Berriane, &
Idrissi Janati, 2013). New cultural initiatives were implemented, such as
the Festival des musiques sacres du Monde (created in 1994) and the
Festival de Fs de la Culture Soue (in 2006). The objective was to promote Fez as a cultural tourism destination (Berriane, 2013), in line with
the national strategy to enhance cultural tourism in Morocco (Berriane,
2009). The Ziyarates Fs project was conceived within these cultural
policies.
The new Fez started attracting a growing number of investors.
An increasing number of traditional houses were being sold to foreigners, who turned them into fancy Ryads, Maison d'Htes and hotels (Istasse, 2013). Locals began selling their houses and moving to
smaller apartments outside of the Medina. With this loss of its original inhabitants, their lifestyles and traditions, the Medina was losing
its intangible heritage and its very nature. The hope of Ziyarates
Fs was to keep the Medina alive (Ziyarates Fs, 2008a), giving locals an alternative to selling their houses and supporting them in
turning them into bed and breakfasts. Through tourism income, locals could also afford house maintenance costs. Indeed, the preservation of the Medina's material heritage was another objective of the
project.
Aiming at promoting human development, the project economically supports families in need belonging [to] the middle class but with
difculties of revenues to face their needs (Ziyarates Fs, 2008a)
allowing them to benet from tourism income. Particular attention
was reserved for women, the main beneciaries of the project.
The 30 local families involved, in order to be part of the project, had to
full some criteria (e.g. having Moroccan nationality, owning a traditional
house, being in need). Some families applied to be included; others as
revealed later by the interviews were invited to participate. The practice
of hosting tourists in private houses had existed even before the launch of
the project, but it used to be done informally, without ofcial authorisation. Since pre-colonial times, Fez has been an important destination of
Tijniyyah's pilgrims (Triaud & David, 2000), hosting a Mausoleum that
is one of the most important Susm places of worship (Berriane, 2013).
Pilgrims used to be hosted in locals' homes. With the rise of tourism in
the 1990s, locals' houses started hosting Western tourists as well. Even
some interviewed families used to do this, without authorisation, as

Tourists hosted by Ziyarates Fs bed and breakfasts vary considerably in terms of age, nationality and motivation:
The majority are Europeans. (Interviewee Number 4).
Europeans, Americans, Canadians, Australians, Chinese but also
Moroccans, Libyans, Algerians, Saudi Arabians. (Interviewee
Number 1).
Europeans, American, Australians, New Zealanders, Moroccans.
(Interviewee Number 8).
French, Italians, Americans, Chinese, African pilgrims. (Interviewee
Number 10).
It's a mix: young, old, couples, families, students. (Interviewee
Number 2).
There is not a standard tourist, as highlighted by the respondents.
Some families receive more pilgrims than others because of the location
of their houses. Indeed, Tijns tend to choose the houses closer to the
Mausoleum. Language skills, ad hoc marketing or simple word of
mouth also seem to play a role in determining the nationality of tourists
that a family tends to receive. The kind and amount of tourists the families receive also depends (for some more, for other less) on other private and unique initiatives. Every family is free to market its house as
it wants. Besides tourists that book through the project website, families
nd tourists in several other ways (e.g. locals, national and international
travel agencies, booking, personal contacts).
However, despite these small differences, all respondents declared
they received all kind of tourists.
Though mixed, the majority of tourists received by respondents
come from Europe, which is in line with ofcial data on tourist arrivals
at the national level.
Respondents do not consider hosting tourists of different faiths as
problematic. Sharing their houses with tourists caused some changes
in general but not radical ones and it has not imposed new habits.
The fact that some of the tourists are not Muslims does not make a signicant difference:
If we are talking about the veil, for example, the presence of no
Muslim tourists does not change anything. A woman is supposed
to wear it in presence of every man she could not marry, no matter
his religion. So, a no Muslim tourist is like a male cousin. (Interviewee Number 1).

Please cite this article as: Carboni, M., & Idrissi Janati, M., Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez, Tourism Management Perspectives (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007

M. Carboni, M. Idrissi Janati / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2015) xxxxxx

The cohabitation does not create particular difculties because rules

are made clear:
Islam prescriptions cannot be waived. (Interviewee Number 1).
Drinking [alcohol] or smoking hashish is not allowed. None of my
guest never did or tried. They know they are not in a hotel but in a
private house and they respect it. (Interviewee Number 2).
When I receive Muslim couples, I ask them the certicate of marriage it they want to share the room. I do not ask it to no Muslim couples because the rules are different. (Interviewee Number 3).
Some episodes, where tourists did not behave properly, were
reported:
Two tourists asked me to serve alcohol for dinner but it's the only
accident of this kind I have ever had. (Interviewee Number 10).
I hosted a young Spanish couple once. They smoked hashish and
drunk alcohol in their room. Stoned, they started singing in the middle
of night. I had to intervene [he says that imitating them and laughing
about it]. It's been a single episode though. (Interviewee Number 1).
Despite some episodes, hosting people of different faiths is not
portrayed as problematic or challenging. On the contrary, most respondents remarked that the exchange is not at all unidirectional:
There is an exchange with tourists. We have learnt very much about
other cultures. (Interviewee Number 03).
We get to know each other, it's reciprocal. Our kids get in contact
with different cultures. It's culture! (Interviewee Number 02).
Hosting people is a way to know them. We like it. (Interviewee
Number 04).
Yet, none of the respondents had ever heard of halal (or Islamic)
tourism. As the respondents were not familiar with the phenomenon,
the interviewer had to introduce and illustrate it. To them, halal (or Islamic) tourism was presented as a form of tourism in line with Islam
prescriptions, respectful of Muslims' religious sensitivities. Even after a
brief explanation, the association between the words halal and tourism
was not clear to most respondents. For some, the expression halal tourism simply does not make sense (Interviewee Number 07).
Almost all respondents connected the word halal to halal food, an expression they do not question. The need to clearly indicate the halalness of
food is indeed recognised as a concern for Muslims who travel or live in
non-Muslim countries. Knowing whether the food is halal is a necessity
for Muslims. However, as Morocco is a Muslim country, all the food
here is halal. Is there really need to specify? (Interviewee Number 5).
As for food, most respondents believed that a Muslim tourist visiting
Morocco should not, in general, have concerns about halalness anyway:
We are in Morocco here, everything is halal, our culture is halal.
(Interviewee Number 1).
Similarly, another respondent, very sceptical about the notion of
halal tourism, laughed at it:
I totally understand the fact that Muslim tourists want to follow their
habits when travelling. More in general, I understand that tourists, no
matter their faith, have their needs. However, Morocco is a Muslim
country, which means a Muslim tourist can satisfy all his religious
needs. Everything is halal here! What could they ask for? [] A sh
in the water does not ask for water. (Interviewee Number 09).

The extension of the concept of halal to the tourism sector is seen, by

some respondents, as an inappropriate, merely commercial speculation.
The most critical respondents were men:
The discourse about halal is related to food but I know that these
days is broadening. I heard about halal banks, for example, but never
about halal tourism. This is my rst time. What do I think? It's business, it's commercial. I don't really like it. (Interviewee Number 4).
There is no halal or haram tourism. What we eat here is halal. Tourism has nothing to do with that. [] No, I do not like it. [] It's just
about some people that want to make money out of it. (Interviewee
Number 2).
Aside from these critics, who found the concept inappropriate, other
respondents were less intransigent:
Never heard before [about halal or Islamic tourism]. It does not disturb me though. I mean Why not? If it is about being respectful of
Islam we already are. It could help the business. (Interviewee
Number 6).
The expression [halal tourism] is bizarre. It does not upset me
though. I think it can work with people from the Gulf, Iran, Asia
[]. It might reassure them. (Interviewee Number 8).
Dening halal (or Islamic) tourism as a kind of tourism respectful of
Islam, all respondents believed that what they do ts in this denition.
However, they were denitely more comfortable with the label Ziyarates
Fs, and they would not change the nature of the project in any event. In
particular, what several respondents blame and would not accept is a
radicalisation of Islamic discourse and religious segregation, which
could also emerge and spread because of a misinterpretation of halal:
I know about gender separation in hotels or double swimming
pools I think it is too much. (Interviewee Number 4).
If God wanted us to be separated it would have created a planet for
Muslims, a planet for Christians, another for Jews etc. (Interviewee
Number 2).

5. Conclusion
Attention on tourism products in line with Islam prescriptions is
growing worldwide. Providing a Muslim-friendly offering could certainly help attract visitors interested in enjoying an environment closer to a
particular religious sensibility. Similarly, considering Islamic prescriptions when developing tourism strategies could reduce negative sociocultural impacts that often accompany tourism in countries where
Islam is the state religion or where it has signicant inuence. However,
it must be understood that a radical reference to Islam could easily recall
stereotypes and prejudices, especially in the eyes of non-Muslims
(Carboni et al., 2014) and countries like Morocco and Tunisia have
traditionally hosted mostly Western Europeans.
Halal tourism is a concept that is increasingly gaining popularity, but it
is still surrounded by a certain degree of vagueness, as is Islamic tourism.
This loose denition and lack of full institutionalisation can also create
mistrust or suspicion among Muslims, as shown by this study. Basically,
no respondents were familiar with these concepts and, even after a brief
explanation, they did not nd them particularly appealing. All the respondents considered the Ziyarates Fs project to already be halal, in the sense
of being respectful of Islam. Only a few saw potential benets for their
businesses. They understood that some Muslims, especially those coming
from particular countries (e.g. Saudi Arabia, Gulf countries), might not
want to mix with people of different faiths. Nevertheless, even the most

Please cite this article as: Carboni, M., & Idrissi Janati, M., Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez, Tourism Management Perspectives (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007

M. Carboni, M. Idrissi Janati / Tourism Management Perspectives xxx (2015) xxxxxx

reluctant respondents would not change in any way the nature of

Ziyarates Fs. The possible adoption of a halal label or certication not
rejected altogether by a few respondents would not make Ziyarates
Fs more respectful of Islam, in their eyes, and would not imply restrictions on tourists' nationalities and, above all, faiths.
Their interpretation of hospitality is denitively inclusive, and so are
their interpretations of culture and Islam. Islam is recognised as en essential part of their culture, and when proposing a cultural product,
Islam cannot be neglected or waived. However, this culture does not
lead to exclusion. Respondents see building a dialogue and promoting
exchange with people of different cultures, nationalities and faiths as
the key issue of the entire Ziyarates Fs project, and as an important
part of their being Muslim. Furthermore, respondents seem to be suspicious about the commercialisation of their religious values. Indeed, as
remarked by Mohd Yusof and Wan Jusoh (2014), Islamic brands can
harness the values of the religion in order to build brands of universal
appeal to both Muslim and non-Muslim audiences (Mohd Yusof &
Wan Jusoh, 2014, p. 181).
More religiously observant tourists might nd Ziyarates Fs to be not
halal enough because of the cohabitation with non-Muslim tourists or the
fact that non-Muslim couples are not required to be married to share a
room. These different interpretations of what halal tourism is (or should
be) call attention once more to the extreme heterogeneity of the Muslim
world, which is one of the most interesting points for analysis provided by
this research. Future research should be conducted in other Moroccan regions to determine whether the results of this study are representative of
the country as a whole.
Furthermore, as already pointed out by several authors, the broader
issue of halal tourism requires new in-depth quantitative and qualitative studies (Battour et al., 2011) on issues such as the needs and desires
of Muslim tourists (Henderson, 2010b), the coexistence between Muslim and non-Muslim tourists in the same destination (ZamaniFarahani & Henderson, 2010) or within different countries and countries with different tourism traditions (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson,
2010; Zamani-Farahani & Musa, 2012).
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Michele Carboni is currently a Researcher at CRENoS, University of Cagliari and University of Sassari, Italy. He holds a
Master in International CooperationDevelopment from
ISPI (Italian Institute for International Political Studies, Milan), and a PhD in African Studies from the University of Cagliari. His research interests are related to tourism,
development and migration.

M'hammed Idrissi Janati is a Geographer, Professor at the

Facult des Lettres et sciences Humaines, Universit Mohammed V, Rabat, and member of the Laboratoire quipe de
Recherche sur la Rgion et la rgionalisation (E3R) and of
the Centre d'tudes et de recherches Gographiques
(Cergo). He received his PhD in Urban Geography at the
Universit Franois Rabelais of Tours. His main research interests are related to cultural tourism, local development, urban practices and edges, public space, heritage and heritage
policies.

Please cite this article as: Carboni, M., & Idrissi Janati, M., Halal tourism de facto: A case from Fez, Tourism Management Perspectives (2015), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2015.12.007