DISA

INFORMATION

Three-component LDA Measurements

P. Buchhave*

Abstract
The accuracy of 3-D LDA measurements depends on a few
basic parameters determined by the optical configuration and
the principle of signal processing. To illustrate the problem a
single component LDA is investigated first. The accuracy is
computed as a function of the optical parameters and the signal processing method. The important parameters are shown
to be the particle transit time, the number of optical interference fringes within the measuring volume and the processor
bandwidth. The 3-D LDA optical configuration is then treated. It is shown that the axial and transverse velocity components are found by sum and difference of the primary measured velocity components. The sum and difference velocities
can be considered as resulting from passage of some virtual
fringes in a composite measuring volume. Using this concept
it is shown that to obtain good accuracy, in particular on
measuring the axial component, a large angle of separation
between the incident beams is necessary. This result is independent of frequency shifting and also independent on
whether the sum and difference is created by mixing Doppler
frequencies before signal processing or creating sum and differences after original processing. The considerations point to
the conclusion that an optimum shape and orientation of the
measuring volume exists for a particular mean velocity and
turbulence level.
1. Introduction
The solution of many important engineering problems in industry requires knowledge of 3-dimensional turbulent flows.
Often the Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA) represents the
only practical way of obtaining vital data about the flow.
Thus it is important to be able to make reliable 3-dimensional
LDA measurements.
A trade-off often exists between conflicting requirements and
specifications when considering the use of a sophisticated instrument such as an LDA. To be able to make an intelligent
choice of system configuration it is necessary to know about
the factors influencing the performance characteristics such
as accuracy, spatial and temporal resolution of the LDA and
how these parameters depend on the instrumental characteristics such as optical arrangement and electronic signal pro* DISA Elektronik A/S, Skovlunde, Denmark.

cessing method. It is the aim of this paper to try to illustrate

some of these functional dependencies, in particular with regard to the simultaneous measurement of three components
of velocity.
We first consider the accuracy obtainable in a single component LDA measurement. Not surprisingly the accuracy depends on the type of electronic signal processor used. Through
two important examples we illustrate some general results of
which the most important is that an LDA measuring volume
should contain as many interference fringes as practically
possible. In the following section we examine the characteristics of the resulting Doppler signal of a 3-component LDA.
In order to measure three orthogonal velocity components
the primary measured velocity components must undergo
some kind of transformation. As we shall see, the demand for
a reasonable accuracy, in particular of the so-called axial component, requires a good geometrical separation of the primary measured velocity components. Finally we consider some
practical LDA optical arrangements in the light of the results
of the two previous sections.
2. Single-Component LDA
2.1 Measuring volume characteristics
Before discussing 3-D measurements it may be advantageous
to recall the basic performance characteristics of a single-channel, fringe-mode LDA. Fig. 1 illustrates the probe volume
of an LDA with two incident Gaussian laser beams of equal
intensity. The geometrical and optical arrangement is described by the beam waist diameter of the focused beams df
and the intersection angle 8. These two parameters are in
turn determined by the diameter di and separation D of the
incident beams and of the laser waverlength X and focal
length of the front lens f:
Input parameters:
x - wavelength of laser light
4 - beam waist diameter of incident beams
(11 e* - intensity diameter) at front lens
f - focal length of front lens
D - beam separation of incident beams at
front lens.
Manuscript received July 1983.
3

No.: 29 - JANUARY 1984

/tar Fringe Mode

Detector Reference Mode

-.- Probe Volume
Transmitting Optics

Fig. 1. Single-component, fringe mode LDA probe volume.

Intersection angle:

= 2 tan- (D/2f)

Beam waist of focused beams: df = (4/r)(fX/dr)

Measuring volume dimensions
along coordinate axis:

Number of interference
fringes in volume:

d, = df /cos (e/2)
d, = df
d, = df /sin (012)
Nf = (4/r) (D/dr)

Interference fringe separation: & = h/(2 sin (e/2))

Doppler frequency:

fD

(2uJh) sin (e/2)

1) Spectral analysis
Let us first assume that the frequency is determined by a
spectral analysis of a Doppler burst, as illustrated in Fig. 2.
It is well known that the accuracy of a spectral estimate is inversely proportional to the duration of the signal. In the
present case the record length is simply T, . Thus the spectral
resolution Afd, which is equivalent to the spectral broadening
is:

A fd = l/T,
We also know that the variance of the power spectral estimator S(f) when performing a simple peak-finding depends on
the value of the spectrum S(f) in the following way:
var S(f) = (S(f)>2

2.2 Accuracy of single-channel LDA

The accuracy of a single-channel LDA depends to a certain
extent on the electronic principle utilized in the measurement
of the Doppler frequency. In the following we shall consider
a so-called burst measurement, i.e. we shall assume that the
Doppler signal is generated by the traversal of a single particle
through the measuring volume and that the frequency of the
Doppler burst is measured once during the burst using all the
periods available in the signal.
Fig. 2 and 3 illustrate the burst LDA signal resulting from
that mode of operation. The duration of the burst, T, , is
defined as the time during which a detectable signal is present. During that time Nd = fd T, signal periods are available,
where fd = fb + f, is the signal frequency and f, is a possible
frequency shift. Nd may at times be smaller than Nf due to
non-central trajectories. On the other hand, if a frequency
shift f, is added Nd may also be greater than Nf.
We shall consider two cases of electronic signal processing:
1) A somewhat hypothetical case where the frequency determination of the burst frequency is derived by a power spectral analysis of a single burst and
2) a time measurement over Nd zero crossings of the signal,
the LDA counter principle.
4

Using a more efficient estimator, this variance may be reduced, but the dependence on the square of the actual spectrum remains.
Denoting by s the root-mean-square (r.m.s.) signal fluctuation and by n the r.m.s. noise signal (assuming additive white
noise), we have:

( S f2=
1

[s(f) - SN (01 df = s(fd )

Afd

( n t2=
>

SN (f)df = BSN (f)

B

where B is the signal bandwidth and SN (f) indicates the constant (white) shot-noise spectrum.
The accuracy of the estimate of the measured signal frequency is approximately:
6fd s Afd

Jvar

{%(fd)}

s(fd)

Af,

SN (fd )
s(fd )

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INFORMATION

7 I-

Td=l/fd

Fig. 2. Power spectrum of LDA burst.

Fig. 3. Noise in LDA counter measurement.

Using this relation we find for the relative accuracy of the

velocity (Doppler frequency) measurement:

Thus

We see that the accuracy is inversely proportional to the

measuring time T, (burst length) and the number of fringes
the particle would have passed without frequency shift, N,
= Nd - N,, which equals the number of periods in the signal
minus the number of periods caused by the frequency shift in
the time T, .
The factor in the square brackets is independent of bandwidth B for an additive white noise spectrum and demonstrates the insensitivity of the power spectral analysis to the
bandwidth of the signal.

1JB
1
n
au, = 6fb = 6f,
____ - = _
- fb fu 7i. N, fi I
s
u,
01
Again we see that the uncertainty is inversely proportional
to the number of interference fringes crossed by the particle
independent of the frequency shift. The burst length, T,,
does not enter, but if we assume a white noise spectrum
(which leaves the factor in the square bracket constant) we
see that the bandwidth enters the accuracy estimate through
the factor G The bandwidth B and the number of fringes
N, must under normal circumstances be considered to be
coupled in such a way that a greater number of fringes in the
volume (with fixed dimensions of the probe volume) requires
a correspondingly higher bandwidth. Thus the dependence on
N, goes only as the square root of N,.

2) LDA Counter principle

The noise sensitivity of an LDA Counter measurement is illustrated in Fig. 3. The uncertainty in the zero crossing time,
6t, can be estimated from the r.m.s noise voltage, n, and the
r.m.s. signal voltage, s:

6t g 2n/cu
where cy, the slope of the signal at the zero crossing point, is
given by:

The above conclusions are independent of whether or not frequency shift was used. Even though the added number of
zero crossings improves the relative accuracy of the measured
values, the final accuracy is not improved as the value of the
shift must be subtracted from the measured values in the end.
We conclude that the performance of the LDA signal processor is improved as the number of interference fringes is increased either by increasing the intersection angle 8 or by increasing the width of the measuring volume.
3. 3-D Measurements

Thus
1

6t E
J2r

n
fcr ( sf )

The signal frequency f is determined from the measured values of T, , the burst time, and Nd, the number of periods in
a burst (including the extra zero crossings caused by frequency shift):
fd =

Nd

/Trn

3.1 Coordinate transformation

We shall now consider LDA measurements of three orthogonal velocity components. Let us assume that we want to determine the velocity components (uX,uy,uZ) in the coordinate system (x, y, z) shown in Fig. 4a. This can be accomplished by three independent fringe-mode LDA systems with
their probe volumes all centered in the origin of the coordinate system. In general it will not be possible to orient the
three fringe systems to measure the three orthogonal components directly. It will be necessary to measure three primary
velocity components in a skew coordinate system determined
by the optical beam configuration and then perform a coordi5

No.: 29 - JANUARY 1984

Thus, in the general case (hi # h2, O1 # O2 ) we can not get

the x- and z-components of the velocity by adding and subtracting the primary measured Doppler frequencies (e.g. by
passing fbi and fb2 through a mixer).
With equal fringe plane spacing in the two original fringe systems, Sfr = Sf, = 6f, the x- and z-components can be considered the result of a particle passing two virtual fringe systems
with interference plane spacings:
1
6, =
6f
; u, = 6, (fD1 + fD2)
1

6, =

6f

u, = 6, (fD1 - fD2)

2 sin (p/2)

We next consider the characteristics of the common measuring volume.

92 62
-2
2

61 fh
-1 1

(a>

(b)

Fig. 4 a/b. 3-D LDA geometry.

nate transformation. A convenient arrangement is shown in

Fig. 4b. One component, the y-component, is determined directly by one independent fringe system with fringe planes
parallel to the x-z-plane. This is an independent one-component measurement as described above. The x- and z-components of the velocity must be found by combining two primary velocity components u1 and u2 measured with two
other independent fringe systems. These two systems are
indicated in the figure by the two pairs of intersecting beams
with intersection angles o1 and e2 about the optical axes z1
and z2. The measuring directions are along the x1 and x2
axes which are inclined to the x-axis by angles pi and ~7~.
The two independent measuring volumes are sketched by
their elliptical contour lines and the intersection of the
fringe planes with the x-z-plane are indicated.
The x- and z-velocity components are found by a vector
transformation in the x-z-plane. The result is:

3.2 Common measuring volume

The combination of the measured u1 and u2 velocity components as derived above can be described by the characteristics
of a common measuring volume. The size of this measuring
volume depends on the way the signal is processed. If we define the boundary of the measuring volume by the surface at
which the product of the signals from the two photodetectors has decreased to its 1 /e2 -value we arrive at an ellipsoidal
volume, as were the measuring volumes of the primary velocity components, but of a smaller size.
Each of the incident beam pairs create a probe volume, which
is described in a local coordinate system (x, , z1 ) and (x2, z2 )
with z-axis along the bisector of the incident beams and xaxis normal to the bisector and in the plane of the two
beams. The fringe system can be described by the fluctuating
parts of the detector currents (assuming two equal primary
probe volumes).
Zl

.
11 = cl e
-

i2 = c2 e

u, =

x2

Y22

Z2

Xl>

8 - - - + 8 - - +8 ___
1
dx22
dy22
dz2 2 cos (27dx, .

x2)

-u1sinp2 +u2 sincpi

sin (Pl -

u, =

+8 dz, 2 Icos (2nSx,

Ul

cos

The common measuring volume can be described by the sum

and difference detector currents in the x-z-coordinate system:

92 )

(p2 - u2

cos

sin ($3 - (P2

$91

Y2

Z2

+8-+8-

9
In case p1 = - p2 = _ we get:

i, =

ClC2

i, =

ClC2

dY2

dz2 1cos (27T6,

x)

with

cos

(27T6,

z)

x = x1 cos (p/2) - z1 sin (p/2)

Z = -x1 sin (p/2) + z1 cos (p/2)

2 sin (p/2)

u1 and u2 are derived from the measured Doppler frequencies by:

Ul =

Xl

1
fDl

Sfl fD1

2 sin (0 1 /2)
u2

x2
= ~_____

2 sin (0,/2)

The volume as defined by the l/e2 -contour is seen to be

ellipsoidal, and the axes along the x- and z-axis are given by:

fD2

= sf, fD2

d2 X
1
d2 Z

1
df2

1
df2

0
6
9
cos2 _ +sin2 _ sin2 _
2
2
2
9
8
9
0
sin2 _ cos2 _ + cos2 _ sin2 _
2
2
2
2

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INFORMATION

As we see the measuring volume is wider than before, but

shorter in the z-direction.
Recalling the new virtual fringe distance 6, and S,, the number of virtual interference planes are seen to be equal to the
original number of interference planes.

surement of the z-component of the velocity. The maximum

number of virtual fringe planes normal to the z-axis intersected by a scattering particle is:
N m,z

3.3 Accuracy in 3-D LDA measurements

During the considerations of the accuracy of the singlechannel LDA in Sect. 2.2 we tacitly assumed that the fluid
was passing through the measuring volume with its mean
velocity component oriented close to the x-axis, or in other
words that the measuring direction of the LDA was aligned
roughly with the mean flow direction. Otherwise the scattering particles do not cross the maximum number of interference fringes.
In the case of a 3-component LDA it is of course not possible to align all three measuring directions with the mean flow
direction. As we have seen it is important to cross a maximum number of fringes in order to achieve a minimum uncertainty in the measurement.
Thus, ideally the measuring volume should be designed in accordance with the velocity distribution in such a way that a
maximum number of virtual fringes, both in the x- and z-direction is crossed by the scattering particles, as indicated in
Fig. 5. In practice this is rarely possible. In fact a very common measuring situation is shown in Fig. 6 in which the LDA
is placed outside a flow with a mean velocity normal to the
symmetry line between the two pairs of LDA beams. In this
case it is very important in order to get a good accuracy of
the on-axis component (the z-axis in Fig. 6) to separate the
axes of the two independent fringe systems by as large an
angle 9 as possible as shown by the following considerations.
Assume a flow with a mean velocity vector in the x-direction
and an instantaneous velocity vector forming an angle p with
the x-axis. This corresponds to a very common measuring situation, e.g. a wind tunnel flow measured with an LDA placed
outside the tunnel. Let us examine the accuracy of the mea-

dx
rp 0
9
sin - sin - tan p = Nf 2 sin - tan p
h
2
2
2

h* -

If the angular separation between the primary measured velocity components is small (i.e. if the angle 4 is small) the numb e r
Nm,z will be small and in accordance with the results of
Section 1 and 2 the accuracy correspondingly bad. If 8 is
large the Doppler frequency is high and the necessary bandwidth is large. The best compromise is obtained by using as
large an angle cp as practically possible and maintaining a reasonably small angle 8.
Unless the f-number of the front optics is small the angular
separation cp will be small and the number of Doppler periods
available for the measurement will be very small and the accuracy correspondingly bad. It is equivalent to trying to determine a small quantity (the axial velocity component) by
subtracting two large numbers from each other (the primary
measured velocity components).
As an example a particle in a velocity distribution with a 10%
turbulence will cross at the most one fringe if all four beams
of the system were to be focused through an f : 10 lens.
The best configuration for this measuring situation is shown
in Fig. 6b. Two independent fringe systems form a 2-component LDA with measurement of the x- and z-components as
described above. The angle 9 of about 30 allows adequate
accuracy of the z-component. The Doppler frequencies fbi
and fb2 are reasonably low by keeping e1 and e2 of the same
magnitude as in a usual single-component fringe-mode LDA.
The arrangement shown in Fig. 6b has additional advantages
in practice as will be described in the next section.

e/2
e/2

Fig. 5. Best orientation of measuring volume relative to flow direction.

No.: 29 - JANUARY 1984

Gg. 6. 3-D LDA for cross flow measurement with the sum- and difference method.
4. Practical 3-D LDA optical systems
Fig. 7 shows a 3-D LDA optics based on standard LDA
components. The separation of the three velocity signals
takes place by a combination of color and polarization separation. The laser beam from the Ar-ion laser is separated into
a blue beam (488 nm) and a green beam (5 14,5 nm) and directed to the two parallel optical systems by the so-called
beam splitter section. This part contains the beam splitter
and prisms mounted on a commom, rigid support which direct the laser beams into the transmitter optical systems in a
direction parallel but opposite to the laser beam. The two
parallel optical systems form a blue standard l-component
LDA and a green standard 2-component LDA. The laser beams
from the transmitter optics are directed to the common measuring volume by the prism sections built into the front optics.
The prisms and front lenses of the prism section are ridgidly
mounted on a common, stable mount. The stability of the
optical arrangement is assured by a careful design of the
beam splitter section and the prism section. The intersection
of the two sets of transmitted beams are unaffected by slight
motions of the beam splitter section as a whole or the prism
section as a whole relative to the base plate because of the
stability of the internal mounts.
The LDA receivers are also composed of standard parts, but
the PM sections have been switched over such that the green
8

receiver is mounted in the blue transmitter and vice versa.

The advantage of this arrangement is that the reception of
say the green scattered light is not disturbed by the presence
of the strong transmitted blue beams passing through the
front optics. Also the size of the measuring volume is reduced
by the intersection of the interference fringe region by the receiver field of view.
Fig. 8 shows the primary measured velocity components. One
of the green pairs of beams, forms an independent one-component LDA (the y-component) while the other green component and the blue component form the two non-orthogonal primary components, which are combined as indicated
above to give the x- and z-components of velocity.
Fig. 9 shows a 3-D LDA system based on the same geometrical considerations, but the component separation is now effected by a combination of color separation and electronic
separation of frequency shifted signals. The two green pairs
of beams are frequency shifted by different amounts. After
detection the signal is passed through a mixer, which downshifts the received signal frequencies, after which they are
separated by means of band pass filters and passed to the
signal processors.

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INFORMATION

Fig. 7. Practical 3-D optics.

1
and

3)

Fig. 8. 3-D primary measured velocity components.

5. Conclusions
Efficient and accurate 3-D LDA measurements require certain basic conditions regarding the optical system arrangement to be fulfilled. The measuring volume should preferably
be shaped and oriented in a way which results in the maximum number of real or virtual fringe crossings. The added
number of zero crossings introduced by frequency shifting
does not change the final accuracy. If the optimum dimension and orientation of the measuring volume cannot be obtained for practical reasons at least a maximum angular se-

Fig. 9. 3-D LDA optics with color and frequency shift

separation.

paration between the primary measured velocity components

should be assured. By using two separate transmitter optics
the backscattering from surfaces in the front optics into the
receiver can be eliminated ensuring optimum S/N while simultaneously a minimum measuring volume results. A small
volume in addition to improving spatial accuracy also improves S/N by reducing the amount of scattered light from
nearby walls and from many small particles in the volume.
The last is especially important by measurements in water.
9