SRIDEVI WOMENS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

V.N.PALLY, HYDERABAD

ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

FOR

I-B.TECH (ALL BRANCHES)

2013-2014

NAME: --------------------------------------------REG.NO: -----------------------------------------BRANCH: ------------------------------------------

PREPARED BY
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

List of Experiments :( Any ten experiments compulsory)

S.NO

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

Pg. No.

OPTICS EXPERIMENTS

Dispersive power of the material of a prism Spectrometer

5-13

Determination of wavelength of a source Diffraction Grating

14-20

Newtons Rings Radius of curvature of plano convex lens.

21-27

Single slit diffraction using laser

28-33

ELECTRIC & ELECTRONIC EXPERIMENTS

L-C-R Circuit

35-41

Time constant of R-C Circuit.

42-48

Study the characteristics of LED and Laser sources

49-54

GENERAL EXPERIMENTS

Torsional Pendulum.

56-62

Meldes experiment Transverse and longitudinal modes.

63-69

10

Bending losses and Evaluation of numerical aperture of given fiber.

70-79

11

Energy gap of a material of p-n junction.

80-83

12

Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil by using Stewarts and
Gees method

84-92

13

Solar Cell

92-95

Table of universal constants:

Quantity
Speed of light in vacuum
Newtonian constant of
Gravitation
Planck constant
Reduced Planck constant

Symbol
c
G

Value
2.99*108ms-1
6.674*10-11m3kg-1s-2

h
h = h/(2)

6.626*10-34 J-s
1.054*10-34 J-s

List of Physical Constants:

Quantity
Avogadros number
Bohr magnetron
Boltzmann constant

Symbol
NA
B
K

Electron charge
Electron mass
Gas constant
Permeability of vacuum
Permittivity of vacuum
Acceleration due to gravity

e
m
R
o

o
g

Value
6.025*1026 (kgmol) -1
9.273*10-24 A-m2
-1
1.38*10 23 JK
=8.616*10-19 eVK-1
1.6*10-19 Coulomb
9.1*10-31 Kg
8.317*103 J(kgmol)-1K-1
4*10-7 Henry/m
8.854*10-12 Farad/m
9.8 m/s

Conversion Factors:
ev Joule conversion
Magnetic induction conversion
Magnetic field conversion

1eV = 1.602*10 -19 joule

1 gauss = 10 -4 weber/m2
1 oersted = 7.96 amps/m

OPTICS

EXPERIMENT- 1
DISPERSION OF LIGHT (Spectrometer Prism) EXPERIMENT
...........................................
AIM: -To determine the dispersive power of the material of the given prism by the
Spectrometer
APPARATUS: -Spectrometer, Mercury Vapour Lamp & Prism
Formula: = (B-R)/ (-1)
Where B= the refractive index of the blue rays
R = the refractive index of the red ray and
= (B+R)/2)
= Sin {(A+Dm)/2}/Sin (A/2)
THEORY: -The essential part of the spectrometer is: (a) The telescope, (b) The collimator
&(c) Prism table.
(a) The Telescope: The telescope is an astronomical type. At one end of a brass tube is an
objective, at the other end a (Rams dens) eyepiece and in between, a cross wire screen.
The eyepiece may be focused on the cross-wires and the length of the telescope may be
adjusted by means of a rack and pinion screw. The telescope is attached to a circular
disc, which rotates symmetrically about a vertical axis and carries a main scale, divided
in half-degrees along its edges. The telescope may be fixed in any desired position by
means of a screw & fine adjustments made by a tangential screw.
(b) The Collimator: The collimator consists of a convex lens fitted at one end of a brass tube and an
adjustable slit at the other end. The distance between the two may be adjusted by
means of a rack and pinion screw. The collimator is rigidly attached to the base of the
instrument.
(c) The Prism Table: The prism table consists of a two circular brass discs with three leveling screws
between them. A short vertical brass rod is attached to the center of the lower disc &

this is fitted into a tube attached to another circular disc moving above the main scale.
The prism table may be fixed on the tube by means of a screw. The second circular disc
moving over the main scale carries two verniers at diametrically opposite points. The
vernier disc also revolves about the vertical axis passing through the center of the main
scale and may be fixed in any position with the help of a screw. A tangential screw is
provided for fine movements of the vernier scale. Most Spectrometers have 29 main
scale divisions (half-degrees) divided on the vernier into thirty equal parts. Hence, the
least count of the vernier is one-sixteenth of a degree or one minute.
Preliminary Adjustments: The following adjustments are to be made before the commencement of an experiment with
Spectrometer.
(i) Eyepiece Adjustment: The telescope is turned towards a bright object, say a white wall about 2 to 3
meters way and the eyepiece is adjusted so that the cross-wires are very clearly seen.
This ensures that whenever an image is clearly seen on the cross-wires, the eye is an
unstrained condition.
(ii) Telescope Adjustment: The telescope is now turned towards a bright object, and its length is adjusted
until the distant

object is clearly seen in the plane of the cross-wires: that is the image

suffers no lateral displacement, with the cross-wire of the eye shifted slightly to and fro.
In this position the telescope is capable of receiving parallel rays. This means that
whenever any image is seen clearly on the cross-wires, it may be taken that the rays
entering the telescope constitute a parallel bundle. In case the experiment is to be
performed in a dark room from which a view of distant object is difficult to obtain, the
method suggested by Schewster may be adopted. A prism is placed on the prism table
and a refracted image of the slit is viewed. The prism is adjusted to be almost at
minimum deviation. At this stage, it will be found that the image is fixed telescope for
two positions of the prism, which may be obtained by turning the prism table one way
or the other. The prism is kept in one of these positions and (says) the telescope is
adjusted until the image is clear. The prism table alone is adjusted so that the image

leaves the field of vision (traveling towards the direct ray) and returns again. Now the
collimator alone is adjusted for clarity of image. This is repeated a few times until the
image is quite clear.
(iii) Collimator Adjustment: The slit of the collimator is illuminated with light. The telescope is turned to
view the image of the slit and the collimator screws are adjusted such that a clear image
of the slit is obtained without parallax in the plane of the cross-wires. The slit of the
collimator is also adjusted to the vertical & narrow.
The refractive index of the material of the prism is given by

= Sin {(A+Dm)/2}/Sin (A/2) -------------- (1)

Where A is the angle of the equilateral prism and
D is the angle of minimum deviation.
When the angle of incidence is small, the angle of deviation is large. As the angle
incidence is slowly increased, the angle of deviation begins to diminish progressively, till
for one particular value of the angle of incidence, the angle of deviation attains a least
value. This angle is known as the angle of minimum deviation D.
The dispersive power () of the material of the prism is given by
= (B-R)/ (-1) ---------------- (2)
Where B= the refractive index of the blue rays
R = the refractive index of the red ray and
= (B+R)/2 ------------- (3)
The mean of B and R
Noting the angle of minimum deviation D, for blue & red rays B and R are calculated using
Equation (1). Using equation (2) the dispersive power of the material of the prism is
Calculated.

PROCEDURE: -

The prism is placed on the prism table with the ground surface of the prism on
to the left or right side of the collimator. Care is to be taken to see that the ground
surface of the prism does not face either the collimator or the telescope. The vernier
table is then fixed with the help of vernier screw. The ray of light passing through the
collimator strikes the polished surface BC of the prism at Q and undergoes deviation
along QR and emerges out of the prism from the face AC. The deviated ray (continuous
spectrum) is seen through the telescope in position T2. Looking at the spectrum the
prism table is now slowly moved on to one side, so that the spectrum moves towards
undeviated path of the beam. The deviated ray (spectrum) also moves on to the same
side for some time and then the ray starts turning back even through the prism table is
moved in the same direction. The point at which the ray starts turning back is called
minimum deviation position. In the spectrum, it is sufficient if one colour is adjusted for
minimum deviation position. In this limiting position of the spectrum, deviation of the
beam is minimum. The telescope is now fixed on the blue colour and the tangent screw
is slowly operated until the point of intersection of the cross wire is exactly on the
image. The reading for the blue colour is noted in vernier I and vernier II and tabulated.
The reading is called the minimum deviation reading for the blue colour. The telescope
is now moved on the red colour and the readings are taken as explained for blue colour.
Next, the telescope is released and the prism is removed from the prism table.
The telescope is now focused on to the direct ray (undeviated path) and the reading in
vernier I and vernier II are noted. The difference of readings between the deviated
reading for blue colour and the direct reading gives the angle of minimum deviation,
reading for the blue colour (DB). Similarly, the difference of readings between the
deviated reading for the red colour and the direct reading gives the angle of minimum
deviation for the red colour (DR). the refractive indices for the blue and red rays are
calculated using equation (1) (Assuming the angle of the equilateral prism, A = 60), the
values of B and R are substituted in equation (2) and the dispersive power of the
material of the prism is calculated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

OBSERVATION TABLE: Least count of the vernier of

the spectrometer, LC=

Angle of prism A =

Direct reading: Vernier I =

Vernier II =
Direct reading
Color
V1

V2

Angle of minimum
deviation(D)
V1

V1~V1

V2~V2

2Dm

V2

Result:
The dispersive power of the given prism =

Possible Questions:
1. What type of prism do you use in this experiment?
2. What is dispersive power?
3. Distinguish between prism spectrum and grating spectrum?

Dm

= Sin {(A+Dm)/2}/Sin (A/2)

4. What are the units of dispersive power?

5. In the VIBGYOR which color is having more wavelength and which color is having less
Wavelength?
6. In the VIBGYOR which color is having more frequency and which color is having less
Frequency?
7. Why do you use twovernier in this experiment?
8. What are the units of wavelength in SI units?
9. What type of light do you use in the dispersive power experiment, what colors do you
observe in the spectrum?
10. Which color in the spectrum is having more refractive index?
11. Does all the colors on the spectrum move with the same velocity?
12. Why we should keep the prism in minimum deviation position?

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EXPERIMENT- 2
WAVELENGTH OF SPECTRAL LINES USING DIFFRACTION GRATING

AIM: -To determine the wavelength of a given light radiation using diffraction grating with
(a) Normal incidence and (b) Minimum deviation method.
APPARATUS: -Spectrometer, Sodium Vapour Lamp & Grating.
FORMULA: = (Sin 2.54)/ (n*15,000)
DESCRIPTION: A plane diffraction grating consists of a parallel-sided glass plate with equidistant
parallel lines drawn very closely on it by means of a diamond point. 15,000 lines per inch or
(15,000/ 25.u) lines per cm are drawn on the grating. Such gratings are known as original
gratings. But the gratings used in the laboratory are exact replicas of the original gratings on a
celluloid film. The celluloid film is fixed over as optically plane glass plate. Care should be taken
while handling the grating. It should be handled by the edge of the plate.
THEORY: A parallel beam of monochromatic light from the collimator of a spectrometer is
made to fall normally on a plane diffraction grating erected vertically on the prism table.
The telescope initially in line with the collimator is slowly turned to one side. A line
spectrum will be noticed and on further turning the telescope the line spectrum will
again be noticed. While the former is called the first order spectrum, the later is called
the second order spectrum. On further rotating the telescope, the third order spectrum
may also be noticed, depending on the quality of the grating. But the number of orders
of spectra that can be observed with a given grating limited. With the light normally
incident on a grating having N lines per cm, if is the angle of diffraction of a radiation
of wavelength in the n th order spectrum, then
`

n N = Sin
Or = Sin /nN
= (Sin 2.54)/ (n*15,000) ---------- (1)

15

Knowing and n, the wavelength of light radiation is calculated using equation (1) for the
normal incidence method.
Again when a parallel beam of monochromatic light is incident upon a grating is diffracted in
such a way that the angle of deviation is minimum; then the wavelength () of the radiation is
given by:
=2Sin (D/2)/ Nn
=(2 x 2.54 x Sin (D/2)/15000) -----------(2)
Where D is the angle of minimum deviation and n is the order of the spectrum. Equation (2) is
used for the minimum deviation method to calculate the wavelength of the light radiation.

(a) Minimum deviation method: The direct image of the slit is observed through the telescope. The point of
intersection of the cross wire is set on the sharp image of the slit. The vernier table is fixed
and the reading on the circular scale is noted.
The prism table is released from the vernier table. The telescope is turned to one
side, (say right) and the first order-diffracted image is observed. The prism table is slowly
rotated to the right. As it is slowly rotated to the right side, the image first moves towards
left, reaches a limiting position and then retraces its path. In this limiting position, the

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telescope is fixed such that the point of intersection of the cross wire is on the D line and
the reading on the circular scale is taken. The difference between the direct reading and this
reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the D line in the first order spectrum.
Similarly the angle of deviation for the D line of the first order noted.Next, the angle of
minimum deviation for the D and D lines in the second order spectrum is found similarly.
The results are tabulated in table 2.
Table 1
OBSERVATIONS: Direct Readings, V1 =--------------, V2 = -------------Direct reading
Color
V1

V2

Angle of minimum
deviation(D)
V1

V1~V1

V2~V2

2Dm

Dm

=(2 x 2.54 x Sin (D/2)/15000)

V2

RESULT:
The wavelengths of spectral lines are calculated and compared with standard values.

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POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. How does diffraction occur?
2. What is a diffraction grating?
3. What is a plane transmission grating?
4. What is a reflection grating?
5. What are essential parts of a spectrometer?
6. How many types of spectra are available?
7. What is dispersive power of a grating?
8. Among prism and grating which gives more intense spectrum and why?

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EXPERIMENT-3
NEWTONS RINGS

AIM: -To determine (a) the wavelength of sodium vapour light and / or (b) the radius of
curvature of the surface of the lens, by forming Newtons rings.

APPARATUS: -Newtons ring set & Plane mirror.

FORMULA: R= (D22 D12)/{4 (n2-n1)}
THEORY: Let R = Radius of curvature of the surface of the lens in contact with the glass plate (P).
D = Diameter of the n1th ring.
D2 = Diameter of the n2thring.
Then, the relation gives the wavelength of the light radiation:
= (D22 D12)/{4R (n2-n1) -----------(1)
The radius of curvature of the lens is determined with a spherometer. The values of D and D2
are very small and occur to the second power in equation (1). Hence they are to be measured
carefully with the traveling microscope. Care is to be taken in moving the microscope to travel in
a direction without moving back and forth while taking readings. This is very essential since the
variation in the diameter of the rings is in the second decimal place and any back and forth
movement of the microscope will result in wrong readings. It can be seen from equation (1) that
the diameter of the rings increases with the increase in the radius of curvature R of the lens.
With a lens of radius of curvature of about 100 cm, the rings formed will be convenient for
measurement. Hence, it is desirable to select a Plano convex lens of long focal length for
forming rings.
PROCEDURE: The apparatus consists of a light source. The light from it is rendered parallel
by means of a convex lens. The parallel rays are incident on a plane glass plate through the
magnifying glass inclined at 45 to the path of incident rays. Alternate bright & dark rings are

22

observed through a traveling microscope.

The point of intersection of cross wires in the microscope is brought to the center of ring
system,if necessary, turning the cross wires such that one of them is perpendicular to the line of
travel ofthe microscope. The wire may be set tangential to any one ring; & starting from the
center of thering system, the microscope is moved on to one side, say left, across the field of
view countingthe number of rings. After passing beyond 25th ring, the direction of motion of the
microscope is reversed and the cross wire is set at the 20th dark ring, tangential to it. The
reading on the microscope scale is noted. Similarly, the readings with the cross-wires set on
18th, 16th, 14th, ------ 2nd dark rings are noted. The microscope is moved in the same direction
and the readings corresponding to the 2nd, 4th, 6th-------20th dark ring on the right side are
noted. Readings are to be taken with the microscope moving in one & the same direction to
avoid errors due to backlash. The observations are recorded in table 1.
The Plano convex lens is taken out from the traveling microscope and the radius of curvature
is determined by a spherometer.

A graph is drawn with the number of rings as abscissa (X-axis) and the square of diameter of
the ring as ordinate (Y-axis). The nature of the graph will be a straight line as shown in the fig.
From graph the values of D2 and D22 corresponding to two number n1 and n2 are noted. Using
these values in equation (1) the wavelength of the source is calculated.
DIAGRAM: -

MODEL

GRAPH:

23

D22
D12
n1

n2

02516910082516899842516889602516879362516869122516858882516848642516838402516
82816251681792251680768251679744251678720251677696251676672251675648

FORMULA:
Traveling microscope reading = MSR + (V.C L.C)
MSR = Main scale reading
V.C = Vernier coincidence
L.C = Least count = one main scale division / No. of divisions on vernier scale.
The radius of curvature(R) of the given Plano convex lens is obtained from the relation
R = (D22-D12)/4 (n2-n1)
Where D2 is the diameter of the n2th ring
D1 is the diameter of the n1th ring
is the wavelength of light = 589310-8cm
TABLE:

Microscope reading
S.No.

No. of the
ring(n)

On the left
side (a)

On the right
side (b)

Result:

24

Diameter of the
ring D=a-b
cm

D2
cm2

The radius of curvature of Plano-convex lens =

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the basic principle of Newtons rings experiment?
2. Why the rings are circular?
3. What are Newtons rings?
4. Define interference phenomena?
5. Define monochromatic radiation?
6. Why the center of the rings is dark?
7. Why the fringes are alternately dark and bright?
8. Which light do you use in this experiment?
9. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450 in this experiment?
10. Why do the rings gets closer as the order of the ring is increased?
11. How the interference condition is met in this experiment, explain?
12. What is constructive interference and destructive interference?

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EXPERIMENT- 4
SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION USING LASER EXPERIMENT

AIM: - To determine the wavelength of the Laser source using a single slit.
APPARATUS: - Single slit, screen, microscope and LASER sources.
FORMULA: =a sin / n cm
DESCRIPTION: The laser consists of a mixture of in the ration of about 10:1, placed inside a long narrow
discharge tube. The pressure inside the tube is about 1 mm of Hg. The gas system is enclosed
between a pair of plane mirror or pair of concave mirror so that a resonator system is formed.
One of the mirrors is of very high reflectivity while the other is partially transparent so that
energy may be coupled out of the System. The6328A transition of beam corresponding to the
well-known red light of laser. Lasers are light amplification by stimulated emission of radiations.
THEORY:
The single slit may be treated as a large number of equally spaced point sources and
eachpoint on the slit is source of Huygenss secondary wavelets, which interfere with the
wavelets emanating from other points. The secondary wavelets traveling with the wavelets
traveling in the direction parallel to the slit comes to focus on the screen at a point. Since all the
rays are in the same phase, diffraction pattern is a point of maximum intensity. The secondary
waves traveling in a direction making an angle converge to some other point on the screen.

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The intensity of this point will be maximum or minimum depending upon the path difference
between the secondary waves orienting from the corresponding wave fronts.

The path difference is given by

a sin = n
Where n is the order of diffraction (n= 1, 2, 3-------)
is the wavelength of the source
a is the slit width
is the angle of diffraction.
If the path difference is odd multiple of wavelength then it is given by
a sin = (2n+1) where n = 1,2,3.
The formula given above is derived using the small angle approximation.
For the experiment fig shown above this means that sin y/L

PROCEDURE: Place the single slit parallel to the laser source such that the rays are incident on the slit
width. Adjust the slit width such that we see clear diffraction of the slit on screen or wall.
Measure the distance of slit from wall let it be L and the distance between the maxima is
y. Take the readings on left and right side. Vary the slit distance from the screen i.e, take
the reading at different L. The corresponding y is to be measured. Measure the slit width, a
by microscope.
OBSERVATION TABLE: Slit width (a)= cm
Order of
minima(n)

y(cm)
L(cm)

Left

Right

mean

30

y/L

= a sin /n

RESULT: The wavelength of the given LASER is:

Possible Questions:
1. Does the distance between minima increase or decrease when the slit width is increased?
2. What do you understand by diffraction of light?
3. How does diffraction differ from interference?
4. How many classes of diffraction are there?
5. When does diffraction become appreciable?
6. Distinguish between Fraunhofer and Frensnel diffraction?
7. What will happen if the width of the slit is increased?
8. What is the difference between a single slit and double slit fringe systems?
9. What is the source using in your experiment?
10. What is the intensity of double slit pattern varying along with single slit intensity?

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ELECTRICAL
&
ELECTRONIC
EXPERIMENTS
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EXPERIMENT 5
L-C-R BOARD
...................................................
AIM: - To study the series and parallel resonance circuit and to find frequency and quality factor.
MICRO BOARD CONSISTS OF: -Set of resistors, Capacitors, Inductors andMilli- ammeter.
FORMULA:fo= 1/2 LC
Qo = fo/ , (=f2 - f1 as like the case of series circuit)

PROCEDURE: SERIES RESONANCE: 1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply input signal using signal generator. The output should be 10V only.
3. Take the output across the resistor and feed it to Ammeter input sockets.
4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal such
that the Ammeter deflection is the maximum possible. This is the resonant frequency of
the connected combination of the circuit.
5. Adjust the signal generator amplitude such that to get full-scale deflection. In Ammeter
now reduce the frequency till the deflection falls considerably. Then increase the
frequency in regular intervals & note down the Ammeter readings.
6. Plot a graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency.

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7. Repeat the procedure using different combinations of L, C & R and study how Q is
affected. Also study how Resonant Frequency depends upon different combination of
L-C-R.
PARALLEL RESONANCE: 1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Apply input signal, from a reliable signal generator. The output should be 10V only.
3. Take the output across the tank circuit and connect to Ammeter input sockets.
4. Vary the frequency till the Ammeter records sharp fall. Adjust the signal such that the
deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in regular intervals and
note down the deflection.
5. Adjust the signal generators amplitude such that, to get full-scale deflection. Now reduce
the frequency till the deflection falls down considerably. Then increase the frequency in
regular intervals & note down the deflection.
6. Plot graph between the meter deflection divisions and frequency.
7. Repeat the procedure for different values of R and study how Q is affected. Also study
how resonant frequency depends on different combinations of L.C.R.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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S.NO FREQUENCY(HZ)

CURRENT(mA)

CALCULATIONS: For series circuit Z is minimum at Resonance.

Resonance frequency of series circuit isfo = 1/2 LC
Io = E/(R + Ro)
Eo = Rio , Ro is the resistance of the coil.

Zo = R + Ro

Qo = fo/ , ( = f2 f1)
f2 is the point beyond the fo (at the point Eo/2)
f1 is the point before fo (at the point Eo/2)
Q = LWo/R + Ro
For parallel circuit Z is maximum at resonance.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

fo =1/2 LC
Zo = L/CRo
orQo =L Wo
Eo = Izo = EZo/(R + Zo)
Qo = fo/ (=f2 - f1 as like the case of series circuit)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: -

GRAPH: -

0L-C-R SERIES RESOANCE

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S.NO FREQUENCY(HZ)

CURRENT(mA)

L-C-R PARALLEL RESONANCE:

GRAPH: 02516899842516889602516879362516869122516858882516848642516838402516828162516
81792

Current
ImX 2
Im
0

Result:

40

f1 f0
Frequency

f2

Result:

Possible questions:
1.Explain the importance of bandwidth?
2.What is the physical significance of LCR?
3.What is the role of inductance in LCR circuit?
4.Why does the series circuit gives power maximum at resonance while the parallel circuit lead
to a power minimum?
5. What are the units of inductance?
6.Define Quality factor?

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EXPERIMENT-6
C-R CIRCUIT BOARD

AIM:To study the decay of current in a C-R circuit and to determine RC time constant.
MICRO BOARD CONSISTS OF: - Fixed Power supply, switch, Ammeter, combinations of
Resistor & Capacitors.
FORMULA: Q = Qo(1-et/RC ) --------------------(1)
Where Q is the charge in time t; and
Qo is the maximum charge.
THEORY:When a condenser C is charged through a resistance R then charge
increases exponentially in accordance with the formula.
Q = Qo(1-et/RC ) --------------------(1)
Where Q is the charge in time t; and
Qo is the maximum charge.
The product CR is called time constant. It is the time taken to establish (1- e-t/RC)
part of the maximum charge in the condenser. It is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632
partof the total charge.When a condenser is discharged through a resistance, the charge falls in
accordance with the formula.
Q = Qo (1- e-t/RC)
The time constant in this case is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge of e part
of the maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of 0.368 part of
maximum charge.
i.e. we can say that I = dq /dt
= - t 0 e-t/RC ----------------- (2)
Where C = capacitor in farad
R = resistance in ohm
I = current in the circuit
When I = 0.36 I0, then t = RC

OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS:

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(1) Make sure that pointer of voltmeter is at zero mark. In case it is indicating some reading
above zero, bring the pointer to zero by pressing dump switch. By doing so capacitor will
be discharged if any charge was present initially. Further bring the pointer at zero by
adjusting zero adjustor provided on voltmeter. (Bring back the dump/on switch towards
BLANK side for conducting the experiment).
(2) Now switch on the unit Connect voltmeter directly across the power supply and set the
input voltage to any suitable value say 5 to 7 volts. Now remove voltmeter connection.
(3) Connect X to any one of the high resistances R1, R2 or R3. Connect Y to any one of the
capacitances C1, C2, or C3. Connect voltmeter and milli-ammter across the terminals as
shown in the diagram. Connect output of the power supply to the input terminals as
given in the diagram.
(4) Press the charge switch for charging capacitor through resistance and note down the
reading of voltmeter after every 5 to 10 seconds repeating same procedure till capacitor
if fully charged.
(5) When capacitor attains full charge. Bring the switch towards discharge and note down
voltmeter reading of voltmeter every 5 to 10 seconds till the capacitor is fully
discharged.
(6) Now plot curves for charge and discharge taking suitable scale. Time is plotted on X-axis
while Vcon Y-axis. curves are as shown in the next page

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Observations and results :

Measurement of time constant for discharging of a capacitor
45

R = ________________________
C = ________________________

S.No.

Dicharging

time (t) Secs

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

10

90

Voltage (V)

GRAPH: -

vo
Voltage

0.36 vo

Time (sec)

0251698176251697152251696128251695104251694080251693056251692032251691008

46

Draw an intercept to the X-axis as shown in the graph the corresponding t gives the time
constant.

Result:
The theoretical values and experimental values are compar

Possible questions:
1.State the meaning of charging time of capacitor?
2.Why a resistance of low value is not acceptable in charging process?
3.What will happen if the resistance of low value is connected in the circuit?
4.Why the charging process not continued till the capacitor voltage reaches supply voltage?
5.State four types of capacitors?
6.State the application of capacitor in filter circuits?
7.State the factors affecting capacitance?
8.A 2uF capacitor is connected by closing a switch to a supply of 100 volts through 1Mohm
series resistance. Calculate (i) the time constant (ii) Initial charging current.

47

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EXPERIMENT 7
CHARACTERITICS OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODE AND LASER SOURCES

AIM: To study the characteristics of LED and Laser Sources

THEORY: - A P-n junction diode, which emits light on forward biasing, is known as light emitting
diode. The emitted light may be in the visible range or invisible range and the intensity of light
depends on the applied potential.
PRINCIPLE: - In a P-N junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross
from the n-layer to the P-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side while
holes are in the valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level
compared to the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference
in energy is given out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy
dissipation is in the form of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphide, it
is in the form of light. But this light is in the invisible region & so these material cannot be used
in the manufacture of LED. Hence gallium arsenide phosphide which emits light in the visible
region is used to manufacture an LED.

CONSTRUCTION: An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown over it by diffusion process.
The P-layer is kept at the top because carrier recombination takes place in it. The terminals
anode and cathode are taken out of the n-layer and P-layer respectively. The anode connections
are made at the edge in order to provide more surface area for the emission of light. A metal
film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the surface of the device and also to

50

provide connection for the cathode terminal. Finally the structures are provided with an
encapsulated (cover) to protect them from destruction.
ADVANTAGE: 1. Works on low voltage and current and hence consumes less power.
2. Require no warm up time.
3. Can be switched ON and OFF at a faster rate.
4. Long lifetime.
5. Small size and less weight.
APPLICATIONS: 1. Infra-red LEDS are used in burglar alarms.
2. Used in solid state video displays.
3. Used in the field of optical communication.
4. Used in image sensing circuits.
5. Used in numerical displays like watches, pocket calculators etc.
Experimental Procedure
Apparatus:
Light emitting Diode Characteristics board comprising of:
1. Light emitting diode
2. 0-5V variable Supply for Light emitting diode
3. 20mW Digital Optical power meter to measure optical power of Light emitting
diode
4. 20V Digital Voltmeter to measure voltage across Light emitting diode
5. 200mA DC Digital Ammeter to measure Light emitting diode Current

Procedure for V/I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:

51

1. Connect the Light emitting diode circuit as shown below:

2. Slowly increase

supply voltage using

variable Power supply

using coarse and fine

knobs.
3. Note down current

through the Light

emitting diode at

increasing values of

Light
emitting diode voltage of 0.5V, 1.0V, 1.5V, 2.5 V.
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode voltage V/s Light emitting diode current .

Procedure for L/I characteristics of a Light emitting diode:

1. Connect the Light emitting diode circuit as shown below:

2.

Slowly

52

increase supply voltage using variable Power supply coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down the optical power measured by the optical power meter in mW at increasing
current through the Light emitting diode of 1mA to 20 mA at 1 mA step.
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30mA else the Light emitting diode may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of Light emitting diode intensity V/s Light emitting diode current as shown in
figure2
6. Calculate the slope of this curve.
7. This slope is efficiency of Light emitting diode in terms of mcd/mA.

Result:

Possible Questions:
1. What are n- and p-type of semiconductors?
2. Define conduction band and valence band in semiconductor?
3. What are LED materials? Give some examples?
4. What is the basic mechanism of LED?
5. Why LEDs are available in different colors?
6. What are the input and output energies in a LED?
7. What are the applications of LED?
8. What are the majority carries in p-type semiconductor?
9. What are the majority carries in n-type semiconductor?
10.What are radiative and non-radiative processes?

53

WORK SHEET

54

WORK SHEET

55

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56

GENERAL
EXPERIMENTS

57

EXPERIMENT 8
DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS OF THE MATERIAL OF A WIRE (TORSION PENDULUM)
EXPERIMENT

AIM: To determine the rigidity modulus (n) of the material of the given wire using Torsional
Pendulum.

APPARATUS: - Torsion pendulum, Stop clock, meter scale, and vernier caliper, Screw Gauge
Rough balance
.

Formula : = 4 MR2/a4 (l/T2) dyne /cm2

THEORY:
A torsional pendulum is a flat disk, suspended horizontally by a wire attached at the top of the
fixed support.When the disk is tuned through a small angle, the wire is twisted .On being
released the diskperforms torsional oscillations about the axis performs torsional oscillations
about the axis of thesupport .The twist wire will exert a torque on the disk tending to return it to
the original position.This is restoring torque. For small twist the restoring torque is found to be
proportional to theamount of twist, or the angular displacement, so that
= - k ------------ (1)
Here k is proportionality constant that depends on the properties of the wire
is called torsional constant.The minus sign shows that the torque is directly opposite to the
angular displacement .Eqn 1, isthe condition for angular simple harmonic motion.
The equation of motion for such a system is

58

 = I = I d2/dt2 ------------ (2)

So that, on using the equation (1) we get
-k = I d2/dt2
d2 / dt2 + k / I =0 --------- (3)
The solution of the equation (3) is, therefore, a simple harmonic oscillation in the angle coordinate , namely
= mcos ( t + )
Here m is the maximum angular displacement i.e. the amplitude of the angular oscillation.
The period off oscillation is given by
T = 2 I /k
Where I = rotational inertia of the pendulum
K= torsional constant
If k and I are known, T can be calculated.
PROCEDURE:
Torsional pendulum consists of a uniform circular metal (brass or iron) disc of
diameter about 10 cm and thickness of 1 cm. Suspended by a metal wire (whose
n is to be determined) at the center of the disc .The other end of the wire is
griped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket. The length (l) of wire
between the two chucks can be adjusted and measured using meter scale .An
ink mark is made on the curved edge of the disc. A vertical pointer is kept in
front of the disc such that the pointer screens the mark when straight. The disc
is set into oscillations in the horizontal plane, by tuning through a small angle
.Now stopwatch is started and time (t) for 20 oscillations is noted.This
procedure is repeated for two times and the average value is taken.
The time period T (=t/20) is calculated.The experiment is performed for
five different lengths of the wire and observations are tabulated in table.
The diameter and hence the radius (a) of the wire is determined
accurately at least at five different places of the wire using screw gauge , since
the radius of the wire is small in magnitude and appears with forth power in the
formula of rigidity modulus.

The mass (M) and the radius (R) of the circular disc are determine
by using rough balance and vernier respectively.

59

A graph is drowning between l on x-axis and T2 on Y-axis.

Rigidity modulus (n) of given wire is determine using the formula
= 4 MR2/a4 (l/T2) dyne /cm2 -------- (4)

T2
l

l
02516961282516951042516940802516910082516930562516920322517032962517022722517
01248251700224251699200251698176Diagram:

OBSERVATION TABLE:Mass of the disc m =

gm

Radius of the disc R = cm

Radius of the wire, a = cm

SCREW GUAGE
TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No PSR

HSR

L.C.

PSR+(HSR*L.C.)

Diameter(cm) Radius,a(cm)

AVG (a) =

60

TABULAR COLUMN:
Timeperiod,T(sec)T=t/20
S.No

Length,l(cm) Time

taken

for

20

sec

T2

oscillations (sec)
Trial I

Trial II

Mean
(t)

AVG (l/T2) =

Result:

Possible Questions:

1.Define moment of inertia I?

2.What are the units of the torsion constant in the MKS system and in CGS system?

61

l/T2

3.Define torque? What are the units of torque in MKS system?

4.Define the rigidity modulus. Explain its physical significance?
5.State and explain Hooks law.
6.How many types of modulus are there?
7.What is the difference between Youngs modulus and Rigidity modulus?
8.What are the main differences between the simple pendulum and torsional pendulum?
9.Define time period.

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EXPERIMENT 9
MELDES APPARATUS EXPERIMENT
.....................................................................
AIM: -To determine the frequency of a vibrating bar, or tuning fork using Meldes arrangement.
APPARATUS: -Smooth pulley fixed to a stand, tuning fork, Connecting wires, Weight box, Pan,
Thread & Power supply.

FORMULA: = l(T/) for transverse mode

= (T/l)*1/ for longitudinal mode

THEORY: -

(a) Transverse arrangement:

The fork is placed in the transverse vibrations position and by adjusting the length of
the string and weights in the pan; the string starts vibrating & forms many well-defined
loops. This is due to the stationary vibrations set up as results of the superposition of
the progressive waveform the prong and the reflected wave from the pulley. Welldefined loops are formed when the frequency of each segment coincides with the
frequency of the fork. The frequency of the transverse vibrations of the stretched
string by the tension of T dynes is given by:

65

 = (1/2l) T/m
= (T/l) 1/m----------- (1)
Where m = mass per unit length of the string
l = length of a single loop.

(b) Longitudinal arrangement:

When the fork is placed in the longitudinal position and the string makes longitudinal
vibrations, the frequency of the stretched string will be half of the frequency () of the
tuning fork. That is, when well-defined loops are formed on the string, the frequency of
each vibrating segment of the string is exactly half the frequency of the fork.
During longitudinal vibrations, when the prong is in its right extreme position the string
corresponding to a loop gets slackened string moves upto its initial horizontal position
&becomes light. But when the prong is again in its right extreme position, thereby completing
one vibration, the string goes up; its inertia carrying it onwards and thereby completes only a
half vibration.
Hence, the frequency of each loop is:
= (1/2l) T/m
Hence, the frequency of tuning fork:
= 2 1 = (1/l) T/m
= (T/l)*1/ m ----------- (2)
PROCEDURE: The apparatus (tuning fork) is first arranged for transverse vibrations, with the length of the
string 3 or 4 meters & passing over the pulley. The circuit is closed vary the pot till the fork
vibrates steadily. The load in the pan is adjusted slowly, till a convenient number of loops (say
between 4 and 10) with well-defined nodes & maximum amplitude at the antinodes are formed,
the vibrations of the string being in the vertical plane.
The number of loops (X) formed in the string between the pulley and the fork are noted. The
length of the string between the pulley and the fork (d) is noted. The length (l) of a single loop is
calculated by:
l = (d/x) cm
Let: m = mass of the pan.
M = load added into the pan.
Tension, T = (M + m)g dynes

66

Where g = acceleration due to gravity at the place.

Increasing or decreasing the load M repeats the experiment, so that the number of loops
increases or decreases by one. The experiment is repeated till the whole string vibrates in one or
two loops & the observations are recorded. Next the tuning fork is arranged for the longitudinal
vibrations. The experiment is repeated as was done for the longitudinal vibrations & the
observations are recorded. At the end of the experiment, the mass m of the pan, the mass of
the string (w) and the length (Y) of the strings are noted
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

OBSERVATIONS: 1. Mass of the string (thread) = W = -------gm (correct to a mg)

2. Length of the (thread) string = Y = -----cm
3. Linear density of the thread = ()= (W/Y) = --------gm/cm
4. Mass of the pan =m2 = --------gm (correct to a mg)

TABULAR COLUMN:For transverse arrangement:

S.No.

of

Tension

No. of

Length

applied into

T=(m1+m2)g

Loops

X loops=d

each

the pan m1

dynes

cm

l=d/X cm

gm

67

of

Length

Load

loop

n=1/2lT/
Hz

Avg=

For longitudinal arrangement:

S.No.

Load

Tension

No. of

Length

applied into

T=(m1+m2)g

Loops

X loops=d

each

the pan m1

dynes

cm

l=d/X cm

gm

Avg=

Result:

68

of

Length

of
loop

n=1/lT/
Hz

Possible Questions:

1.Explain the difference between transverse wave and longitudinal wave?

2. Define Standing wave?
3. Define nodes and antinodes?
4. What are the characteristic features of standing waves?
5. Define resonance condition?
6. What happens to amplitude in resonance condition?
7. What is the distance between two successive nodes or two anti-nodes?
8. Explain the importance of Meldes experiment

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EXPERIMENT -10
BENDING LOSSES OF OPTICAL FIBRE
...
AIM:
To measure the bending losses in the optical fiber cable at different wave lengths and
also as a function of bend radius.
APPARATUS:
Optical fiber cable of different lengths, digital multi meters, d.c powersupply, mandrel,
Fiber optic module.

NTRODUCTION AND THEORY:

An optical fiber is a dielectric waveguide made up of glass or plastic consisting of a core,
cladding and a sheath or jacket. The index of refraction of the assembly varies across the radius
of the cable, with the core having a constant or smoothly varying index of refraction and the
cladding region having another constant index of refraction. The core possesses a high refractive
index, whereas the cladding is constructed to have a lower refractive index. The result of the
difference in the refractive indexes is to keep light flowing through the core after it gets into the
core, even if the fiber is bent or tied into a kont, through total internal reflection.
Fiber optic link can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals.
Basically a fiber optic link contains three main elements namely a transmitter, an optical fiber
and receiver. The transmitter module takes the input signal in electrical nad then transforms it

72

into optical energy containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which
takes the energy to the receiver. At the receiver light is converted back into electrical from with
same pattern as originally fed to the transmitter.
The experimental method to determine the liner attenuation characteristics of a
fiber consists of injecting a fixed optical power at a constant wavelength into fibers with varying
tenths and then measuring the transmitted power in each case. A plot of the relative
transmitted power as a function of fiber length is used to calculate the linear attenuation
coefficient of the fiber in Db/m see figure-1.

0251697152251695104
Any System

Po

PL

2516920322516910082
51694080251696128

P (L) = Po exp[-.L]
Where L = total fiber length; Po = power input
= total attenuation coefficient (m-1)
LogP (L) = LogPo .L.Log (e)
LogP (L) = LogPo 0.434.L

PROCEDURE:
The white nylon mandrel allows a precise bend radius to be set. Start with one
particular length of optical fiber. Connect the fiber to the source and to the power meter, make
sure that the power meter is set to the dBm (dB/dBm) button and for a particular wavelength.
Try to ensure that there are as few bends as possible in the fiber at this point. Record the power
measured on the power meter as the reference (no bend) power level. Now starting with the
particular diameter mandrel wrap the fiber once around the mandrel. Try to keep the fiber in
place on a mandrel without too much stress and also within reason region try to ensure that
there is exactly on turn of fiber on the mandrel. Record the power level in dBm and note the
difference in dB with respect to the no bend reference power level. Now move on to the next
smallest mandrel diameter and repeat the measurement. As you approach the smallest the
mandrel diameter be careful not to damage the fiber (particularly for the smallest 2.5mm
mandrel diameter).

73

TABLE:
Wavelength =

S.No.

Length of the optical cable

Mandrel diameter

Mandrel radius

RESULT:

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss about attenuation in optical fiber?

2. What are the transmission losses in optical fibers?
3. What are distortion and scattering losses in optical fibers?

74

Po

PL

EXPERIMENT
EVALUATION OF A NUMERICAL APERTURE
...........
AIM:
To determine the acceptance angle and numerical aperture of given optical fiber using
laser light .

EQUIPMENT:
Optical cables, connectors, power supply, Numerical aperture measurement.

FORMULA:

NA = W / (4L2 + W2) = Sin max

INTRODUCTION:

An optical fiber consists of a core that is surrounded by a cladding. The core and cladding are
normally made of silica glass, although polymer materials are also in use. The function of the

75

core is to transmit an optical signal while the purpose of the cladding is to guide the light within
the core, in effect to confine the light within the core. A fiber is sometimes called an optical
wave guide because light is guided through the fiber.

BASIC DEFINITION OF NUMERICAL APERTURE:

Numerical Aperture (NA) is a measure of the amount of the light rays that can be accepted by
the fiber and is more generally used in optical fiber communication. A is defined using the
relation between the acceptance angle and the refractive index of the medium involved namely
air, core and cladding. It is the product of refractive index of the incident medium and the sine
of the maximum ray angle.
NA = ni Sin max

for air, ni = 1

Hence NA = Sin max

PROCEDURE:
1.Connect the one end of the optical fiber cable to the output power socket of the NA module
and other end to the NA measurement jig.
2.The mains of power is switched on and the light passing through the cable at the other end of
fiber is observed to ensure the proper coupling is made or not.
3.A white screen with concentric circles of known diameter is hold vertically at a suitable
distance(L) from the optical fiber end and light (red) spot is seen on the screen.
4.The diameter (W) of the red spot is made exactly equal to the concentric one of the circle and
corresponding length (L) is noted.
5.The diameter of the red spot can be varied by varying the length (L). Repeat the same for
different concentric circles by varying the length (L).
6.Compute the NA by using the formula
NA = W / (4L2 + W2) = Sin max -------- (1)
Where max is acceptance angle. By knowing the values of W and L you can compute the
numerical aperture and hence acceptance angle using the equation (1).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

76

TABLE:
S.No

NA

RESULT:

The Numerical Aperture of the optical fiber =

Acceptance angle of the optical fiber =

degrees.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

1. What is Optical Fiber?

2. What is the reflection and refraction?
3. State and explain the Snells law of refraction?
4. Define the bandwidth of optical fiber?
5. Why optical fiber is suitable for communication?
6. Explain total internal reflection?

77

(degrees)

7. What is the significance of cladding in optical fibers?

8. Explain the physical significance of the numerical aperture?
9. What is the principle involved in the propagation of light in optical fibers?
10. Define core and cladding?

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EXPERIMENT-11
ENERGY GAP OF MATERIAL OF A PN JUNCTION DIODE
...
AIM:To determine the energy band gap of a p-n junction.
APPARATUS:
p-n junction diode, thermostat, voltmeter, ammeter, thermometer and battery.
FORMULA:
The energy band gap, Eg = (2.3032Kslope)/1.610-19ev
Where k is Boltzmanns constant = 1.3810-23 JK-1
THEORY:
In a semi-conductor there is an energy gap between its conductor and valence band.

For

conductor a certain amount of energy is to be given to the electron so that it goes from the
valence band to the conductor band. The energy so needed is the measure of the energy gap, EG
between two bands. When a p-n junction is reverse biased then current is due to minority
carries whose concentration is dependent on the energy gap EG. The reverse current Is(satured
value) is a function of the temperature of the junction diode.

PROCEDURE:

82

1. The point contact diode connected in a reverse bias as shown in diagram.

2. It is placed in oil bath and heated uniformly
3. Saturation current is noted for various temperatures.
4. The bias voltage is maintained at constant value.
5. The readings in the micro ammeter is noted as a function of temperature in steps of 5oc.
6. A graph is drawn between (1/T) vs. log Io. From graph the slope is calculated.

NATURE OF GRAPH:

Current, logIo

1/T (K-1)
0251694080251693056251692032251691008

RESULT:The calculated energy gap value of p-n junction diode is ------------ ev.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. How many types of semiconductors are available?
2. What is p-type semiconductor?
3. What is n-type semiconductor?
4. What is a p-n junction diode?
5. Define energy gap? What are the units of energy gap?
6. What is meant by doping?
7. What is meant by forward bias and reverse bias?
8. What are the values of band gap in metals, semiconductors and insulators?
9. Why water cannot be used in place of oil?

83

10. What are the applications of junction diode

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EXPERIMENT 12
STUDY OF MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A CIRCULAR COIL STEWARTS AND GEES
..
AIM: -To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.

APPARATUS: -Stewart and Gees, Rheostat, Ammeter, Battery eliminator, Plug key single,
Commutator, four plugs.
THEORY: The magnetic field (B) at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current i is given by the
Expression
B = 0*n*i*a2/ {2 (x 2+ a2)3/2} Tesla.

86

Where n is the number of turns, a the mean radius of the coil and x is the distance
of the point from the center of the coil along the axis. To measure this field the Stewart and
Gees type of tangent galvanometer is convenient.
The apparatus consists of a circular frame c made up of non-magnetic substance. An
insulated Copper wire is wounded on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the
other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns used can be changed.
The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth side. The
base has leveling screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the uprights.
The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through the circular
coil. A magnetic compass like that one used in deflection magnetometer is supported on a
movable platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil. The
compass is so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lie on the axis of the coil.
The apparatus is arranged so that the plane of coil is in the magnetic meridian. The frame with
compass is kept at the center of the coil and the base is rotated so that the plane of the coil is
parallel to the magnetic needle in the compass. The compass is rotated so that the aluminum
pointer reads zero. Now the rectangular frame is along East-West directions. When a current i
flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in the perpendicular direction to the plane
of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic fields.
B due to coil carrying current and the earths magnetic field Be which are mutually
perpendicular. The needle deflects through an angle satisfying the tangent law.
: B / Be = Tan (1)
Thus B= Be Tan
The theoretical value of B is given by
B = 0*n*I*a2 / {2 (X 2 + a 2) 3/2----------(2)

PROCEDURE:With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about
one meter is drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line
perpendicular to the line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gees galvanometer is set with its coil in
the magnetic meridian as shown in the fig. The external circuit is connected as shown in the fig,
keeping the ammeter, rheostat away from the deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very
much required because, the magnetic field produced by the current passing through the
rheostat and the permanent magnetic field due to the magnet inside the ammeter affect the
magnetometer reading, if they are close to it. The magnetometer is set at the center of the coil

87

and rotated to make the aluminum pointer reads, (0,0) in the magnetometer. The key K, is
closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection in the magnetometer is about 60. The
current in the Commutator is reversed and the deflection in the magnetometer is observed. The
deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current should not differ much. In
case of sufficient difference say above 2 or 3, necessary adjustments are to be made.
The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings are
noted in Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil in steps of
2cm at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal of
current are noted. The mean deflection be denoted as E. The magnetometer is further moved
towards east in steps of 2cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current
be noted, until the deflection falls to 30.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the center of the
coil in steps of 2 cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after the reversal of
current.
The mean deflection is denoted as W.
It will be found that for each distance (x) the value in the last two columns of the second table
are found to be equal verifying equation (1) & (2).
A graph is drawn between x [the distance of the deflection magnetometer from the center of
the coil] along x-axis and the corresponding Tan and Tan along Y-axis. The shape of the curve
is shown in the fig. The point A and B marked on the curve lie at distance equal to half
of radius of the coil (a/2) on either side of the coil.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

88

MODEL GRAPH: -

A
Tan Tan

(West
)X

(East)
X

02517032962517022722517012482517002242516992002516981762516971522516961
28251695104251694080251693056251692032251691008

OBSERVATION TABLE: Horizontal component of earths magnetic field Be = 0.38 X 10 -4 Tesla (or Wb m- 2)

Radius of coil a =

meter (Diameter of coil /2)

Current carrying in the ammeter =

Amp

0 = 4 X 10 7

Distance

Deflection

from the direction

in

east

Deflection
Mean

direction

center

89

in

west
Mean

=(E

of coil X

E
1

Distance X

W
1

Theoretical B

Practical B

RESULT:

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. What is the direction of the magnetic field at the center of the coil?

90

+W)/2

Tan

2. Define magnetic field induction?

3. Define magnetic meridian?
4. Where magnetic field is maximum in Stewart Gees method?
5. State some of the applications of the magnetic field produced by a circular coil?

WORKSHEET

91

WORKSHEET

92

WORKSHEET

93

EXPERIMENT- 13
SOLAR CELL
........................................

94

AIM: To draw the I-V characteristics of a solar cell

APPARATUS: Solar cell, illuminator, Voltmeter, ammeter, and potentiometer etc.
FORMULA:

THEORY:
Solar cell is a p-n junction. We know that a built-in voltages exists across a p-n junction, but this
voltage cannot deliver current in a external circuit. However, if light is shown on the junction,
there is current in the circuit. This effect is called the photovoltaic effect.

To understand the principal underlying the photovoltaic effect, let the junction be illuminated.
Under this condition, many excess electron-holes pairs are generated in the regions on either
side of the junction via absorption of photons. As the field within the junction is from n-side to
p-side, the excess minority carries thus generated diffuse to the junction where they are carried
across and become majority carries the holes generated on n-side move towards p-side and
the electrons generated on p-side move towards n-side. If the junction is now open circuited the
majority carries excess charge will build on the both sides of the junction (positive charge on pside and negative charge on n-side) tending to lower the built-in-voltage from 0 to some value
(0 V0) as shown in figure. This change in built-in-voltage i.e. V0appears as a measurable P.D.
across the junction, where thereby behaves as if a source of voltage V0.

If the external circuit is closed, the current will therefore flow therein. This current will continue
so long as there is diffusion of excess electrons from n-side and of excess holes from p-side. This
is turn means that the current will flow so long as the semiconductor regions are illuminated.

FIG 1:

EXCESS electrons
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -

FIGURE

95

----------------------------------------------------------e 0
e (0- V0)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------EF
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
..
++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
..

EXCESS holes

+++++++++++++++++++++++

This explains how the incident light sets up the current flow in the external circuit.
PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the solar cell in sunlight for 15 to 20 minutes so that it gets activated.
2. Complete the circuit connections as shown in the figure (2) below. Then place the light
source S at a distance of 15 cm from solar cell.
3. Now find out the open circuit voltage V0cby opening the connecting wire joining ve of millimeter to the load (i.e. connecting +ve of voltmeter and ve of cell to the ve of voltmeter)
4. Once again complete the circuit connections as shown in fig 2
5. Bring load selector switch at S.C. position and note the reading in the ampere meter under
short circuit condition (if meter shows out of scale then decrease the light intensity) this
maximum current is called short circuit current Isc.
6. Now introduce the load resistance in the circuit (start from low value of resistance)

and note down the current and volts reading.

7. Repeat the same with different values of load resistances.
8. Draw a graph between V and I (fig-3)
9. Repeat the experiment with other intensities placing the light source at difference positions.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. See that the light from the source falls vertically on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

96

3. Solar cell should not be circuited for longer duration while taking down the reading Isc
otherwise the cell will be damaged permanently. (pointer knobs should not be kept on S.C.
position while instrument is not in use).

TABLE:

S.NO

VOLTAGE(V)

Current (I)

mV

mA

RESULT:
For a solar cell the values for various parameters found to be:
1. Fill factor = --------2. Efficiency = --------3. Series resistance = ---------

97

PRECAUTIONS:
1. See that the light from the falls vertically on the solar cell.
2. Make sure that the connections are made properly and ensure good contact.

RESULT:

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:

98

99

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