Karen Claire B.

Beler BS CEN IV
CE 171: Materials of Construction &
Testing

Different Materials
Testing

1. Tensile Testing
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials
science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. The
results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for
quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces.
Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength,
maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these measurements the following
properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength,
and strain-hardening characteristics.
Tensile tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully standardized. By pulling
on something, you will very quickly determine how the material will react to forces
being applied in tension. As the material is being pulled, you will find its strength
along with how much it will elongate.

2. Compression Test
A compression test determines behavior of materials under crushing loads. The
specimen is compressed and deformation at various loads is recorded. Compressive
stress and strain are calculated and plotted as a stress-strain diagram which is used
to determine elastic limit, proportional limit, yield point, yield strength and, for
some materials, compressive strength.
The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test:

Concrete

Metals

Plastics

Ceramics

Composites

Corrugated

Cardboard

3. Bend Testing
Bend testing determines the ductility or the strength of a material by bending the
material over a given radius. Following the bend, the sample is inspected for cracks
on the outer surface. Bend testing provides insight into the modulus of elasticity
and the bending strength or a material. Metallurgical offers three and four-point
bend setups with interchangeable rollers for a variety of test configurations.

Specimens are often cut into rectangular bars or tested as whole. The following
materials are typically subjected to a compression test: fasteners, wire, cable,
tubes, pipes, plates, structural beams, or bars.

4. Impact Testing
Impact testing is testing an object's ability to resist high-rate loading. An impact test
is a test for determining the energy absorbed in fracturing a test piece at high
velocity. Most of us think of it as one object striking another object at a relatively
high speed.

5. Impact Testing
Even at constant stress, materials continue to deform for an indefinite period of
time. This time dependent deformation is called creep. At temperatures less than
40 percent of the absolute melting point, the extent of creep is negligible, but at
temperatures higher than this it becomes increasingly important. It is for this reason
that the creep test is commonly thought of as a high-temperature test.
The majority of creep testing is conducted in the tensile mode, and the type of testpiece used is similar to the normal tensile test-piece. Most creep testing is carried
out under constant-load conditions and utilizes dead weights acting through a
simple lever system. In the creep testing an extensometer readings are noted at
regular time interval s until the required amount of data has been obtained, or until
the test-piece fractures, depending on whether the object of the test is to determine
the creep rate or to determine the total creep strain.
One of the difficulties in creep testing is that a single test may take a very long time
to complete (10000 hours is 417 days), and there are serious difficulties in
attempting to extrapolate from the results of comparatively short-term tests to
assess the probable behavior of a material over a 10 or 20 year period of service.

6. Hardness Testing
Hardness testing measures the resistance of a material to a permanent indention of
particular geometry over a specified length of time. Hardness testing is an effective
and efficient means to characterize a material and requires minimal sample
preparation.
Hardness is, however, used extensively to characterize materials and to determine
if they are suitable for their intended use. All of the hardness tests described in this
section involve the use of a specifically shaped indenter, significantly harder than
the test sample, that is pressed into the surface of the sample using a specific force.
Either the depth or size of the indent is measured to determine a hardness value.
Why Use a Hardness Test?

Easy to perform

Quick (1-30 seconds)

Relatively inexpensive

Non-destructive

Finished parts can be tested - but not ruined

Virtually any size and shape can be tested

Practical QC device - incoming, outgoing

The most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat treatment of a part
and to determine if a material has the properties necessary for its intended use.
Establishing a correlation between the hardness result and the desired material
property allows this, making hardness tests very useful in industrial and R&D
applications.

Hardness Scales
1. The Brinell Hardness Testing
In this test, hardness is measured by pressing a hard steel ball into the surface of
the test piece, using a known load.
2. The Vickers Hardness Test
This test is preferable to Brinell test where hard materials are concerned, as it uses
a diamond indenter. (Diamond is the hardest material known approximately 6000
HB.) The diamond indenter is in the form of a square-based pyramid with an angle of
136 between opposite faces.
3. The Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell test is widely used in industry as it is quick, simple and direct reading.
Universal electronic hardness testing machines are now widely used which at the
turn of a switch, can provide either Brinell, Vickers or Rockwell tests and show the
hardness number as a digital readout automatically. They also give a hard copy
printout of the test result together with the test conditions and date.
4. Shore Scleroscope
The test piece must be small enough to mount in the testing machine, and hardness
is measured as a function of indentation. However, the scleroscope is not like the
other types of hardness test based their measure on the ratio of applied load
divided by the resulting impression (Brinell and Vicker Hardness Test) or by the
depth of impression (Rockwell Hardness Test).

The scleroscope is an instrument that measures the rebound height of a hammer

dropped from a certain distance above the surface of the material to be tested. The
hammer consists of a weight with diamond indenter attached to it. The scleroscope
therefore measures the mechanical energy absorbed by the material when the
indenters strike the surface. The energy absorbed gives an indication of resistance
to penetration, which matches our definition of hardness.
The primary used of the scleroscope seems to be in measuring the hardness of
large parts of steel, large rolls, casting and gears. And since the scleroscope can be
carried to the work piece, it is useful for testing large surfaces and other
components which could not easily be placed on the testing tables of any other
testing machines.

7. Fatigue Test
The definition of fatigue testing can be thought of as simply applying cyclic loading
to your test specimen to understand how it will perform under similar conditions in
actual use. The load application can either be a repeated application of a fixed load
or simulation of in-service loads. The load application may be repeated millions of
times and up to several hundred times per second.
In many applications, materials are subjected to vibrating or oscillating forces. The
behavior of materials under such load conditions differs from the behavior under a
static load. Because the material is subjected to repeated load cycles (fatigue) in
actual use, designers are faced with predicting fatigue life, which is defined as the
total number of cycles to failure under specified loading conditions. Fatigue testing
gives much better data to predict the in-service life of materials.

8. Flexure Test
The flexure test method measures behavior of materials subjected to simple beam
loading. It is also called a transverse beam test with some materials. Maximum fiber
stress and maximum strain are calculated for increments of load. Results are plotted
in a stress-strain diagram. Flexural strength is defined as the maximum stress in the
outermost fiber. This is calculated at the surface of the specimen on the convex or
tension side. Flexural modulus is calculated from the slope of the stress vs.
deflection curve. If the curve has no linear region, a secant line is fitted to the curve
to determine slope.

A flexure test produces tensile stress in the convex side of the specimen and
compression stress in the concave side. This creates an area of shear stress along
the midline. To ensure the primary failure comes from tensile or compression stress
the shear stress must be minimized. This is done by controlling the span to depth
ratio; the length of the outer span divided by the height (depth) of the specimen.
For most materials S/d=16 is acceptable. Some materials require S/d=32 to 64 to
keep the shear stress low enough.
The following materials are typically subjected to a flexure test:

Polymers: The 3-point flexure test is the most common for polymers.
Specimen deflection is usually measured by the crosshead position. Test
results include flexural strength and flexural modulus.

Wood and Composites: The 4-point flexure test is common for wood and
composites. The 4-point test requires a deflectometer to accurately measure
specimen deflection at the center of the support span. Test results include
flexural strength and flexural modulus.

Brittle Materials: When a 3-point flexure test is done on a brittle material

like ceramic or concrete it is often called modulus of rupture (MOR). This test
provides flex strength data only, not stiffness (modulus). The 4-point test can
also be used on brittle materials. Alignment of the support and loading anvils
is critical with brittle materials. The test fixture for these materials usually
has self-aligning anvils.

9. Torsion Testing
A torsion test can be conducted on most materials to determine the torsional
properties of the material. These properties include but are not limited to:

Modulus of elasticity in shear

Yield shear strength

Ultimate shear strength

Modulus of rupture in shear

Ductility

Many products and components are subjected to torsional forces during their
operation. Products such as biomedical catheter tubing, switches, fasteners, and
automotive steering columns are just a few devices subject to such torsional
stresses. By testing these products in torsion, manufacturers are able to simulate
real life service conditions, check product quality, verify designs, and ensure proper
manufacturing techniques.
Types of Torsion Tests
Torsion tests can be performed by applying only a rotational motion or by applying
both axial (tension or compression) and torsional forces. Types of torsion testing
vary from product to product but can usually be classified as failure, proof, or
product operation testing.

Torsion Only: Applying only torsional loads to the test specimen.

Axial-Torsion: Applying both axial (tension or compression) and torsional

forces to the test specimen.

Failure Testing: Twisting the product, component, or specimen until failure.

Failure can be classified as either a physical break or a kink/defect in the
specimen.

Proof Testing: Applying a torsional load and holding this torque load for a
fixed amount of time.

Operational Testing: Testing complete assemblies or products such as

bottle caps, switches, dial pens, or steering columns to verify that the product
performs as expected under torsion loads.

10.

Rheology Testing

Rheology testing is measuring the deformation of matter under the influence of

imposed stress, by analyzing the internal response of materials to forces. Polymer
flow characteristics are critical in all the conversion and production processes: the
material is forced to flow and the rheological characteristics determine the process
ability.
Why is Rheology Testing Important?
Firstly, flow is involved in the processing and fabrication of such materials in order
to make useful objects. Thus, fluid rheology is relevant to polymer processing and
determines stress levels in operations such as extrusion, calendaring, fiber spinning,
and film blowing. Similarly, rheology influences residual stresses, cycle times, and
void content in composite processing operations such as blow molding, compression
molding, and injection molding.
Secondly, in the use of polymers the mechanical properties are very important, and
the mechanical behavior is also influenced by rheology. Then, rheological
measurements are also employed for product characterization and quality control
purposes. Such measurements are often used for examining and understanding the
interaction of the different constituents of a multi-component or multiphase mixture
and their influence on the flow and other properties of such materials.
Different Types of Rheological Behavior
All the rheological properties of complex fluids, like polymer melts, depend upon the
rate of deformation (shear rate), the molecular weight and the structure, the
concentration of various additives and fillers, as well as the temperature. In
addition, even at a constant rate of deformation, stresses are found to depend on
time.

11.

Slump Test

The slump test is a practical means of measuring the consistency of mix. Since
changes in the values of slump obtained indicate material changes in the water
content or proportions of the mix. It is therefore useful in controlling the quality of
the mortar produced.
A slump test is a method used to determine the consistency of concrete. The
consistency, or stiffness, indicates how much water has been used in the mix. The

stiffness of the concrete mix should be matched to the requirements for the finished
product quality.

12.

Absorption Test

Absorption test is conducted on brick to find out the amount of moisture content
absorbed by brick under extreme conditions. In this test, sample dry bricks are
taken and weighed. After weighing these bricks are placed in water with full
immersing for a period of 24 hours. Then weigh the wet brick and note down its
value. The difference between dry and wet brick weights will give the amount of
water absorption. For a good quality brick, the amount of water absorption should
not exceed 20% of weight of dry brick.
http://www.instron.us/en-us/our-company/library/test-types/
http://www.metengr.com/
http://www.theconstructor.org/