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V o l u m e3 1 N o . 8
PublishedMonthly
l2nd ol preceding Month)
First Published | 947
lncorporating
Telegrams
Databux, London
3 T R A N S I S T O RM E D I U M W A V E R A D I O
by A. P. Roberts
460
BOOK REVIEW
465
N E W SA N D C O M M E N T
466
470
5 O : 5 0O U T P U TF R O M T H E 5 5 5
by J. R. Davies
473
C A N A N Y O N EH E L P ?
475
T H E E N D O F O S C A R 6 b y A r t h u rC . G e e
478
G I G A B I TL A S E RC O M M U N I C A T I O N
by MichaelLorant
479
S W I T C H- S E L E C T I O NE N L A R G E RT I M E R 480
by R. A. Fenfold
O P - A M P P R E C A U T I O N Sb y R . V . S m i t h s o n 487
l O t h S C O T C HW I L D L I F ES O U N D
COMPETITION
RECORDING
488
R E C E N TP U B L I C A T I O N S
489
C L A N D E S T I N ER A D I O b y R o n H a m
490
N O U G H T - P ONl T - O NE ( N o t e sf o r
Newcomers)by F. Bowden
491
TRADENEWS
495
L O W C O S T C A P A C I T A N C EB R I D G E
(ln Your Workshop)
496
R A D I O T O P I C Sb y R e c o r d e r
502
E L E C T R O N I C SD A T A N o . 3 2
(For The Beginner- Waveforms)
Published
i n G r e a tB r i t a i nb y t h e P r o p r i e t o ras n d
PublishersD
, a r a P u b l i c a t i o n sL t d . 5 7 M a i d a
V a l e . L o n d o nW g 1 S N
The RadiO & Eloctronics Constructor i:s orinte:d
bv Swale Press Ltd.
APRIL 1978
ill
3 TRANSISTOR
MEDIUMWAVE
RADIO
B y A . P . Roberts
S I M P L ED E S I G N O
EASYTO CONSTRUCT
STAN DAR D C O MP O NE N T S
BF2448
Iooo,l Leqd-outs
dgs
of the 3-transistor
acrooc
^ / L"od-outs
\--_7c
Resisfors
(AIl i watt 10%)
R l 4 . 7 ko
R2 5.6ko
R3 220 o (seetext)
R4 4.7kn
R5 1.8Mo
R6 4.7ko
Capacitors
Cl 0.01pFtype C280 (Mullard)
C2 0.01pF tyire C280 (n4uttard)
C3 0.04:7pFtype C280 (Mullard)
C4 0.022pFtype C280 (Mullard)
(Mullard)
C5 0.lpF typ-e'CZaO
CX sei: texi'
VC1 300pF variable, "Dilecon" (Jackson)
Semiconductors
TR1 BF244B
TR2 BClOgC
TR3 BClOgC
Switch
31 s.p.s.t.miniature toggle
Socket
SK1 3.5mm jack socket
Miscellaneous
Plastic case,120 x 65 x 40mm. (seetext)
Ferrite rod, 4jin. x fin. diameter (seetext)
32 s.w.g.enamelledcopperwire
Crys.tafearphonewith'5.5rnm jack plug
lvolt battery type PP3 (Ever-Read:y)
uattery connector
Large control knob
Plain perforateds.r.b.p.panel, 0.1in. matrix
Wire, solder,etc.
APRIL I978
J6-i'{
DETECTOR
TR3 is connectedas-a straightforward common
emitter amplifier,,but.itopera"tes
". " ii*pt"-u.-.
detector.R6 is the collectbr load resistor'and RS
p..rjvides.
basebiasing.CB couplesthe output from
TR2 collector to thibase of tRB.
This type ofdetector reliesupon the fact that the
translstordoesnot providelinear amplification.In
thls_casethe transistor w_illamplify positive half_
its base,morethan ne'gativ6[;lf_;y"1,;;,
9y_-cles.,at
srnce
ttte garn of the transistor tends to increaseas
rts collector current increases.In this way, TR3
prcvidesan elementary,.b-utne-vertheles"
ett."tiu!,
form of rectification and thus detectsthe i.a. .lgdi
gl^its base. C4 bypassesthe r.f. simal content at
I KU collector,leavingthe desiredi.f. signal.
Usually,a detector of this type would ippear in
a clrcult otterlng regenerationin order that the
non-linear.amplification
could be heightenedand
the detectionefficiency increased.SIch a treat_
ment is not necessaryhere as the detectori; ha;ci_
ling,a {air.ly .hiqtr^^level
signal u"a ttri., i" it."ii
results in
differences
in the gain on positive
,high
and negative.
half-cycles. In consequente, the
detectorrs able to operatequite efficiently without
regeneratron.
The non-linear effect can be clearlv shown bv
measuring-the d.c. potential at the coitectoiwii6
respectto the negativesugrly rail, and
-thentuning
acrossa,strong.station.This will produce
a verv
nouceaDle,
cup ln the meter reading as the set is
tuned to the station.
. Sl is the on-off switch and Cb providessupplv
decoupling.The.output signal at fHS ""tt..t5i'l'.
taKen ctrrectto the output socket without a series
d.c.blockingcapacitor.'There
is no needlor sucha
capacrtoras a crystal.earphone
hasa very high d.c.
resistance and it will not adverselv affe6t tt e
oper.ationof the detector. At the same time, the
small direct output voltagewill not upsetthe funcuonlng ot the crvstal earphone.
_.Power is obtained f5om -a PPB 9-volt battery.
This has an extremely long life as the current consumption of the set is only slightly in excessof
2mA.
COMPONENTS
A few commentsneedto be made concerning
the
"is
components..
a
Itt:.-variabl_ecapacitor, VC1,
soliddielectric"Dilecon"
Jacksoncomponent,and
'a
is available from
number of supbliers.'The
transistor type BF244B specified for-fRt can be
obtained from Electrovalue Ltd. Anv plastic case
measuringabout.120 by 6b by 40-min.orlarger
may De employecl.
F E H R I T EA E R I A L
The ferrite aerial is home-woundand employsa
ferrite rod havinga diameterof *in. and a nbminal
l."4lr of 4jin. T\e rgd do-esnot need to be precise_
!y.aiin. long but its length shouldnot be l6ssthan
3|rn. or too great to allow it to be fitted insidethe
case,
If a rod of suitablelengthcannot be obtained,it
can be broken from a $in. diameter rod of greatei
length.The ferrite metdl is hard and brittle ind the
breakingprocesshas to be carried qut witir caie.
tilrst tlle a sharp groove all round the cir_
cumt'erenceof the rod at the point where it is to be
broken, using a triangular file. Then tap the loJ
Irghtly against the edge of a woodeir bench.
whereuponit will break at the point where the
groovehas beencut. The broken end will not pre_
se.lj a neat appearance,but any roughnesshere
wllt not attect pertormance.
Fig.-2 gives cietailsof the ferrite aerial, which is
wound with 32 s.w.g.enamelledcopperwire. The
wrndlng starts.fin. fro-mone end of the rod, the
lead-outwire.being held in position by a band of
p.v.c. lnsulatmgtape-wrapped round the rod. g0
turns oI the wlre are then wound side_by_side,
after
which the remaining lead-out wire is"securedbv
another band of insulatingtape. Try to make th-e
winding as ne.atas.possible,so that"it tai "io.ilV
spacedturns in a singlelayer. The lead-outwirei
shouldnext be cut so that they are about 2in. longl
their ends are then scraped i:lean of enamel ant
tinned with solder.
CONSTRUCTION
- Most of the componentsare assembledon a
plain perforateds.r.b.p.panelof 0.1 matrix havins
3l by 20.holes.Detailsrif this panel, as.wellas o?
the remainderof the wtnng, are glven rn Fig. 3.
Commenceconstructionof tle [anel by cu"tting
out a pieceof the appropriatesizeirsinga hacksaw]
t'e carelul when ctolngthts as sometvpes of board
are rather brittle, and can shatterif sawnroughly.
j\e-x!,-the1Omm.diam.etermountinghole fbrVil
is drilled, after which the component"s
are mounted
in positionwith their lead-outdbent flat aeainstthe
undersideof the panel. Thev are then"soldered
togetherin the fashionshownin Fig. 3. The component lead-out wires should be long enough^to
rod
4l{x3la'tznitc
rd
VC1 ond TRl gctr
462
'm-il
::::'"'"'
r-,fi
: " .-:ry'-;@i-,
: . " o . - ' [ / f l .ru
'
a:
s\
ToVC,ondLr
"'I'P;'
o
o
o
o
o
0
o
o
..
I.
o
o
\-
o
o
\
\
\ \ _
o
o
o
Fig. 3. Wiring
diagram for the 3-transistor radio. Most of the components are assembled
forated s.r.b.p. board. The text gives details of the connections to VCI
enable all, or nearly all, of the wiring to be completed, but if necessary tinned copper wire of
a_round22 s.w.g.can be used to bridge any gaps. Of
the two wires connecting to VC1 and L1, that from
the gate of TRl connects to the fixed vanes of the
variable capacitor and that from the negative
supply rail connects to the moving vanes tag. The
two leads from the ferrite aerial winding also connect to the variable capacitor tags. When the
ferrite aerial is mounted in the case the winding
will be at the same end as the variable capacitor, a.s
cqn be seen in the photograph of the case interior.
The lead-out at thd end 6f the rod connects to the
capacitor moving vanes tag and that nearer the
APRIL1978
on a per-
of circuit a number of resistors,and that it presupposes that the constructor has a stock of spare
iesistors. Constructors who are unused to exnerimental work of this nature are advisedto fit
the specified value for R3 and to employ the ap-proa6hwhich involvesmoving the CX lead.
the
All adjustmentsfor regeneration,-either-with
CX lead or bv varying the value of R3, should be
carried out with a new battery connectedto the
receiver.
CASE
When it has been confirmedthat the set is performing satisfactorily,it may be installed in its
layout can be seenin the
The gen-eral
nlastic"case.
bhotocraphs.anti' it is recommendedthat this
iavoui b6 followed.
VCt it mounted at the right hand end of the
front panel. as seen from the front. Its threaded
bush rlassesthroush the 1Omm.hole in the component board, sever?lwashersare placed over the
bush and this then passesthrougha 10mm.hole in
fhe front nanelof the case.The stcuringnut finally
passesov'erthe protruding end of the bush,.andis
iiehtenedup. Tlius the componentboard is held in
oiaceinsidethe casebv the-mountingof VC1. The
washersbetweenthe c6mponentboard and the inside surfaceof the casefiont panel provide spac-
BOOKREVIEW
T H E F A B U L O U SP H O N O O R A P H
1 8 7 7 - 1 8 7 7B, y R o t a n G
d etatt,
3 4 9 p a g e e , 2 1x61 3 5 m m(,8 i |x E 1 } l nP, )u b l l s h ebdyC a e c cat n
l dC o m panyLtd,Prlcef6,50,
"Mary
had a llttl lamb," Ar mort of ua know, thors were th6 flrst raeordedwords on earth,
r h o u t e db y T h o m a rA l v a E d l r o nl n 1 8 7 7 I n t o t h . h s r n o f h l r c x p c r l m e n t aplh o n o g r d p oh n w h l e h
w h l r l e da t l n f o l lc o v o r c dc y l l n d c rT, h o r o u n d l m p l n g c do n a d l a p h r a g m
t o g l v e h l l l a n d d a l aI n d a n =
t e t l o n rI n t h e t l n f o l l ,t h g a ob o l n gr c p r o d u c c w
d h o n t h a c y l l n d ew
r e s o R o m o 1 6r 6 t a t 6 d F
, r o mt h a t
I n c l d c nltp r t n g t h c w h o l s h l r t o r yo f m s c h a n l c a l rl ye p r o d u c oEdo u n dc, u l m l n a t l n g
1 O Oy c a r sl a t c rI n
the atandardrtcrco mloogroovc dlrc,
A l t h g u g hE d l r o n o r l g l n a l l yI n t c n d e dh l a " t a l k l n g m a e h l n e "t o b c e m p l o y c df o r c o m m o r e l a l
b u s l n s t su r o , l t w t ! n o t l o n g b e f o r ep o p u l a rd e m a n dc a u a e dl t t o e n t e rt h 6 n t c r t a i n m c nf it e l d .A
d e a c r l p t l oonf a r e c o r d l n g
eegolon
I n t h e e a r l yN l n e t l e em a k a ed o l l g h t f urle a d l n gT, o n h u g ec y l l n d e r
p h o n o g r a p ho r n ga r ed l r e c t e dI,n a c l r c l e a
, t a r e g l m e n t abl a n d ,T h 6 t i t l 6o f t h i t e m i s a n n o u n c e d
In stentorlan
t o n sI n t oe a c hh o r nI n t u r n ,a f t e rw h l c h t h e b a n ds t r i k e su p w l t h s l l c y l i n d e r isn m o t i o n ,W h E n l t a p p e a r st h a t t h e c y l l n d e r ah a v et a k e nn e a r l ya l l t h e m u e i ct h y c a n h o l d t h e b a n d
s l m p l ys t o p ea t t h e e n d o f t h e n e x t m u s l c a lp h r a s eT
, e n n e w c y l i n d e r sa r e t h e n l o a d e do n t h e
machineeand the procedurele repeatedover and over agaln as the day proceeds,
I t w a e E m l l eB e r l l n ew
r h o , I n 1 8 8 7 ,s t a r t 6 dt h e d e v e l o p m e notf t h e l a t e r acl u t d i s cw h i c hw a s t o
oust the cyllnderand lead to recordewhlch could be pressedfrom a singlemaster.But these are
o n l ys m a l li n d i v l d u al tl e m st o b e g l e a n e df r o m t h i s e m i n e n t l yr e a d a b l e
b o o k ,w h i c ht r a c e sn o t o n l y
t h e t c h n i c a la c h l e v e m e n t ew h i c h c o n t i n u a l l yi m p r o v e d t h e a c o u s t i c p e r f o r m a n c eo f t h e
g r a m o p h o nb
e u t a l s ot h e f o r t u n e so f t h e c o m p a n i e a
s n d t h e p e o p l ew h o w e r e r e s p o n s i b lfeo r i t s
f i n a n c i avl i a b i l l t yW
, E a r Et a k e nw e l l u p t o m o d r nt i m e sa n d i n 1 9 6 3 ,f o r i n s t a n c ew, e f i n dt h e m a j o r r e c o r dc o m p a n i e tsr y i n gt o e v a l u a t ea m a r k e tt a k i n gi n s u c hb e s t - s e l l e ra. s E l v i sP r e s l e yA. n d
t h e n ,s t a t e sM r , G e l a t t ," t h e B e a t l e sa p p e a r e da n d a l l b e t s w e r e o f f . "
The book Includee32 pageaof photographg,
and lt offerea faeclnatlngwealth of dEtailon thE
sdvancEg
i n m e c h a n l c arle c o r d l n gw h i c h - s t m m e fdr o m E d i s o n ' so r i g i n e tl i n f o i lp h o n o g r a p h ,
A P R I L1 9 7 8
466
NEWS
AND
N E W K I T E D I T SA N D R E P A I R SC A S S E T T E S
Have you ever had the misfortune to suffer from a jammed oi
broken 6assettetape - your favourite top pop oi expensive
orchestralconcertsunplayable, perhaps even irreplaceable?
If so,3M United Kingdom Ltd. have just introduced the very
thing to get you out of trouble: the Scotch CassetteEditing and
Repair Kit.
This - like all brilliant ideas- is simple.and is easvto use.
becausethe cassettedoesnot have to be unscrewedand opened
for the tape to be repaired. Furthermore,it can be us6d for
editing recordedtapes.
The kit consistsof a pencil-like splicing block that contains
adhesive-tippedpolyester strips. These strips are inserted into
the cassette,and pick up the tape ends.Splicing is simplified by
meansof splicingtabs and cutting guidesat 45ofor normal splicing and 90ofor close editing, giving a professionalfinish.
The ScotchEditing and Repair Kit is now availablefrom outlets whererecordsare sold, major departmentstoresand hi-fi
equipmentretailers.The suggested
retail price is fl.52 + VAT.
F E R R A N TII. C . C O M P E T I T I O N
R A D I O& E L E C T R O N I C S
E X HI B I T I O N
This is the title adopted by the
Northern Radio Societiesfor their
annual exhibition to be held at Bell
Vue, Manchester on Sunday 2nd
April commencingat 11 a,m.
The organisers, who represent
various raiiio societiesin the North
of Eneland,recognisethat there is a
growiig trend towards the use of
micro-processorsin amateur radio
and this interest will be cateredfor
particularly by some of the trade
exhibitors.
As in previousYears- amateur
radio ani commrinications equipment will still constitute the larger
oart of the exhibition, and a coniiderable number of components
suopliers will also be represented.
NnSn club members will have
their own individual club stands.
Someof thesewill be showinghome
constructionprojects and a trophy
will be awariled for the best club
stand.
Other hiehliehts will include a
Grand Raffle, an Inter-Club Quiz, a
Construction Contest and exhibits
bv the RadioAmateurs'EmergencY
Network (RAYNET) and
UKFMGW and NWRG radio
reoeatersroups.(For the Construction Confest iules send a stamped
envelopeto: Mr. John D.
addressed
Clifford. 22 iubilee Court,
Bramhall Drive, Holmes Chapel,
Crewe, CheshireCW4 7HA).
Talk-in facilitieswill be provided
for FM mobiles on 145 MHz
channelsS22, S0, RG and on 433
MHz channels SU8, SU20, RB4
and RB14 via GB3NRS and
GsNRS/A.
RADIO AND ELEOTRONICSCONSTRUCTOR
COMMENT
E L E C T R O N IICG N I T I O NK I T
Automotive electronicignition is rapidly gaining
as more peoplerealisethe benefits that
nonularitv
-offer.
These include optimum economy
it has to
and performance, easier starting and reduced
malntenance.
Generally however,if you require a goodsystem
to fit to your existing car, then you have to b-u-ya
unit nribed between about e23 and 40. Now
Surefire Electronic Systems,who sell their ready
built capacitive discharse svstem for e31.50plus
VAT. ar^eoffering it in kit foim for only e15.75and
this fizure incluiies VAT, post and packing.
ThiS unit includes a switch enabling you to
switch from electronic to conventional ignition or
to isolatethe icnition circuit completely as an antitheft device. The unique featur:eof the Surefire
unit is a plug-in circuit module. If for any reason
the unit n'eed3servicingthen only the circuit board
has to be returned to $urefire leaving the casestill
on the vehicle and the car running on conventional
imition. The board and edge connector contacts
are all eold plated for reliability.
A cr"eat deal of thought has gone into the
prepaiation of this kit as if inciudesall of the combonints neededand even the solder. All informaiion that one could want is supplied for assembly
P O L D HU 7 5 t h A N N I V E R S A R YM E S S A GE S
As reported in Radio Topics in this is-sue,the
75th An;iversary of the firit two-way radio communication withihe USA was commemoratedwith
messagesfrom US President Jimmy Carter and
Italian PresidentGiovanniLeoneand werereceived on 19th January by the CornishRadio Amateur
Club radio station,GBSMSA,at Poldhu,Cornwall.
75 v e a r s p r e v i o u s l v P r e s i d e n t T h e o d o r e
Rooseveltfirst'usedthe Marconi wirelessto senda
messaseto King Edward VII from a station in
Cape eod and E'dwardVII replied via the Poldhu
station in Cornwall.
President Jimmy Carter, in his messagefrom
The White HohSe,dfter quoting the text of the 1903
messages
said:
"Th;t exchange marked a milestone in the
historv of communications. Since then we have
built on the invention of the distinguishedItalian
physicist
GuglielmoMarconi--andothers,a global
-communication
systemthat allows instant contact,
not onlv betweenHeadsof State,but peopleof all
it is fitNationi. In recallingthat historicmessage,
tine that we comm-emoratethat event both with
era*titudefor the wav in which science and
have helpeiito unite us, and with ferEneineerins
veit hope5that such communicationswill serve
the futrire course of peace and human progress
everywhere"'
aicned Jimmv carter
President,United States
The text of the replv bv station GB3MSA,
Cornwall.to PresidentCirter via stationKMlCC
at South.Wellfleet,CaPeCod was:
"Thank you for your message received at
Poldhu.We-reciprocaiethe sentimentsexpressed
APRIL 1978
"Mine's
invisibte
hair
what's yours?"
467
SUGGESTED
CIRCUIT
STOP-START
MULTIVIBRATOR
By G. A. French
One of the easiestrelexation oscillators to design is the symmetrical bipolar transistor multivibrator, the basic circuit of which
is shown in Fig. 1. Due to the very
high level of regenerationgiven at
the changeoverpoints in th1 cycle,
roughlyapproachingthe productof
the gains of the two transistors,the
multivibrator will oscillatewith a
very wide range of capacitor and
resistorvalues.
,,STICKING''
It is still neverthelesspossibleto
make up a multivibrator which
"sticks", or refuses
to start, when
its power supply is turned on. The
most common c'ausesof "sticking"
are too high or too low a value of
basebias resistorfor one or both of
the transistors. If a base bias
resistorhastoo hieh a valuethe corresponding
transistorcannotdraw a
collectorcurrent sufficiently large
to .producean.adequatenegativegolng excursron(assumlng a
positiveupper rail, as in Fig. 1) at
the oppositebase.And ifa basebias
resistor value is'too small the corresponding transistor approaches,
or goesinto, saturation and cannot
function as an amplifier.
-that It is not
generally realised
advantage
can be taken of this last effect to
producea multivibrator which may
Fig.
l.
A
standard
symmetrical
multivibratoL
Points concerning the value
of R3 are discussed in the
text
,.,
whereupon TRl becomesconductive with a collectorcurrent governed by the value of its base bias
resistor,and the voltagesacrossthe
capacitatorsfall to the previouslow
levels. The multivibrator remains
in the stopped condition after the
short-circuit has been removed.but
it will start again if TR2 base is
momentarily short-circuited to the
negativerail.
WORKING CIRCUIT
A practical workins circuit which
utilides the effect is dven in Fie. 2.
Here,Rl, R2, R4, Ci and C2 ar-ein
the same circuit positionsthat they
held in Fig. 1, whilst R3 is no'i
replacedby a fixed resistorin series
with the pre-set variable resistor,
VRl. Also, the base-emitterjunction of a third transistor, TR3, has
been interposed between the
emitter of TRl and the negative
rail. When during the multivibrator
cycle TRl turns on, so also does
TR3. The onlv function of TR3 is to
drive a paii of high resistance
headphones without entering the
multivibrator circuit proper. The
rather low supply voltage of 4.5
volts is emploved to avoid complications due io the 5 volt maximum reverse base-emitter voltage
rating of the 8C107. (This rating
is, incidentally, given as 6 volts in
some data sources.)
VR1 has been previouslv set uo
for the desired stop-start functiori,
with the result th-at. when on-off
switch 33 is closed, the sudden
application ofthe supply causesthe
multivibrator to start. It producesa
loud tone at around 700H2 in the
headphonesand can be causedto
stop bv momentarilv oressine52. If
51 is next pressed,the multifrbrator
commencesto run again as soonas
this push-button is released.
Further stopping and starting can
be achieved by pressing the appropriate push-buttons.
To set up the circuit, VR1 is in-
APPLICATIONS
Apart from its interest, the circuit has a number of practical
applications.It can, for instance,be
used to detect momentarv shortcircuits.in suspectequiprirentby
connectlngthe negatlve rall to one
side of the circuit concernedand
either the base or the collector of
TR2 to the other side. The multivibrator will then either start or
stop when the momentary shortcircuit occurs.The sound from the
headphones,if laid on the bench,
VRt
25m
Lin.
C3
IOOpF
IOVwkg
TRg
Bc ro7
rRl
Bcro7
oI
a,'
F-.,
^t-
2-\b
o o\
\_/.
Fig. 2. A
rnz
BC tO7
Leod-outs
canu!r1::""d
Torkine
SINEWAVE
SIGNALINJECTOR
By R.J. Caborn
: : : , : , t i U f i e f 6 . f # I G f , ., , , r
Resisfors
(All fixed values i watt 70%)
Rl 47k o
R2 4.7ka
R3 470 (t
VRI 100ko pre-setpotentiometer,skeleton
VR2 lko potentiom-eter,
linear
Capacitors
Cl 47uF electrolytic,f0 V. Wkg.
C2 0.01pF plastic foil
CS 0.0221tFplastic foil (seetext)
C4 0.047pFplastic foil
C5 47pF electrolytic,10 V. Wkg.
Transformer
T1-output transformertype LT700 (Eagle)
TransLstors
TRl BC1O7
TR2 BC1O7
Switches
S1 s.p.s.t.tossle
52 s.p.d.t.toggle
Socket
SKl phono or jack socket
RADIO AND ELECTRONICS CONSTRUCTOR
{.'m}".
LT7@
Bottomvicw
5O:5OOUTPUTFROM
THE 555
ByJ. R.Davlcr
M A K I N G T H E 5 5 5 A S O U A R EW A V E G E N E R A T O R
The 555 timer i.c., when employedin its standard astablemultivibrator configuration,appears
in the circuit shownin Fig. 1. In this the capacitor
Cl chargesvia Rl and R2 until the voltageacrossit
via
reachestwo-thirdsof VCC, and then discharges
R2 until the voltage across it falls to one-third
VCC.As such,it is impossiblefor the 555output to
be a square wave b6causethe capacitor has to
chargeiia two resistorsand to dischargevia only
one.
In his article "Headsor Tails?".which appeared
in the April 1977 issue,the auihor desiribed a
methodof modifying 555 circuit operationby adpotentiometerand resistoras in Fig.
ding a pre-set
^potenti6meter
slideris taken positiveof half
Z.fhe
supply'voltage,with the result thaf the length of
th6'charge d6ctionof the multivibrator cylle is
reducedand that of the dischargesectionis increased.The potentiometercan be adjustedsuch
that the 555 oirtput,at pin 3, is a true 50:50square
wave. It should be noted that when the potentiometer has been set up the 555 output will be
50:50whatevervalue,within reason,is givento the
capacitor.(In the previousarticlethe circuit ofFig.
2 offereda frequencyof about lHz, and the component valuesused in it are includedto eive an idea
of the resistancesinvolved.)
r{-}s
^J
L.
555
Top vrcw
+
Rr :
4 7kn:
, lookn
R z i
lOOkn:
470kn
E
)ff
Output
J'
cr r
I
llF
CHECKINGOUTPUT
The 555 output waveform mav be checkedbv
meansof an aciurate oscilloscope
or, more simply,
with the aid of a voltmeter.In the latter case.no
load is connectedto the outout and a voltmeter
connectsbetweenpin 3 of the i.c. and the negative
rail asin Fig. 3. The voltmetercan consistof a multimeter offeringa sensitivityof 10,000o per volt or
better which is switchedto a suitablevolts range.
When the 555 output is low under these conditions it is virtually'at zeropotentialwith respect
to the negativerail. When it is high, it is about 1.2
volts negative of the positive rail, due to the
Dresence of two internal emitter followers in
landem. To set up the potentiometerof Fig. 2 the
output is taken to its high state, by temporarily
connectingpins 2 and 6 to the negativerail, and the
output voltageis noted.The multivibrator is next
allowedto run, and the potentiometeris then set
up so that the voltmeterreadingis preciselyhalf
the noted high output voltage.The 555 output is
then a 50:50 squarewave.
The writer recentlv returned to the question of
obtaininga 50:50 sqirarewave from tne SSS,anA
473
oarallel with R3. In Fie. 5(b) the capacitor is disthargine and the dischargecurrent is that flowing
in R2 minus that flowine in R3. If we now sav that
the two capacitor currenltsof Figs. 5(a) and (b) are
+vcc
+vcc
R E S I S T A N C EV A L U E S
When in Fig. 4 the capacitor charges,charge
current flows into it via Rl and R2 in series,and
via R3. When the capacitor discharges,the dischargecurrent flows into R2, whilst a competing
smailer charse current flows via R3. Bofh th6
charge and d-ischargevoltagesfollow exponential
curves,which arc fairly linear betweenthe limits of
one-third and two-thirds of VCC. Let us assume
that the curves ore linear and then examine the
currents which flow when the capacitor voltage is
exactly one-half of VCC.
In Fig. 5(a) the capacitor is charging and the
chargingcurrent flows via the sum of Rl and R2 in
( R r +R : ) + R e
toC r:txl+x2rx3
(o)
R1
RJ
I
555
k.l
Put
I
icr
Fig. 4. Another
method of obtaining
wave output
a sguara
( R 1+ R 2 ) + R 3
(R1 + R2)R3
1
R3
R1.R2
2
R3
1 _ 1
R2
R3
1 _ 1
R2
R3
1 _ _ 1
R1+R2
R2
R1
R2(R1 + R2)
R3
When R1
R3
2R2(R1 + R2)
R1
R2
4R1
.2R2
(R1+R2)
R1
Thus, if Rl is, say, 10ko and R2 is 50kn , the bbb
1v!!. give a. 50:50 output_when R3 is equal to
600ko . The value- of RB may be siiirilarly
calculated for any other values of Rt and R2.
SPECIAL CASE
A special and very neat case is given when Rl
and R2 have the samevalue,and the equationinvolved is also shown in the inset. As can be seen.
the result is {hat R3 is equal to 4 times Rl. If it is
desiredto make the circuit of Fig. 4 a squarewave
generator, Rl and R2 can be, for instance, each
20ko , whereuponR3 is 80ko .
The writer his checkedout theseresults in practice and has found that the calculatedvalue for R3
was, in all instances,within some27aof that needed for true 50:50 operation.Anv error introduced
by assuminglinear chargeand dischargecapacitor
voltage-curvesis, therefole, of a low oriler. Bearing
in mind the fact that the internal 555 comparatoi
potential divider resistorsmust themselveshave a
fairl.y wide tolerance, theseresults can be of quite
significant help to the 555 circuit designer.
I
HEA'THKIT
LABORATORY
OSCILLOSCOPE O-12U - D. Coxell,17
CaenbyRoad,S. Humberside- to borrow or
buy circuit and or rnanual.
APRIL 1978
O VIETNAM
Hanoi on 645O at 1520,YL with songs,local
music, OM announcerin Vietnamese.This is the
DomesticService1st Programmewhich is scheduled on this channel from 2055 to 1630. Other fiequenciesusedby this serviceare 4944,7375 and
10060. A further channelis that of 3998 but having a slightly differing schedule- from 1045 to
1430and from 2200to 0058.All programmesare,
of course,in Vietnamese.
The DomesticService2nd Programme operates
on 643O, 7415,9987 and on 1O225 ftom 2245
through to 1600, all programmes being in Vietnamese, although there are English language
lessonsfrom 2300to 2315and from 1415to 1430.
Anotherchannelis that of 4995, the schedulebeing from 0930 to 1430 and from 2245 to 0100.
Hanoi on 4944 at 1518,YL with songs,local
music - seeabove.
O THAILAND
. &gaio Thailand, Bangkok,on 4830 at 1583,YL
in Thai followedby local-typemusic at lbg5. With
a -powgrof 10kW, this one operatesfrom 2300 to
1600daily.
. SRI LANKA
Colomboon a measured4902 at 1522.YL with
songsin Sinhala,YL announcer.This is ihe Home
Service1 in Sinhala,having a schedulefrom 1080
to 1715and from 0015to 0230.On full-moondates
the transmitter is continuouslv on the air fiom
0930 to 0230.The power is 10liW.
O NEPAL
Radio Nepal on 50O4.5 at 1511,YL with a
newscast of local events in English. Listed on
5007, this one has a schedulefrom 1150to 1720
and from 0020to 0350.The programmein English
is from 1435 to 1520. The power is 5kW and a
parallel channelis that of 3426.
O BURMA
Rangoonon a measurcd 4724 at 1434, OM in
Burmese,local songsand music. The scheduleis
from 1030to 1500and the poweris 50kW. (Listed
4726).
O CAMBODIA
Phnom-Penhon a measured49O8 at 1455.a
programmeof local music, YL announcer.This is
the Home Servicewhich is scheduledfrom 0400to
0500,1100to 1600and from 2300 to 2400 on this
channel.The power is 50kW.
O VENEZUELA
Radio Sucre, Cumana, on a measured4959 at
0211, OM in Spanish, local-type music, jingles.
Schedule is frorir 100d to 0400'and the bowdr is
1kw.
Radio Bolivar,Ciudad Bolivar,on 477Oat 0150,
guitar music, jingles, songs in Spanish. The
schedule is from 1000 to 0300 and the power is
1kw.
. UGANDA
Kampala on a measured5O26 at 2020, Iocal
music, OM announcer,YL's with songsin typical
local-style. The National Programme has a
schedulefrom 0300to 1130and frbm 1300to 2110
weekdaysand from 0300to 2110on Saturdayand
Sunday.The power is ?.5kW.
O COSTA RICA
Emisora Radio Reloj, San Jose, on a measured
4832 at 0203,YL with soDgs,OM announcer.The
scheduleis around the cloc}"andthe power is 1kW.
Sometimesidentifiesas Radio Capital.
O AFGHANISTAN
Kabul on a measured4774 at 1443,YL with
songs,OM announcer.This is the Home Service1,
476
FORDX LISIENERS
By Frank A. Baldwin
tt*;;,'*,GMf
Information concerning-cladesline
stations may
be of interest to some rea-dersand the hope is thai
even more will be interested after the next few
parrlgraplrshave been read by them.
The "Voice of Lebanon" currently operating on
655O from 0455 to 0930.in Arabic ind from t*tOO
to 2100 in Arabic, Armenian; French and
!!tto-qg_h
English, has_for some time been presenting a
r-t-ewscast
in English at 1745. The station is proPhalangist.
The "Voice of Arab Svria" is reported as
operatingon 6OqO and 9510 from 0b00 to 0600;
0800 to 0900 and from 1800 to 1900.
"Voice of the
One Lebanon" also uses the frequencies6O6O and 9510.
"Voice of the
Peopleof Burma" on 68O4 now
broadcastsin Burmese from 1330 to 1480.
REVERSED TAPE TRANSMISSIONS
Regularreaderswill recall that we dealt with the
subject of reversedtape transmissionsemanating
from Radio leking sbme while ago. To brie{l}
recap, these broadiasts are in Ruisian and thir
channel:quoted may vary up to 10kHz in attempts
to avorclrnterlerence.
For those who would like to 'have a go', the
scheduleis from 0900 to 0955 on 622O and on
826O and from 1830 to 1925 on 5O3O and on
6650.
-Should you considerthe above all a load of fun,
why not t_ryl74g0 at the unearthly hour of 0B0d
(until 0355 if you want to listen to five
programmes,eactra repeat of the first) when your
earswill be assailedbv a reversedtape transrnissionin the SSB mode- and the verv bist of luck to
you!
CURRENT SCHEDULES
O CUBA
"Radio Havana"
has an External Service in
wh.i.ch!h^e English qrogramme for Europe is
radiatedfrom 2010 to-2I40 on 17886. An ev'ening
nrogrammein English to the Americas,often loggl
APRIL 1978
Fieg,iinc,ibs: l{t-{E
THE EAID OF
OSCAR6
By Arthur C. Gee
uNIWnSlrY S 9ffiEi
U O S _ F I " 1 STFE
TL E C O I ' 1 I ' 1 F N D
OSCBR.6TELEITETRY
AFfiERYIEXPERA]URE
3 0
SNIGNT
'INIM
S n T T E R{Y
w
NtGnT
IEI'lPERNTUR
mxlrun
taEEliY
l{00
Fnllm
rs00
c2{,0v1 ?0
s
3 8
$
S.eTTERY {
U O S _ F M S RTTE L E C O I l I 1 F N D
OSCNR-6TELEMETRY
COUNT
ffiY
V(lE
Gigabit
Laser
Communication
R e - c e - na
t dvances in new types of hrgh
speedelectronic circuits have t etpi,fiicientists
at
B-^ell
Systems,U.S.A.,to transmit f,OOO
mittion niis
or rnrormatlon(a nqabit) p.ersecondover a single
laserbea.m.This iJfiur to'fiveli;;]il;
ianabilitv
of previous communication'-meiffi ;-ffj";'.
e.quivalent
to trdnsmitting200 bo"k. ;;;;;cond or a
Irbrary ol' 50,000.volumEsin aboui T"ui
.ririrG.
^*l?^.-11._",ot th,r.s,,a communication system
ot.
:il]?yl"c, ]aser light provid.esthe prosp6ct
'signals
:,TlIllC_ q1," messages.and_ television
srmulraneously
in bundles about 10,000 t'imes
largerthan ls now possiblewith microwaves.
MULTIPLEXING
Until recently,relatively ,,slow" electroniccir_
of transmitting
::;::j:.r,.^:Tplovpa in the.proces.s
lnrormatlon-carrying
signalsoverlaserbeams.ThE
wlcrelyacceptedmethodfor increasinginfbrmation
rares-was to modulate a number of laser
beams
which were then muttipt;*;d;.;;o*Uii",i,
bt6:
tica-I.means. the high speed "i;;;;i;
enablei.nformationstieam'sto b;;;t;;i;."d circuits
elecprior to impre.ssing
th;;;;;-$i;sl;
lu;;.
lllll"r*f
p,l1p_ ll9 expenseand problems inherenl in op_
ucgl .multlplexingare then elimated.
hrgh speedcircuits are comprisedol fbur
^^:91t,.
semrconductor
switchesor gatesfabricatedin thin
APRIL 1978
ltl1
.Four different pulse srreams,
e
a c hTt:r"ltrips.
.
c
a
p
a
b
]
9
^
o
f h a n d l i n g 2 5 0 -m i l l i o n b i t s
(megaDlts)oI lnlormation
lre multiplexedby way
of the gatesinto a singlepulse
streanioftl"" g"igrUit
per secondcap-acity.This pulse stream is" im_
pressedon the laser beam by meansof
"' 'a crystal
device.called an "optical -olut"ior:;.
the .op^tica.lmodulator requires a
,_Ul$ln"tlly1
slgnat
levelof about
30 voltsto function
-bt;';;;Hlil;
el.licientlv.
ttr,"v,oltage
requiredis rggl;d
9lt
"etalon
oescrrDect
as
1unj.ng.'.This is a l.requency
filtering system which
etiriinales aii bu; one lie_
que?c.y- from the laser beam, ,"he.eupo.,
th1
resulting pure optical beam """ U" -ia,rt"t"a
satrstactorilywith only about5 volts sisnallevelai
rne modulator.lt then becomespossiblelbr both
opticaI signals-to inieract efiici entiy
:I._.,tli
the :llgl$
optrc?l.modulator,
and at approximatelythir
3l
sameultra-hrghspeed.
.. Once..modr]latdd,the laser beam acts as a
;;grrf.er." {or tf.q high speed.information signals,
multiplexedsignalsbeingrecovereaUy
ll:S,ltqtn?t
sop-hlstlcated
electroniccircuits at the receivinl
end. Thus, the gigabit laser commu;i;"ii;'ii"fi
enablesa number ol' alieadv verv hieh rate tndividual bit streamsto be cairied-Ji;;T;;""ouslv.
arrd without costly.and comple- "ptl;;i;;;ti;;:
tlon at,the transmittingend.
t
479
SWITCH-SFLECT
ENLARGER TIMEI
This enlarsertimer hasbeendesimedto provide
a ranseof timessuitablefor larsearid smal['which
nrints.
together with a quarter secdnd feature
providesthe precisionnecessarvfor applications
iuch as slideduplication.Time sitting ii by means
of switcheswhich gives high repeaTsetiing accuracy and easyadjustmentin the dark. The actual rangeof the unit is from 0 to 99 and threequarterssecondsin quarter secondincrements.It
can be usedto control an enlargerlamp having a
rating of 150 watts or less.
THE CIRCUIT
The circuit diagramof the unit appearsin Fig. 1
and, as will be apparent from thii,- the desigri is
basedon the popirlar 555 timer i.c. This conirols
the load, i.e. the'enlargerlamp, by way of a triac.
Cl is the timine capacitorand this is normallv held
dischargedby-thri internal transistor in tfie i.c.
whichconnectsto pin 7. Also.the i,c. output.at nin
3, is held low, When 51 is pressed,however,the
output is triggeredhigh and the short-circuit is
tak-enoff C1.t1 commlncesto charseexnonenially throughthe timing resistance.
This resistanceis
actually formed by a network of fixed resistors,
and it is discussedmore fully later on.
When, on pressing31, the 555 output goeshigh,
a gate current is passed to the triac by way of
current limiting resistorR4, and in consequence
the triac turns on. The triac is in serieswith the
mains.supplyand,theenlargcrlamp, and so power
is applied to the lamp via the triac.
As the potentialacrossC1 reachestwo-thirdsof
the supply voltage(assuminga standard555 circuit) the internal flip-flop in the i.c. is triggeredto
its previousstate,and the output at pin 3 goeslow
again,thereby causingthe triac and, in turn, the
enlargerlamp, to be turned off. At the sametime
the internaldischargetransistorin the i.c. turns on
and Cl is rapidly discharged.The circuit remains
in this state until S1 is once more closed.
The lensthof the timins periodis approximatelv
equalto 1.1CR(whereC i6in microfaiidsand R il
in megohms)and so theoreticallythe lengthof the
timing period can be set by choosingappropriate
valuesfor the timing resistanceand capacitance.
In practicethereis a problemheresincethe timing
capacitorwill requirea valuein the orderof tensof
microfaradsand this makesit necessarvto use an
electrolyticcomponent.Unfortunately,electrolytic
capacitorshave wide toleranceson-value, b6ing
typically plus 50% and minus l0% or even more,
whereuponit is impossibleto accuratelyset the
480
bv R.
,.,:.i1,,
, : ' : ,r.i
'li iilr:rilL
lo sr
! ^ s,o.,
RrE
3cz
r{'UTe
1 E
n{-F s
55s
Top vicw
1N
[. Pcnfold
Switch
selection
of timing
periods
precise
affords
repeatability.
The three controls at the top of the panel
select tens of seconds,
seconds and fractions
of
seconds
urr;.c
I
\JMT2
TRt2A/4OO
Lsod-outs
APRIL 1978
IH-SELECTION
IGER TIIWER
d to orovide
malf orints.
'which
ture
tpplications
ts Dymeans
setting acrk. The acand threeIt
:rements,
rp havinga
,.7
by R. A. Penfold
iiiiriiiiljXii:
i.ll..i'.llill
:
ENT$
'oF
::
::'l
rnooM
arsin Fig. 1
he designis
his controls
v of a triac.
irmallyheld
ln the l,c.
ttput, at p,in
owever,the
rt-circuit is
exponenialfesrstance
rs
)d resistors,
Timing
rc3l6lor
network
l.
tt goeshigh,
by way of
,onsequence
ieswith the
nd sopower
po-thirdsof
rrd 555cirtriggeredto
n 3 goeslow
in turn, the
r sametime
i.c.turnson
uit remains
sed.
lroximatelv
rdsand R i.s
lngth of the
lppropriate
apacitance.
elhe timing
er of tensof
ry to usean
electrolvtic
talue,b6ing
evenmore,
lely set the
l_
R2
l*.
Enlorg.r
romp
I
9V
lcr
555
i.,
I'-J
D1
tN400l
) Stort
Rl
D2
tN400l
MTI
f'.
, i't-"
,{u}e
o1-Fs
555
Topvicw
9V
MT2
of the switch-selection
I
I
MTrr;1rG
\-zura
TRt2A/4OO
Lcod-outs
sg
Semiconductors
ICl 555
IRII-_40OV,2A, type TR12A/400
Dl 1N4001
D2 1N4001
Resistors
(All fixed values f watt b% unless otherwise
stated)
'100kn
R1
Switches
R2 10rl
R3
22kn
pre-set
potentiometer,
Q! push-button,pressto close
0.1 watt
,
norlzontal
!! s.p.s.t.toggle
53 d.p.s.t.toggle
R4 560'o I q,611
S.l l-pole l2-way rotary
&5 R13 470ko 27" (9 off, see text)
Rl4-R22 47ka2% (9 off. seetexti
i! l-po!. I2-way rotary
56 3-pole4-way rotary
R23-R25t2ka2Eo (3 off, seeteiti
Miscellaneous
CaDecitors
VeroboxCodeNo. 75-lTgSt{
Cl 1SirFelecrrolvtic,16V. Wke.
3 control knobs
C2 0.22pFtype C280 (Mullard')
Veroboard,0.1in.matrix
CJ a7}pF eleitrolytic, 16V.-iA/k-s.
9 Veropins,for 0.lin. board
Transformer
8-way d.i.l. i.c. socket(seetext)
2 nylon holts and nuts. 4BA
,T1 Mains transformer,secondaryg_0_9Vat
100mA
Mains lead,t:onnecting
wire, etc.
specifiedfor C1.
._ll FiS.-2 the resistorsRb to R13 are each
4,lUka,.whereupon54 selectstiming periods,in
steps.otI0 seconds,,
from zeroto g0 secbnds.This
.Tb.g pp*"r supply is a straightforward unswrtchrs a standard12-wayrotarv componentwith
stablhzedtype using full-waverectification.S3 is
three ways w.iredtogether.iothatihere Iie only ten
[ne on-oil swltch.
etlectrvepositions.If a switchhavingan adjuslable
srop ls u.se.d
thrs can be set for 10_wayopera_
T I M I N GR E S I S T O R S
9.no
tron, althoughit will probably be found more con_
. The circuit of the timing resistornetworkis venrentto removethe end stop altogetherand wire
princi-pte
"iJ t".e i;-;;.y
gp the switch as shown in Fig. Z. TtrJiwit"t .u"
:Iy,lil
ligrl.The
srmple: lt a
4/uko resistor produces a ten second
then
be taken, for instance,fro"mpo.i[lo" g to posi_
timing period then two such-resistors in seri-e.s-wilJ tloll_
t. the quick way round.
twenty
se-cond period, three will nrovide
CIv9.g
rs wlreclrn the sameway as 54, but the nine
JD
a tnlrty. second period and so on. Timing
tinring re_sistors,
R14 to R22,"eachhdul a value ol
periods of one second, two seconds,three seconds- 4/Kn .
5b thus selectstiming periodsof zeroto 9
etc., can be provided by a series of 47kn resistors.
secondsin 1 secondsteps.Thl'same remark, .orrQuarter -secondincrements are_then given by a
cerningthe end-stopand type of switchwhich liave
series of 11.75ko resistors. These ialues are
been made wrth respectto 54 apply also to Sb.
s a t i s f a c t o r y ,i n p r a c t i c e , w i t h a t i m i n g e l e c l r o l v t i c
switch, 56, in combinationwith
^ lhe re_maining
capacitor having the nominal value of l5l F
R23 to R25, seiectsperiods'"f ""r", "ri"_quarrer,
TENS
FRACTIONS
resistor network.
SIZC.
30
j
I
54
lTdiq
o' s t
23
I
in mm
All dimensions
Fig. 3. Drilling details for the front panel. The
hole diameters shown for St, 52 and 33 may
naed to be modified for some components
483
: ' (
o
t
o
o
o
C3
C2
o
T; sccondory
o
0
ia'''-l
f f i r G o o
-lPo
o
MTI
0
o
68A cl.or
Fig.4. A Veroboard panal provides a satisfactory means of mounting inost of the small components.
This diagram shows the component and copper sides of the board
484
'7.&: .,.*lrfni,h
f&s' $#ncaC$
yvhiih are mounted an the
W#$t, ntn:al,#. the /,lfrft. :f,;s
tlventy-ong tim ing resistorc
cq be ican mointad on the
tagt of the rotary gwitchds
spacing washers being fitted over the bolts to ensure that the Veroboard underside is adeouatelv
clear of the inside surface of the box. The spacin"g
washers are necessarv as the board would
otherwise be distorted and would crack when the
nuts were tightened. Since the bolt heads rvill be
accessibleat the outside of the case thev must be
earthed, and this earthing connection is made via
the two solder tags shown in Fig. 4. The tags are
connected together by an insulated link wire, ancl
then connecfto the earth point on the front panel
by way of a flexible insulated lead. These two u'ires
and the two leads from points "E" and "F" in Fis.
4 must be suitable for m'ains voltages and currenti.
The Veroboard panel is mounted well to ihe rear o1
the case, beneath 54 and S5, ensuring that it will
have adequate clearance from the components ori
the front panel when the latter is mounted in place.
A s c a n b e s e e nf r o m t h e p h o t o g r a p h o f t h e i n i e r i o r ,
the board is oriented such thaf th'etwo 6.tsA,mounting holes are nearer the mains transformer.
The transformer is mounted near the end oI'the
board, beneath S6. It should also be close to the
back of the case,to ensure clearance from the {ront
panel components. It has to be rnounted bv nreans
of two 4BA nylon bolts and nuts. Metai birlts and
nuts are not recommended here as these woulc{
necessitate having the transformer mountins
clamp earthed. The insulation betrveen secondar!
APRIL 1978
485
sl
lzll |ti\r
Enlorger lcod
l-t
\t
A
Component poncl
Fig. 5. lllustrating
the components
and wiring on the front panel. The timing
directly to the rotary time selection switches
486
IOR
OP-AMP
PRECAUTIONS
By R. V. Smithson
fl
Fig. f . A simple op-amp voltage amplifier
circuit, in which the gain is controlled
by the
values of the two resistors.
'Ihese
are both nice simple circuits which are
quite easy.to ynderstand,-andin which voltage*But
gain
is determined by the values of two resistois.
one has a serioushidden snagwhilst the other has
not.
The circuit without the snagis that shownin Fig.
1. It is.fr9.egf problems becairsethe non-invertinlg
input is tied securely to earth and no unwanteci
voltagefeedbacktoit from the output due to stray
capacitancescan take place. If theie are any stra-y
capacitancesbetweent-heoutput and the invertin-g
input they could in some conceivablecases
possiblyaffect-fr_equency
response,but they could
not cause_instabilitybecause
the two circui[ points
are out of phase with each other.
WIDE OPENINPUT
Not so with the circuit of Fig. 2. In this circuit
the ,non-invertinginput is wide open for positive
feedback from the op-amp ou-tput vid stray
capacitances,and if the resistancebetweenthe in"put and earth is high the circuit is quite likely to
giveinstability and oscillationif specialcareisnot
taken.
neffb
OtfEot
nullNl
Inv.input
input
Nen-lnv.
=
9upply
NC
N,
NC
5'lpply+
Output
O t f s fn u l lN a
N.C.
'"'::J'ilifj
n., H E
N.e
+
Eupply
O!tBut
Oftq.tnullNP
iluJl,l
[_J
74r TOPVrErV
l.C,pinrroldaradio copparrtrlpr
As is shown in Fig. 3, the output and noninverting input pins of the popular 741 (and
similar op-amps) are oppositeeach other, both
in the 8 bin aird in the'f+ pin d.i.l. versio'ns.
II',
say, you mount either of thesei.c's on a piece of
Veroboardwith a sinsle cut in the coDDerstriD
betweenthe two pinsl don't be surprii6d if th'e
capacitanceag.ross.
the .tw.o copper strip ends is
sufficientto allow instability to occur when using
the circuit of Fig. 2. A useful techniquehere is t6
cut the strip at bofh holesbetweenfhe pins concernedand removethe cut copper edees.so that
there is a goo_d
gap betweenthd two c-opperstrip
ends.Fig. 4 showsthe idea.
B-ut the best approach of ali, if' a particular
applicationdllows-youto use eitherthe'circuitof
, 7-;-\
" fF
"
" )T-i-
-----*,
outputpln
"
,-;_(
1 o
"
"f-v;=
---_*Non-tnv,
Input pin
ELECTFICAT
A N D E L F C T R O N I CD R A F TN
I O . B y H e r b c rW
t .
(
g
+
p
a
g
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t
,
R l c h t e r2,8 6
2 3 5 t 1 9 0 m m . x 7 $ l n . )P u b l l s h ebdy J o h n
Wlley& Sona,Ltd,Prlcef8,25,
T h l ab o s k ,w r l t t o nb y a n A m o r l o r na u t h o r ,l : l n t d 6 J o h n W l l c y E l e e t r o n lTee eh n o l o g yS a r l e rt n
w h l e he h a p t r ar r el a l do u t r a t h a rI n t h e f o r m o f l e m o n re o m p l c t ew l t h " a a l f ' e v a l u a t l oqnu s t l o n r " ,
e e f o r ep r o c e e d l ntgo t h n 6 x t
T h e r a a d e r h o u l di a t l ; f y h l m r l ft h e t h s o a na n r w rt h 6 s q u a s t l o n b
e h d p t rT
, h o b o o k r t a r t r w l t h l R . t r u m n t r n d d r a w l n gt c c h n l q u e al,e t t a r l n g b, l o e k e n d l o g l e
d l a g r a m ra n d a l a c t r o n l c o m p o n g nrty m b o l r ,t h o n p r o e a a dtrh r o u g hb a a l eel r o u l t oe, c h o m a t l a
end
w l r l n ga r a o m b l yd l a g r a m rt o p r l n t o dc l r o u l ta n d l n t o g r a t c de l r e u l td r a w l n g r ,N 6 x tf o l l o w p l c t o r l a l
, l e e t r l c abl u l l d l n gc o R t t r u o t l o nw l r l n g d l a g r a m s I, n d u s t r l ael o n t r o lw l r i n g
a : a o m b l yd r a w l n g e o
d l a g r a m ea, n dg r a B h ;e n d eh a r t t .T h o b o o kc o n c l u d ew
s l t h 2 2 p a g c eo f a p p a n d l c a a
e ,g l o s s a r ya n d
an lndex.
T h c a t u d e nd
t r a u g h t e m asnh o u l dh a v aa r a a l o n a b l eu n d r s t a n d l nogf h o w t h e d e v l c e sa n d c i r '
c u l t t h e d r a w rw o r k ,a n dt h e b o o kg l v e rv a r yh a l p f uIl n f o r m a t l oInn t h l er e e B e cTt .h e r em a y b e a f e w
a m a l la n d r e l a t l v a luy n l m p o r t a Rdtl f ' f a r o n c cba t w 6 nt h c A m c r l e a na B B r o a cahn dt h a t p r e v a l e nItn
t h e U , K , ,b u t t h t s d o n o t d f f a c tf r o m t h e u r c f u l n e eor f t h e b o o k ,I n t h e e c c t l o no n o r t h o g r a p h l e
d s b l n gt h 6 o n l y B r o j c c t l o n
d r a w l n g t, h l r d a n g l p r o J o e t l olnr p r a a e n t a a
e m p l o y e dw, h l c h l s v c r y
p r o b a b l yt h e a r I n t h U , S ,w h a r c e n g l n e e r l nfgo l l o w a6 o m m o n - E 6 n sr eu l a g ,
T h e b o o k w l l l b o f s u n d t o b e o f v a l u et o t h e c t u d o n tI n l t s s u b J e eat n d l t i 6 b a s e do n a v e r y
s u c e e s c f u6ll e t r o n l edar a u g h t l n E
o u r t 6t a u g h ta t t h c a u t h o r ' rc o l l e g e .
N E W N E gC O L O U R
T E L E V I S I OSNE R V I C I NM
G A N U A LV, o l u m e
3 , B y G o r d o nJ . K l n g ,T , E n g , ( C , E ,Rl ,,)T, e c h . E nA
g,M
, ,l.E,R,E,,
F , l , p , n , EF,,,l , s , T , cF, , s , c , T , E
M, , A , E , SM, ,, R , T , S
23
, 9 p 6 g 6 82i 4 6 X
1 8 6 m m(,9 f x 7 f l n , )P u b l l s h E
bd
y N e w n e s = B u t t e r w oPr trhl escf, 7 , 8 0 .
T h i sb o o ki c t h c t h i r di n a s e r l e sw h i o hp r o v i d e o
e o m p l c t cE e r v i e i nign t o r n a t i o no n c o l o u rt e t e v i s l o nr c e e i v e rrs t e i l Bidn t h U , K , e
, n dl t d e e l rw l t h l c a d i n gr e e e l v e rwsh i e hw e r el a u n h
e e dI n 1 9 7 4
e n r l 1 9 7 5 . I n d o i n gs o i t d c s f f l b e ef u l l yo o l i d = c t e d
t ec s i g n 6t o g t h rw i t h t h y r i s t b pr o w c rs u p p l t e s
s u e ha s a r e e r n B l o y eIdn t h T h o r n9 0 0 0 e h a g e l ES,e r v i e i n g
d t d i l sc o v r6 v f yi l r i B e c ti ,n c l u d t n g
d l l g n f f i n tc,o n v r g e n ean d a l l o t h r e d l u s t m c n t 6 ,
t h e d e s l g n sd e J l tw l t h a 1 6b y R a n k = B u e h = M u r pl lnl tya, eh i , l T 1 ,B & 0 , D e o c aT, h o r na n r iP h i l t p s ,
, i c t u r et u b e ca n r lq u t b k - v t e i o n
A m o n g s t h 6 f o l l o w l n gf i v ea p p e n d l c at r et w o w h i e hd e a tw l t h p , l , l p
p l c t u r Et u b 6 s
T h l sb o o k w l l l a p p e a n
l o t o n l y t o t h q u a l l f l dg e r v l e e
c n g l n e abr u t s t s ot o t h e s t u d e n rt,h e s 6 r v i c l n ga p p r c n t l c ea n d t o t h a f f i E t r rt re l e v l c l s nc n t h u s l a s t ,
B E G I N N E R ' SG U I D E T O R A D I O , E l g h t h E d l t l o n .B y G o r d o nJ ,
K i ' . t 9T, , E n g , ( C , E .Rl ,e) ,g . T e c h . E nAg, .M, , l , E , R , E
F , ,S , C , T , E
F . ,l . S . T , C . ,
M , A . E , SM
. , , R . T . S2.4 Op a g e s1, 9 0 x 1 1 5 m m ,V + x 4 { i n , )P u b l i s h e d
by NewnesTechnicalBooks.Pricef2,75.
a
T h i sc i g h t he d i t l o no f " B e g l n n e r 'G
u i d eT o R a d i o "h a sb e o nc o m p l c t a l yr e w r i t t c nb y G o r d o nJ ,
K i n gt o t a k ei n t h e l a t o s td e v e l o p m e n tI sn t h e f i e l do f r a d l ot e c h n o l o g yl t, i s i n t c n d c df o r t h e r e a d e r
w h o h a s v i r t u a l l yn o t e c h n i c akl n o w l e d g ea b o u tt h e s u b j e c ta, n d i t s t a r t sr i g h ta t t h e b e g i n n i n gb y
d e a l i n gw i t h e l e c t r o nf l o w , m a g n e t i s ma n d b a s i ce l e c t r i c i t yl ,t t h c n c a r r i c so n t o r a d i os i g n a l s ,
p r o p a g a t i o nr ,e c e p t i o nt,r a n s m i t t epr r i n c i p l e a
s n d r e c e i v epr r i n c i p l e sI ,n t h e s l a s t t w o c a s st h e
r e a d e ri s t a k e na l l t h e w a y t o p u l s ec o d em o d u l a t i o a
n n dt o s t e r e ot r a n s m i s $ i oann d r e c e p t i o nT, h e
b o o k t h e n t u r n st o c o m p o n n t sv,a l v e s s, e m i c o n d u c t o a
r sn d i n t e g r a t e dc i r c u i t sa, f t e rw h i c h t w o
f i n a l c h a p t e r sa r e d v o t dt o t h m i c r o p h o n ep, i c k u pa n d l o u d s p e a k e a
r ,n d t o m o d e r n r a d i o
receivers.
T h e r ei s a m i n i m u mo f m a t h e m a t i casn dt h t e x t i s w r i t t e ni n t h e c l e a rl u c i dm a n n e fro r w h i c h
M r , K i n g ,a p r o l i f i cw r i t e r o n e l e c t r o n i c si s, j u s t l yr e n o w n e dT. h e r ea r e p l e n t vo f c l e a rd i a g r a m s ,
t o g e t h e rw i t h a f w p h o t o g r a p hosf e q u i p m e nat n d c o m p o n e n t sV. a l v e sa r e b r i e f l yr c f e r r e dt o i n
o n e s e c t i o no f t h e b o o k ,b u t o n l y b e c a u s et h e y r e p r e s e ni tm p o r t a nrt a d i op r i n c i p l e as n d b e c a u s e ,
b e i n gr e l a t i v e lsyi m p l et,h e y h e l pt h e r e a d e tro m o r er e a d i l yu n d e r s t a ntdh e s i m i l a fru n c t i o n sc a r r i e d
o u t b y t h e s e m i c o n d u c t odre v i c e sw h i c h h a v es u p e r s e d etdh e m ,T h e b o o kw i l l b e p a r t i c u l a r layp n r e c i a t e db y t h e n e w c o m e rw h o s e e k st o a c o u i r e[ 1 6 r q , 1 r , r 1i ,,'1 ,1 r r i t h n r t or r n e x t r l o r oacrle a ,
Al,llll, l$7r{
CLANDESTINE RADIO
by Ron Ham
. Oneoj.our readers,Dave Logan, G4EZF,of Motlram, Uheshlre, came across the transmitter_
receivershown in the photographsin a local radio
shop. Being interestedin darfime equipment he
cogld not resist the pleasureof adding it to his
collection.
TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER
"X" set_is
inscribed ..Type A, Mk
__Ibi. bland
III, SerialNo. MCL". It weighs8 lbs.,m6asuresgi
!y Z* by S{in. deep,and hai a total of tive t;tt;d.
Ihree ol theseare in the receiversectionand two in
the ,transmitter;.ttre -receivervalves are a iQ?
and two ?H7's, whilst thosein the transmitter are a
7H7-and a 7Cs. These valves "i" .i-Gito
those
used in the now-famous"82" radio, describedin
"The Set In
The Suitcase"in the Maich 19??issue
of Radio & Electronics Constructor.
Rear view of the set. At bottom left are four
"llypu
"metal"
ractifiers of tha type usod in the
A" set has two tiequency ranges
. _Thel94o's. thase being patt of the multi-voltage
identrlied by ttre colours blue and'red, ihe bl-"rr"
power supply section.
rangeextendingfrom 3.2 to E.2MHz and the red
range trom 5.2 to 8.5MHz. 'l'here is an internal
power un-r!jor opjrration on various a.c. supplies
- G4EZF is a low power enthusiast, and he recentbetween100 and 240 volts.
lf y_.gCthe set for a 2-way c.w. contact with
944H.F in nearby Droylsden. He was delightedto
find that this old 8 watt wartime rie coilld still
m4e a contact,and with only a curtaii rail aerial.
The earlier article desciibing the ,,82" set
pro.duced-awelcomeresponsefroir Dick Rollema,
E*ditor -of Electron, the official -journal
o r g a n i of
s a tthe
ion,
Nederlands amateur radio
V:E.R.O.N. Amongst other points Dic"kstatesthat
"Quite a few
Dutchmenweri trained bv the S.O.E.
and parachuted over Holland durins fhe German
occupation.Most-of them were accoirpaniedby a
radiooperatorand a radio set,presumablva .B2tor
similar piece of gear". The S:O.E.were-ofcourse
the Special Operations .8)xecutive,whose agents
operatedin occupiedEurope.
As a resultof subsequent
correspondence,
copies
of the two accompanyingphotographshave been
sentto Dick Rollemafor publicaiionin Elect-on.It
is hopedthat this joint eflort, both in the U.K. and
The front panel of the 'Type A" transmitterin Holland, will result in a reader contactingthe
receiver. The motar is scaled O-75mA. and
therd are two sockets for a crystal, presumabty
author with somet'urthergen on this intriguinf and
a IOX type.
mysteriousset from the last World War.
I
RADIO AND ELECTRONICS CONSTRUCTOR
'ilcilE$
mEwGoffiE
FCIm
N O U G H T - P ON
I T - O NE
B y F. Bowden
Some tips on the use of a popular home-constructor product
F-l
i'
ffi
APRIL 1978
Shouldcr{
,,/
----'-
'--
\ 'nios
/
--
491
-;---1
_
. \l
"
bridging the gap. The generalappearanceof a correctly cut strip is shown in Fig. 2.
In addition to Veroboards there are also
Verostrips.Theseare piecesof Veroboardon which
the manufacturerhas alreadyremovedthe copper
from the centre, as shown-in Fig. 3, which'illustratespart of a 0.1in. Verostrip.Theseare excellentfoi quick assemblieswhen'vou haven't the
time to pl-an out a proper Verbboard layout.
becauseeachsectionof stfip can be used like the
tags on a double-rowtagboard.With the 0.1in.
Verostrip,you can alsosoldera d.i.l. integratedcircuit to the board so that its two rows of pins straddle the central gap.
I . C .H O L D E R S
And now we come to an operationwhich manv
newcomersapproach with sbme trepidation: th-e
actual solderingof a d.i.l. integratid circuit to
0.1in.Veroboard.Probablv the b6st advicefor the
beginnerhere is to use an i.c. holder. The i.c.
holder is solderedto the Veroboard.and the integratedcircuit is then pluggedinto the i.c. holder.
Two advantages
accruefrom this approach.First,
the i.c. doesnot have the solderinsifon
applied ro
-damagdd
its pins and so is not liable to be
by excessiveheat. Second,if there is a connectionerror
all you have lost is an i.c. holder. It is possibleto
removea d.i.l. integratedcircuit from Veroboard
after all its pins have been solderedto the copper
The length
Fig. 4. The unhappy result of carelessly removing a d.i.l. integrated circuit from an i.c. holder
BOARD LAYOUT
If you have the time to make up a good
Veroboardlayout on paper beforeembarkingon a
circuit designof your own,this will giveyou greater
pride and pleasurein the finishedproject.Squared
paper is useful here, and you can get this from a
number of sources,.ofwhich probibly the most
convenientfor the constructorwho doesnot have
access to normal drawing materials are the
children'sschoolexercisebookswhich are sold bv
Woolworths. Opening
out the centre staplei
"out
enables you to take
squared double p-ages
measuringabout 12 by 8in. You then work out
your Veroboardlayout,assumingthat the intersections of the ruled lines on the paper represent
holes.It is necessaryto start off by drawing the
componentswhich will be mountedin light pdncil,
so that errorscan be quicklv erased.Cuts at holes
can be representedby croises.After the pencil
roughhasbeen succesifullycompleted,the iayout
can-bedrawn in on top of'the pencil using a blue
ball-pointpen for componentsand wires,and a red
ball-point pen for the crosseswhich stand for the
cuts in the strips. Give the ink about a quarter of
an hour to becomereally dry, and you then rub off
the original pencil markings.
RAT)IO ANI) EI,EC'IRONICSCONSTRUCTOR
ttid,"t3fffil:
r i
.Oiic,:q11{,#:
:N;|t,ffil:
h,
,:,
9.,;';**:,:h;.fii|:;
t.rll
f,:.-# .:ftih
,,$t':iidr
,i,lli,:&':
MAIL ORDER
P R O T E C T I O NS C H E M E
The publishersof this magazinehave siven to the
Director General of Fair Trading an unilertaking to
refund monev sent bv readers in resoonseto riail
order adve.rtiiements-placed
in this malazine by mail
order traders who fail to supplv sodds or iefund
money and who have becomeihe-su'biectof liouidation. or bankruptcy proceedings.Theie refunds are
made voluntarily and are subiect to proof that oav_
ment was made to the advertlser fof eoodsord'er6d
through an advertisement in this m"agazine.The
arrangementdo.esnot apply to any failuie to supply
goodsaclvertlsedrn a catalogueor direct mail solicita_
tion.
F#*$n#a##*#uf
"Direct response
advertisements,displav or
postal bargainswhere cash has to beient in
advanceof goodsbeing delivered."
Classifiedand cataloguemail order advertisingare
excluded.
DRIttS CONTINUES
FORCORDLESS
DEMAND
For sometime, battery
- poweredhedgetrimmers
have been aviilable; nbwadays there are also
brands of cordless drills tha[ are powered !v
cells. In the earlv
i".ii"**Ute-niittet-caamium
a hedge.trimmerand
Lid i''t'oduced
;ili;;:SXiL
"power p9ck".which could
separate
;d;ilt';ith;
"power
be fixed to the operator's belt, these
reand
;;.k;", however, were soon exhaustei
Continuous
time'
rechargeing
;;i;;d'u ,retv long
in a better concentratichnical res6arch-resulted
po*"r
1976, almost simul-:
around
and
of
iion
taneouslvthree different brands of new batte-ry
d"iiG A;" onto the market; one of thesewas the
SKIL tool which is in fact a drive-r-drill as it turns
clockwiseand anti-clockwise.
The applications are numerous - .aoart from
use on boats, caravans'and in lhq g-arthe obvio^tis
d.n. , -attet researchby SKIL has revealedthat
ouii. " iew professionalsalso like to work with a
c'otdleisdtill; for exampleon-thedisassembly.a.nd
- ;at"t repait - asseniblyof housingsof washing
machines,refrigerators etc.
The compacttesignand lightweightmodel2006'
sho*n in the photogtrph,can be carriedanywhere'
OPENER
D OOR
GARAGE
t{EWRADIO-CONTROLIED
door opener,.which
A new radio-controlledgarage.
alsoacts as a securitvprecaution,is now betngtntroduced bv the llabs Companv Ltd" of 32
LetchworthDrive, Bromley,Kent to electricaland
y*
I
I,
radioautomatic
The new Haos NuTone
controlled garage door opener. ln response to a
signal, it has the facility to not onlY open a
heavy garage door, but also to turn on the light'
the garage and to close and
thus illuminating
then securelY lock the door.
APRIL 19?8
n
0ul:
0r
LOW COST
CAPACITANCE
BRIDGE
l,ltttttuF
'h ln nu tlmo at all, All wo
d rmell
n'eed an d,f. orclllator,
rrlarlleor woodenbox to mouRte
thtlr
iewoddDdrlFIn, a ferrlterodanda
it'i,;tuxHtrriitiitfnultrd.urlng
rtnnll { wBtt ferlrtf,fr,lutne(l l0rltttl
radlo,"
w u r h t h c y , t e n d e d rfldlum'wdve
F
e
t
v
l
r
|
n
E
n
,
r
r
t
n
d
l
arrlrtant'
to
hlr
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vanlrhod
exprerrlon
ttlck'*hrrred
t
m
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.
.
e
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)
r
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thern?"
with
wrrrnE
hnmedlatelv,
" l t ' r t h e w a i t h e l r v a l u P rn r e
r r r r r t e r t [ rW
, heh nrlt lmmedletely
l;N;w yiu're talklttg,SnlthY,"
werp I'fequently
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w
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bui the
iiniui.ti the'letters
generato.r
(Fie.
1),
signal
a,l'.
it,
an
amine
nretcrs,
numller which
smudged
Preceded
t h e n i w a s c o m P l e t e l Yu n '
decipherable.
"fiave you got many otherslike
t-"''iA
his?"
drrzenup to now,"
coupleof"There
are ceveral
renlied Dick.
iroiei iutt of loose silvered micas
ana f te.p bumPinginto thesebadl v m a r k e do n e s - a ltl h e t i m e ' "
CAPACITOR VALUES
thoy
relinhedthln nt'tlvity elthtrugh.
Iroth hnd to atlttrlt prlvately that lt
w n n l o t t [ n v e r d u e ,I t t t h e h d t o f
I(rs c0Ns'rRtlcl'l'oR
R A I ) I 0A N I ) ELFIC'TR0N
NulI
indicoto.
Cr Ce
cz- ct
'";ie
(b)
(o)
Nul I
indicotor
xl
K3
-R2= -H4
(c)
Rr-cz
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(d)
To lOOn resistor
To negotivc roil
.,,
lnsloting topc
r"*it)a
Fig. 5. Details
ferrite
a', 3la'
rod winding
NULL DETECTOR
"I've finished wiring up the
bridge circuit," called out Dick
from his side of the Workshop.
Smithy walked over to Dick's
bench again. The bridge components were neatly mounted and
wired up on the erstwhile plastic
lunch box. Dick had also mounted
the oscillator tagboard on one side
of the box so that the leads from it
to the bridge were around 2{ inches
long. The two battery leads now
pasied under the open edgesof the
box at the bottom. Smlthy was
pleasedto seethat his assistgnthad
fitted a pointer knob to the potentiometer spindle.
"Very good," he commended.
"We'll now couple up the null
detector to the bridge, and we do
this with about 2 feet of ordinary
twin flex. Are aII the mica
capacitorsyou've got there badly
marked?"
"No," said Dick, "only about a
third of them."
"Good," replied Smithy. "Well,
you find one for me which has a
2 l t t w i nt l c x
l:i
.,
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tarminols
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"Right," he announcedbriskly.
"That ferrite rod winding of mine
should be resonatingsomewhereat
the low frequency end of the
medium wave band. Let's seeif we
can pick it up on this set."
H6 connectedoscillator batterv
clips to the PP9 battery, switcheil
on the radio and held it so that its
internal ferrite aerial was close to
and oarallel with the null indicator
ferrite rod. Tuning carefully,he was
able to pick up the tone oi the oscillator at about 500 metres on the
receiverscale.
"Blow me," gaspedDick as he
w a t c h e d u n b e l i e v i n g l y ." W h a t ' s
this, black magic or something?
We've got an audio frequency oscillator here. not an r.f. one!"
"True," agreed Smithy, "but as
I've already demonstratedto you,
our oscillator generatesharmonics
which extenil well above the
medium wave band. That oscillator
is producing voltage spikes at
around 700H2and theseare shockexciting rhe tuned circuit given by
the ferrite rod winding and the
220pF capacitor into producing
499
o.4
o.2
tig:|t';Ai::,
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POTENTIOMETER
CAPACITANCE
RESISTANCE
MULTIPLIER
(OHMS}
pa:
"aies *a,,*irqtiioiffig,
eato havet
ffid.uitry
50
100
200
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.1
o.2
o.4
o.5
o.6
o.8
1.O
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.O
rko
?"
"If
C O M P L E T EC I R C U I T
Smithy returned to his bench
whilst Dick fitted a temporarv
-poten-paper scale to the bridge
tiometer. It occurrecl 6 Smithv
that, since the capacitancebridg-e
had now entered the Workshdp
inventory of test equipment, it
deserved-to be recorciedin fittine
fashion. Accordingly, he drew ouI
its complete circuit, embellishing
its hitherto unidentified resistors
and capacitorswith proper F "ld
U n , u m b e r sa n d g i v i n g i t t h e
accoladeof an on-off switch. He
then put the circuit in a drawer in
his bench.(Fig. i0.)
Behind him, contented sounds
indicated that Dick's calibration
yas proceedingsatisfactorily.
Smithy resumed-hissortingout of
reslstors.
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{BOOK
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Leod-outs
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:':r.r:':': t:lr:,''lrl'lr:
iililiiiiiiiti,,iLi::rtlil:rl;irri:l.::ii'rlji:liiilrll.,'i:i
"Hey, Smithyl"
"Hallo!"
"You're a crosswordfan.
aren't
vou?"
- '3J
am."
"Well. here's a clue
then.
'Overloadedpostman'."
" 'Overloaded postman'?
Just
that?"
"That's right. 'Overloadedpostman'."
Smithv frowned.
"How-manv letters?"
Dick chucliled.
"Millions of them!"
I
hndlSmd,
Dffit*lqlmilg$lz
oprcs
iill
l:a:i
i]liii
By frecorder
ffi
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
' '-'-
'Pp'\
-,
."'''nt
'*"Fwl --1
o- .,
*
$-*$
M E T H O! D
"
pentoxide
Vanadium
thermotrigger
switches
manufactured by Lee Green
Precision
lndustries. These
two-tem
i n a I d evi c es exh i b it
an abrupt drop in resistance
at tha transition
temperature,
and are particularly
suitahle for controlling
cooling. sYstems and tha prevention
of overheating
in
electrical
and
electronic
equipment.
TEMPERATURE
SWITCHES
Solid statedevicesappearalsoin
the secondphotograph,thesebeing
thermotrigger temperature
operatedswitchesmanufacturedby
Lee Green Precisiun Industries
Ltd., Grotes. Place, Blackheath,
London SE3 ORA.
The temperature sensing
material in the switches is
vanadium pentoxide,the resistance
of which changes abruptly from
high values at low temperatureto
low valuesat high temperature.The
devicesillustrated are intended for
operation in the range of 50'C to
80"C. The temperature coefficient
of the vanadium pentoxide
employedis about -5% in the pretransitionregion,-8% in the transition region and -20% in the posttransrtronreglon.
The thermotrisger devices are
particularlv suit;ble for control
applicationsin electronic equipment, water temperature control,
fusing circuits and battery
overchargeprevention. One especiallvinterestingapplicationis in
the controlof water coolingsystems
for petrol engtnes to achieve.low
fuel consumotion.
As the d-evicesare solid state
there are no mechanical contacts
and therefore no problems
associated
with bounce,arcing and
switchingtransients.Also, circuitry
is simplified.As can be seen,the
s w i t c h e sa r e a v a i l a b l e i n t r r o
:i:
APRIL1978
..:s
\s
C U R R E N TT R A N S F O R M E R S
For some reason we normallv
tend to look upon iron-cored
transformersas alternating voltage
convertingdevices.We may, for example, have a mains transformer
with a 240 volt primary and a 24
volt secondary,and we say that this
is a 10:1 step-downtransformer. If
we apply 240 volts a.c. to the
primarv we will obtain 24 volts a.c.
it the iecondarv.
But such a c6mponentmay also
be used as a currenrf step-down
transformer. Should we cause a
current of 1 amp to flow through
the secondarywe will be able to
draw a current of 0.1 amp from the
primary. This is quite a legitimate
use for an iron-cored transformer
and is sometimesemployed in the
alternating current ranges of the
more expensivemultimeters.
The fact that a transformer can
be usedfor transformingcurrentsis
pretty easyto understandifwe look
upon it as a component having
100% efficiency. Continuing with
our 10:1step-downtransformerand
assuming 100% efficiency, there
will be no loss of power in the
transformeritself. In conseeuence.
-to
if we apply 240 volts a.c.
the
primary and connect the 24 volt
secondarvto a circuit which draws
I amp frbm it, the power delivered
by the secondarywill be 24 watts.
The same amount of power, at 240
volts, is applied to the primary,
whereuoon the orimarv current
must b6 0.1 amp. Thus, a current in
the prinrary of 0.1 amp producesa
curr'entin ihe secondaiyof1 amp.
A transformer wor[s in boih
directions and it follows that if we
feeda current of 1 amp through the
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709 (TO5). 741 (DlL-8) Op.amps 3Op;
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55p; 5+: 45p Nicad rechargeabletphysically equiv. to zinc-carbon types: AAA
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mobils aorisls,s.a,c.dctaila.
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