Question No.

1
What do you mean by Focus Group Discussion? Explain the key elements of a focus
group
Explanation of Focus Group Discussion
The purpose of focus group discussions is to gain knowledge about a particular
topic or need by interviewing a group of people directly affected by the issue. Focus
group data can be used to collect information for many purposes, such as conducting a
need assessment or evaluating a program. Below are brief pointers regarding the why
and how of focus groups.
Key Elements
Group Size
Focus groups are usually pretty small to allow participation from all members.
One study says that the recommended number of people per group is usually six to ten
but some groups go as high as fifteen.
Time
Researchers generally agree on fixing a period of 1 to 2 hours. This time allows
for discussion but also accounts for potential fatigue that can set in with longer sessions.
Location/Set-up
The place where the focus group congregates is not one of the most important
aspects of applying focus group techniques. A room, with comfortable chairs, in which
people sitting around a table can talk and keep visual contact with each other is
considered good enough to develop a discussion. To avoid negative or positive
associations with a particular site, building, or location, however, neutral locations can be
helpful.
Group composition
The main composition issue with focus groups is that the members have the
defined characteristics that the research requires. So for at least one criterion the group is
homogenous, but may not be in many other ways. Usually focus group organizers avoid
using participants that know each other or the moderator. Diversity in the group is
desirable as extremely homogenous groups may produce redundant discussion.
Design
The good design will include not just attention to the framing of the questions but
also to strategies and tools for triggering good discussions, such as using scenarios, case
histories, visualization exercises and other methods. The design will also allow for time
for check ins, ground rules, possible breaks, as well as time for the consent forms and
other logistics. The design phase will also consider issues such as childcare, and food. If
there are focus groups being conducted in multiple languages or if there will be
translation, these issues are addressed in the design phase.

Facilitation Process

Focus group moderating requires skills and knowledge of the topic. There are
processes in the planning/design that can aid facilitation but a good facilitator should be
at least capable of creating a relaxes atmosphere in which people can freely talk.
Ethics
Focus groups are a form of social science research and face the same ethical
issues of most other social science methods. All participants must sign a consent form,
and that form should be clear about the scope and intent of the project and the right of
participants to withdraw. During the focus groups only first names should be used. While
the confidentially by the research team should be assured, there is no way to control the
confidentially by the participants. Participants should be encouraged to keep the content
of the focus group confidential but there is no way to enforce this practice. It must be
clear that participants cannot be guaranteed to have confidentially.
Recording data
Focus groups are recorded in some way, and audio recording is usually
considered less intrusive than video recording or another persons direct observation.
Sometimes a separate note-taker is used though a second person can act as a possible
influence on participants.
After focus group
Data should be labeled with time, date and location of the focus group and
compiled consistently according to the research design

Question No. 2
Discuss the concepts involved in testing of hypothesis. Also discuss the steps involved
in testing the hypothesis
Concepts involved in testing of hypothesis
A p value is the probability of obtaining a sample outcome, given that the value stated in
the null hypothesis is true. The p value for obtaining a sample outcome is compared to the
level of significance.
The test statistic is a mathematical formula that allows researchers to determine the
likelihood of obtaining sample outcomes if the null hypothesis were true. The value of the
test statistic is used to make a decision regarding the null hypothesis.
Significance, or statistical significance, describes a decision made concerning a value
stated in the null hypothesis. When the null hypothesis is rejected, we reach significance.
When the null hypothesis is retained, we fail to reach significance.
Level of significance, or significance level, refers to a criterion of judgment upon which
a decision is made regarding the value stated in a null hypothesis. The criterion is based

on the probability of obtaining a statistic measured in a sample if the value stated in the
null hypothesis were true.
The null hypothesis (H0), stated as the null, is a statement about a population parameter,
such as the population mean, that is assumed to be true.
An alternative hypothesis (H1) is a statement that directly contradicts a null hypothesis
by stating that that the actual value of a population parameter is less than, greater than, or
not equal to the value stated in the null hypothesis.
Steps involved in testing the hypothesis
The goal of hypothesis testing is to determine the likelihood that a population parameter,
such as the mean, is likely to be true. In this section, we describe the four steps of
hypothesis testing that were briefly introduced as follows:
Step 1: State the hypotheses.
Step 2: Set the criteria for a decision.
Step 3: Compute the test statistic.
Step 4: Make a decision.
Step 1: State the hypotheses. We begin by stating the value of a population mean in a
null hypothesis, which we presume is true. For the children watching TV example, we
state the null hypothesis that children in the United States watch an average of 3 hours of
TV per week. This is a starting point so that we can decide whether this is likely to be
true, similar to the presumption of innocence in a courtroom. When a defendant is on
trial, the jury starts by assuming that the defendant is innocent. The basis of the decision
is to determine whether this assumption is true. Likewise, in hypothesis testing, we start
by assuming that the hypothesis or claim we are testing is true. This is stated in the null
hypothesis. The basis of the decision is to determine whether this assumption is likely to
be true.
Step 2: Set the criteria for a decision. To set the criteria for a decision, we state the level
of significance for a test. This is similar to the criterion that jurors use in a criminal trial.
Jurors decide whether the evidence presented shows guilt beyond a reasonable doubt
(this is the criterion). Likewise, in hypothesis testing, we collect data to show that the null
hypothesis is not true, based on the likelihood of selecting a sample mean from a
population (the likelihood is the criterion). The likelihood or level of significance is
typically set at 5% in behavioral research studies. When the probability of obtaining a
sample mean is less than 5% if the null hypothesis were true, then we conclude that the
sample we selected is too unlikely and so we reject the null hypothesis.

Step 3: Compute the test statistic. Suppose we measure a sample mean equal to 4 hours
per week that children watch TV. To make a decision, we need to evaluate how likely this
sample outcome is, if the population mean stated by the null hypothesis (3 hours per
week) is true. We use a test statistic to determine this likelihood. Specifically, a test
statistic tells us how far, or how many standard deviations, a sample mean is from the
population mean. The larger the value of the test statistic, the further the distance, or
number of standard deviations, a sample mean is from the population mean stated in the
null hypothesis. The value of the test statistic is used to make a decision in Step 4.
Step 4: Make a decision. We use the value of the test statistic to make a decision about
the null hypothesis. The decision is based on the probability of obtaining a sample mean,
given that the value stated in the null hypothesis is true.
Question No. 3
What do you mean by Exploratory Research Design? Explain the types of
Exploratory Research Design.
Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or
of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major
emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research
design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study
Types of Exploratory Research Design
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The main
purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or
of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major
emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research
design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research
design is needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed
into one with more precise meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate
changes in the research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following
three methods in the context of research design for such studies are talked about: (a) the
survey of concerning literature; (b) the experience survey and (c) the analysis of insightstimulating examples. The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple
and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem or developing
hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness
be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered whether the already
stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and

build upon the work already done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet
been formulated, his task is to review the available material for deriving the relevant
hypotheses from it. Besides, the bibliographical survey of studies, already made in ones
area of interest may as well as made by the researcher for precisely formulating the
problem.
He should also make an attempt to apply concepts and theories developed in
different research contexts to the area in which he is himself working. Sometimes the
works of creative writers also provide a fertile ground for hypothesis formulation and as
such may be looked into by the researcher. Experience survey means the survey of people
who have had practical experience with the problem to be studied. The object of such a
survey is to obtain insight into the relationships between variables and new ideas relating
to the research problem. For such a survey people who are competent and can contribute
new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different
types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the
investigator. The researcher must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants.
But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should
be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously
considered. Generally, the experience collecting interview is likely to be long and may
last for few hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions
to be discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to
the respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that,
at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience
survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information
about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
Analysis of insight-stimulating examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience
to serve as a guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of
the phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any,
may be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach
may be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of
the researcher to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the
main features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

Question No. 4
Explain the structure of a Research Report? What are the guidelines for effective
Report writing?
Structure of Research Report

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about
the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its
methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this
purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as
to what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report
should comprise (A) preliminary pages; (B)the main text; and (C) the end matter. Let us
deal with them separately.
Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of Preface or Foreword. Then there should be a table
of contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or
anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the
report.
Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details.
Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then
follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second
page. Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the
report should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and
recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v)
The summary.
Introduction
The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background
should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth
investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the
present study can be seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the
definitions of the major concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the
introduction of the report.
Statement of findings and recommendations
After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all
concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarised form.

Results
A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in the
form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing
the main text of the report.
Implications of the results

Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results
of his research clearly and precisely. He should, state the implications that flow from the
results of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for
understanding the human behaviour.
Summary
It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief
summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and
the major conclusions drawn from the research results.
End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data
such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of
names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on
which they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the
report. The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the
contents in the report.
Guidelines for Effective Report Writing
The following points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report are
concerned:
1. Size and physical design:
If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A
margin of at least one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at
least half an inch at the right hand of the paper.
2. Procedure
Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps have
already been explained earlier in this chapter).
3. Layout
Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report
should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted
4. Treatment of quotations
Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double spaced, forming an
immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length (more than four
or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at least half an
inch to the right of the normal text margin.
5. Footnotes
The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body
of the research text but still of supplemental value.
6. Documentation style
Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given work should
be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition used.
7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes
The first item after the number in the footnote is the authors name, given in the
normal signature order. This is followed by a comma.

8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs

A judicious use of statistics in research reports is often considered a virtue for it
contributes a great deal towards the clarification and simplification of the material and
research results.
9. The final draft
Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with great
care before writing the final draft.
10. Bibliography
Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as discussed
earlier.
11. Preparation of the index
At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given, the value of which
lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader.

Question No. 5
Explain any three types of Comparative Scales and Non-comparative Scales
Definition of Comparative Scales
Comparative Scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or
rank order properties. It is also referred to as non-metric scales.
Types of Comparative Scales
Method of paired comparisons
Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two
objects, say between a new flavour of soft drink and an established brand of drink. But
when there are more than two stimuli to judge, the number of judgements required in a
paired comparison.
Method of rank order
Under this method of comparative scaling, the respondents are asked to rank their
choices. This method is easier and faster than the method of paired comparisons stated
above. For example, with 10 items it takes 45 pair comparisons to complete the task,
whereas the method of rank order simply requires ranking of 10 items only.
Definition of Non-comparative Scales
This is also referred to as monadic or metric scales, each object is scaled
independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed
to be interval or ratio scaled.
Types of Non-comparative Scales
Summated Scales (or Likert-type Scales)

Summated scales (or Likert-type scales) are developed by utilizing the item
analysis approach wherein a particular item is evaluated on the basis of how well it
discriminates between those persons whose total score is high and those whose score is
low. Those items or statements that best meet this sort of discrimination test are included
in the final instrument.

Question No. 6
What do you mean by Research Problem? Explain the various steps involved in
Research Problem Identification Process
Research Problem
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same. We can, thus, state the components1 of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objectives one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning
the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.
Steps involved in Research Problem Identification Process
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task
to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within ones reach. Even then it is quite
difficult to supply definitive ideas concerning how a researcher should obtain ideas for
his research. For this purpose, a researcher should contact an expert or a professor in the
University who is already engaged in research. He may as well read articles published in
current literature available on the subject and may think how the techniques and ideas
discussed therein might be applied to the solution of other problems. He may discuss with

others what he has in mind concerning a problem. In this way he should make all possible
efforts in selecting a problem.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. In other words, before the final selection of a problem is done, a
researcher must ask himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the
research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects? If the answers to all these questions are in the
affirmative, one may become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done. But when the field of inquiry is relatively new and does not have
available a set of well developed techniques, a brief feasibility study must always be
undertaken.