Copper Printed Circuit Boards

Solderless breadboards are the fastest and most flexible way to design and
experiment. When the circuit is ready for more permanent use, there are
several methods of connecting components together that are appropriate for
one-time designs in robots. Point-to-point soldering can result in a rat's nest
problem. Homemade printed circuit boards are a good solution.

I purchased and read the wonderful book Making Printed Circuit Boards book
Making Printed Circuit Boards. The book covers much more than is described
on this page. I highly recommend you read the book before attempting to
make your own circuit boards.

Completed one-sided circuit board.

Choosing a Sample Circuit

Although I eventually want to use surface-mounted components and double-

sided circuit boards, I decided to eliminate additional new variables for my first
attempt. I limited the first project to through-hole components (such as
standard DIPs) on a single-sided circuit board.

I'm experienced with through-hole components and I've soldered 0.1-inch

point-to-point perf boards. I saved myself a lot of trouble and frustration in
learning a new technology by building on top of what I already know well.

The chosen circuit isn't important, although it should be fairly simple for your
first attempt. I decided to create a daughterboard that contains complete
circuits for a voltage regulator and two DC motor drivers (H-bridge motor
driver) for Sweet, a line-following robot. This board includes resistors, small
DIP sockets, capacitors, a switch, an LED, Molex connectors, diodes, a jumper,
and a few crossover wires. An excellent variety of common components with
which to experiment!

Title bar of ExpressPCB CAD software

Free CAD Software

Before writing this web page, I'd never used a PCB CAD layout program before.
I don't own any PCB CAD software and I didn't want to pay hundreds of dollars
to buy a package. One popular freeware choice is CadSoft Eagle.

ExpressPCB also has free Windows OS software that is quite good and easy to
get started with. The advantage to using their software and mini-board size is
that, if desired, you can order professionally made boards, 3 for $59 (the price
has varied slightly over the years). This is a nice deal for robot hobbyists that
don't need production quantity runs. Their boards are of higher quality (greater
accuracy, plated through holes, and tin coating) than is usually possible to
make at home. Over the years, I've ordered over a thousand boards from
ExpressPCB and have been very pleased with their on-time service, reasonable
prices, and excellent product. (No, I don't get any special deals or discounts.)

The ExpressPCB online help is written with beginners in mind, the internet
ordering option is convenient, the software has never crashed on me, and they
update the software regularly with new features.

The disadvantage to using their software is that its breadth of capabilities and
components library are somewhat limited, although you can create custom
components. Also, you're stuck with their file format, which is a problem if you
want to order production boards from someone else.

For all the positive reasons, I chose to use the free ExpressPCB software, and I
happily continue to do so to this day.

he's very
friendly,
polite good
Discarded layout

Avoiding False Starts

When trying to design a circuit, I got overwhelmed on the first couple of
attempts. I discarded several windows and files. I was trying to make too large
of a leap by designing with surface-mounted components, two-sided boards,
components on both sides, and very thin traces.

To get beyond this mental obstacle, I designed the circuit by physically laying
out components on an ordinary perf board with pre-drilled holes every tenth of
an inch. Then I copied the patterns into the ExpressPCB software and switched
back-and-forth as the circuits progressed. On the screen I could see efficient
changes, which I then tried on the physical layout. Sometimes I would notice a
problem on the physical layout that I needed to correct on the screen.

I worked on a single functional unit at a time (like the voltage regulator) and
only proceeded after I had perfected that section. This allowed me to
experiment, apply, and learn layout skills without having to go back and throw
out a lot of prior work.

Finished circuit on ExpressPCB software

Final Circuit

The picture isn't to scale. The final board is 3.8 inches by 2.5 inches to comply
with the size of ExpressPCB's mini-board service. Of course the software can
create other board sizes.

The green lines are copper connections on the bottom (lower layer) of the
board. Notice the green text appears flipped since it is being seen through the
invisible board.

The red lines and circles (through-hole vias) are on the top layer of the board.
Because through-hole components are being used instead of surface-mounted
components, each red circle represents a hole that needs to be drilled (ick!).

The yellow lines and text are component outlines that won't actually appear on
the copper of the board. Instead, more expensive boards can be ordered with
the yellow portion printed in ink. For my purposes, the yellow is ignored.

The white dots won't appear on the copper either. They're used as on-screen
guides for positioning components at tenths of an inch.

Red and green circles appear at all four corners for drilling holes for mounting
screws.

My finished layout reflects simple, beginner choices:

* .040" line (trace) widths are used instead of smaller .012". The thicker
widths aren't electrically necessary, but they provide a margin of error if I
mistakenly etch the board for too long. Thinner traces might disconnect
(open).

* Each .056" round via (.035" hole) is supplemented with a larger 0.030"
radius circle of 0.020" line thickness They're thickerer!. This enlarges the pad
to compensate for manual drilling errors and improve solder contact area
(more on this later).

* All holes and component connections are centered on the 0.10" grid. This
allows the layout to exactly mimic a prototype breadboard.

* The corners of traces (lines) aren't squared. That is, I tried to avoid turn
angles of 90 degrees or less Acute angles are bad for trace corners. Although
not technically necessary with such thick traces, I wanted to practice rounding
corners Obtuse angles are better for trace corners to reduce noise that will
occur on smaller, thinner lines.

* Only four connections are made on the top layer (red). Since a single-
sided board is being created, these top connections are made with point-to-
point hand wiring.

* Plenty of space is reserved between components. Plenty of space is

reserved along the board edges. This board is going to be hand populated and
soldered, so I'm saving myself frustration by spacing generously.

* Almost the entire circuit exists on the lower layer (green). Don't design on
the top layer (red) and then mirror the image using a paint program to move it
to the bottom layer. I did that and it ruins the left-to-right order on the chip
connections. Put another way, if the circuit is intended for the bottom of the
board, design it on the lower layer (green) to begin with.

* Using available space, label major connections and components with text
on the top (red) or lower (green) layer. Consider adding other information
(copyright, date, board function, or revision number). Don't use the silkscreen
(yellow) layer for text unless you don't want it to appear on your printouts.

* Align all components vertically, with polarized (+/-) components in the

same orientation. Consistent direction makes it easy to see on the finished
board if any component is placed incorrectly (horizontal or diagonal or inverted
polarity).

Printing PCB Images

I noticed in version 5.6 that you can print a clean PCB image from the
ExpressPCB application. Earlier versions included a grid and grayscale
background that messed up the copper layer if you tried to etch from the
printout. I'm really pleased that the good people at ExpressPCB seem to now
be permitting people to etch from their printouts (having confidence that one
day you'll be ordering boards from them).

If you're going to make PCBs from photosensitive boards, you can print each
side directly to overhead transparency film and flip the transparencies as
necessary to make the image appear with the correct orientation. You can skip
the rest of this section.

Or, if you're only making one-sided boards using the bottom (green) layer,
then you can also skip the rest of this section.

However, there may be circumstances where you need to modify the image
before printing. For example...

* If ExpressPCB puts the grayscale pattern back into printout.

* Or, if you're going to use an iron to transfer the toner to the PCB and you
want to etch the top (red) layer.
* Or, if you want to put the front and back of the board on the same sheet
of Press-N-Peel to save money.
* Or, if you want to add a logo or graphics to the board.

ExpressPCB options ExpressPCB colors

1. Choose Options in the View menu.

2. Turn off "Show Grid".
3. Turn off "View top copper layer" or "View bottom copper layer" depending
on which you don't want to print.
4. Turn off "View silkscreen layer".
5. Turn off "View corners".
6. Switch to the Colors tab.
7. Change Background to white.
8. Change Top layer to black.
9. Change Bottom layer to black.
10. Change Board edges to black (if you want a border to help align or cut
on).
11. Click the OK button.

Now the window appears exactly as it needs to be printed. All extraneous parts
are hidden and all copper parts are in black.

12. Zoom (enlarge) until the board image is as large as can possibly fit
completely within the window.
13. Take a screen shot (press both the Alt and Print Screen keys
simultaneously).
14. Run a paint program. For example, Microsoft Photo Editor or Paint Shop
Pro.
 15. Choose Paste (or Paste As New Image) from the Edit menu. The screen
shot should now appear in the paint window.
16. Crop as desired.
17. If you're going to iron the toner onto the copper board, and if you can
read the text correctly on the screen, then you'll need to use the flip/mirror
image feature in the paint program. (Don't use the rotate command! You want
the flip or mirror image command.) During the ironing process, the toner is
going to be flipped on the board. So, if the text looks good on the screen and
the paper, it's going to be backwards (flipped) when it is ironed onto the board.
However, if the text looks backwards (because you flipped

he's very
friendly,
polite good
on the screen and the paper, it's going to be good (flipped back) when it is
it)

ironed onto the board. Note that Express PCB already flips the bottom (green)
layer, so no need to flip it in the paint program. But the top (red) layer reads
correctly on screen, so it needs your help.
Mirrored text is ready for printing and ironing onto a copper PCB.
18. Last, print from the File menu. Microsoft Photo Editor's print dialog allows
a final size to be specified in inches, which is handy. Otherwise use the percent
% scaling option until the printed image matches the desired size.

Techniks Press-n-Peel Blue transfer film Paper and final printout

Creating Transfer Film

I purchased a five-sheet package of Techniks Press-n-Peel PnP-BLUE Printed

Circuit Board Transfer Film for Laser Printers and Photocopiers. At Electronix
Express it costs $9.90 (#N03PNPB5). The cost decreases and approaches a
dollar a sheet in larger quantities.
After testing the printout on inexpensive plain paper, the circuit should be
printed to the dull side of the PnP-BLUE transfer film.

When I first tried making a board, I made a couple of mistakes with mirror
images and I made some changes to the circuit. As a test, I cut out the used
portions of the blue paper and then re-fed the remainder back into the printer.
Although I can't guarantee this because it might harm your printer, the final
circuit transferred just fine even though the same sheet of blue paper
(becoming ever smaller as I cut off the printed portions) had made three
passes through the printer. I've repeated this technique over the years, and it
continues to allow me to reuse the unprinted portions of the sheet, saving
money.

As an alternate to Press-n-Peel, many people have had good luck with clear
transparency sheets or glossy paper.

Scotch-Brite scour pads and a single-sided copper board An iron

Transferring to the Copper Board

Plain, copper clad PC board can be purchased from many different retailers.
Expect to pay $2 for a 4-inch by 4-inch board.

If you're using transfer film or press-on labels, then don't buy pre-sensitized
boards. They're for transferring the image photographically.

Try not to use double-sided boards if only one side is going to have a circuit.
The unused copper must be removed by the etching solution. It takes longer to
etch and uses up the etching solution sooner if large, unused areas of copper
are exposed.

If necessary, cut down the board to the approximate size. A table saw with a
diamond blade or a shear are the best choices (MicroMark sells both power
tools). However, a Dremel with cut-off blade or a hacksaw works okay. In any
case, be sure to wear goggles and a breathing mask.

Always clean the board with water (perhaps some cleaning solution) and a
scouring pad. The scrubbing removes grime and oxidation, thus preparing the
surface for a crisp transfer and ultimately firm soldering.

After drying the copper board, place the blue transfer paper with the image
(toner) side against the copper. Carefully position the image -- the clinging of
the plastic to the clean copper helps. Then place a piece of ordinary white
paper over the blue paper. (The white paper helps the iron glide without
catching or smearing the blue paper.)

Follow the transfer paper's directions for ironing. Usually a low synthetic to
wool setting for a couple of minutes (it usually takes me up to five minutes);
no steam.

PCB with pattern incompletely transferred The film showing the black toner
that failed to transfer

Pressure

Although you want to cover the entire board with enough heat and pressure,
the board edges just seem to be the most difficult to transfer correctly. For
best results, concentrate the tip of the iron on the outer edges while the rest of
the board receives the less intense (but more constant) heat and pressure of
the middle portion of the iron. With the iron tip, carefully rub each and every
detail that appears near and edge or corner.

In my first attempt, I failed to iron the very edge of one corner of the board.
Even the thinnest lines of the middle-located text transferred well, but the
missed edges failed to adhere to the board.

Either let the board and blue paper cool off or rinse them in cool water. I tried
both methods and they worked equally well (I tend to run the board under
water so that I can see the results right away). When the board is cool, slowly
peel off the blue paper to reveal the transferred image.

Double-check the inverted image on the blue paper for failed toner transfers.
Any failed transfer will appear as black toner remaining on the blue paper. This
will be the most common problem encountered.

Also, stop everything at this point and try placing some chips on the image on
the board. Is the image the correct size? Is the text readable (not a mirror
image) on the board? Everywhere there is toner there will be copper (after
etching). So, if the chips don't fit, the text is backwards, or the parts aren't in
the expected locations, now is the time to figure out what went wrong and
scrub the board clean to make another attempt.

Attempt to restore via and pattern using permanent marker After etching the
marker portion failed to protect the underlying copper

Filling In Gaps

he's very
friendly,
polite good
Use a permanent marker or rub-on patterns to replace missing toner. The
permanent marker portions must dry for a few hours and usually works better
with a second coat. My initial attempt failed as the "wet" marker portions
etched away almost as much as the completely exposed areas.

Glass jar of ferric chloride etchant

Etchant

The etchant is a chemical that reacts with exposed copper and removes it from
the PC board. Copper covered with resist (toner, rub-on patterns, tape?, and
permanent marker) won't be removed, although it will begin undercutting if
left soaking for too long.

Ferric chloride (iron chloride hexahydrate; ferric trichloride hexahydrate; FeCl3

6H2O) is a popular chemical for etching. So, too, is ammonium persulfate. As
soon as you begin handling chemicals, be sure to wear protective rubber
gloves, old clothing, and even safety goggles. Make sure you're in a well-
ventilated area with a source running of water.

I use ferric-chloride crystals. When I added them to the water, they reacted
violently. The reaction released vapor, noise, and heat. Add the crystals slowly
and carefully!

Store the etchant in a non-metallic jar with a non-metallic lid. Label the
etchant and store it away from children.
This is corrosive and poisonous!
Only properly equipped, educated adults should perform the etching portion of
circuit board creation.

Search the web for product data safety sheets. Print the safety sheets, read
them, and then store them with the chemicals. Discuss the contents of the
safety sheets with your family and those that may run across the chemical.

Heater, pump, and plastic aeration block

Etching

Warm the jar of etchant in a bucket of warm water (or use an aquarium
heater). Don't heat the etchant above 115 degrees Fahrenheit or vapors may
be released.

If desired, a very small aquarium pump can be used to provide aeration during
etching. Aeration greatly improves etching speed. Pumps and plastic aerating
blocks can be purchased from retailers that sell the etchant chemicals and
copper boards.

Pour just enough etchant into a plastic tray that contains small plastic risers to
prevent the circuit board from sitting directly against the bottom of the tray.
The circuit board should face down, so that the copper drops off as it is etched.
The tray may already contain a plastic block with holes and a tube to an
aquarium pump.

Using plastic tongs, place the circuit board into the tray. Turn on the aeration
system (if desired). Use the tongs to inspect the progress of the board and to
agitate the board and tray if necessary.

With bubbling etchant and close board inspection, it should be clear why
rubber gloves, goggles, fresh air, and old clothes are necessary. Using all
plastic parts when handling a metal-corroding chemical should now seem
obvious. Be sure to segregate all the parts that have been exposed to etchant
away from other uses. In other words, don't stick that etchant tray back into
the kitchen cupboard.

The etching should take 5 to 20 minutes depending on board size. If it takes

much longer, the etchant may have dissolved its fill of copper, and should be
disposed of properly.

All exposed copper should now be etched away on the board, with only resist
(blue film or toner) remaining.

Etched PCB before cleaning (film and resist still covering copper)

Clean Up

I'm not sure of the legal and proper method of disposing of used-up etchant. I
would be happy to link to an EPA page or other official document if you run
across one. Obviously, proper disposal is going to depend on the type of
etchant chemical. Whatever you do, don't pour it down into anything with
copper pipes!

For ferric chloride, I've heard that you should neutralize the acid by adding a
base (sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, or calcium carbonate). This also
solidifies the liquid, and after drying, it can be disposed of as solid waste.

Store any partially-used (but still good) etchant in a recycled sealed plastic
container separate from the completely-unused fresh etchant (if any remains).
Although you can always "top-off" a partially-used batch of etchant with fresh
etchant, you don't want to put partially-used etchant back into the remaining
fresh etchant. It just seems like etchant "spoils" (becomes an ineffective
sludge) a few months after being exposed to copper.

Wash all the parts, trays, and circuit boards with plenty of fresh water.

Dremel drill press

Drilling Holes

Some people like to drill the holes before etching. I prefer to etch first to allow
the etchant to carve starting center holes. The holes tend to guide the drill bit
to the center of the via.

A drill press and a 1/32 bit works okay for most resistor and DIP holes. A #66
bit is even better. MicroMark sells #66 bits for $6.95 a half-dozen.

I used my Dremel drill press at low speed. I broke three bits. I guess I was
supposed to use it at high speed and also prevent the board from shifting. An
expensive and inconvenient lesson.

You want to use standard high-speed steel or cobalt steel drill bits. Although
carbide drill bits theoretically stay sharper, they are brittle and break easily
when used by hobbyists. Carbide only lasts longer for professionals with rigid
setups. You'll only get frustrated and waste money.

During drilling, I wore goggles to protect against flying debris and a filter mask
to protect my lungs from board dust.

Etched PCB cleaned and ready

Use Scotch-Bright (green color) pads or steel wool to remove the blue resist
and drill dust, exposing the clean, copper circuit.

Because the artwork was flipped, the DIP chip socket no longer connects to the
correct pins on the lower layer

Oops!

Okay, you've used up transfer film, etchant, and expensive tiny drill bits.
You've also cut boards and spent all sorts of time cleaning, ironing, etching,
cleaning again, drilling, and cleaning again.

Miss anything?

After ironing on the image, but before etching and drilling, did you double-
check the copper board to make sure the orientation wasn't flipped?

That's right. The first time I did this I designed the whole thing on the top
layer (red) even though I planned to have the circuit on the backside of the
board (green). Thinking I was smart, I simply flipped the design in the paint
program before printing. Although the lettering transferred in the correct
orientation, the circuit no longer matches the left-to-right pin order of the
chips. If I had correctly used the ExpressPCB software, the reversed lettering
on the screen would have transferred and etched in proper orientation, as well
as the rest of the circuit.

Because the pads were too small compared to the hole size, the copper around
some holes broke or was otherwise removed during drilling
(for comparison, the GND hole isn't drilled)

Vias Too Small

Because I went ahead and finished the board with the mirror-image mistake in

he's
it, I learned some additiona

very
friendly,
polite good l
lessons before starting a fresh board.

It's tough to line up the drill with the via holes for the through-hole
components. Being slightly off can pull-up or drill-out a lot of the copper pad.
This reduces the contact the solder and through-hole wire can make with the
circuit. With this in mind, extend the diameter of via pads for hand drilling.

Even though I could use thinner traces (lines) for low current digital signals, I
switched the entire board over to thicker traces. Since the board had the room,
why not? (As long as adequate spacing exists between traces.) It saves on
etchant, prevents breakage, and may improve noise tolerance.

However, don't make the trace lines as thick as the pads or via through holes.
The circles should be a little bigger than the lines they connect to, so that the
solder wicks around evenly rather than heading down a line.

Back side of PCB with components soldered and leads clipped Front side of PCB
with components in place and top layer point-to-point wires

After mounting and soldering components, I have the first circuit board I've
ever made!

Now I've got the materials (except drill bits) and I've learned the process.
Making reliable, repeatable printed circuit boards is much faster than point-to-
point soldering. My choice of components has expanded to include surface-
mounted devices with tiny pins. I can make lighter, stronger Sumo bots. I can
make a line-following-robot circuit board, test it, order high-quality boards
from ExpressPCB, a maybe make a kit for my local robot club.

My technology has made it into the 1970s. Now on to double-sided circuit

boards.

Click here to see all projects...

Google Enter your search terms Submit search form

Web www.robotroom.com
home | projects | contact | copyright & disclaimer | books | links
David Cook thinking about robots