A FIRST COURSE

IN TURBULENCE

H.Tennekes

L.

and

Fust

Course

J.

Lumley

inTurbulence

\320\250

The MIT Press

Cambridge,

Massachusetts,

and

London,

England

1972
\302\251

Copyright

by

The MassachusettsInstitute

of Technology

This book was designed by the MITPress Design

It was set in IBM Univers Medium,
printed and bound by Kingsport Press
in the United States of America.
All rights

Department.

reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced

or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including
recording, or by any information storage and
without permission in writing from the publisher.
system,

in any form
photocopying,
retrieval

ISBN

Library

0 262

20019 8

of Congress

(hardcover)

catalog card

number:

77\342\200\224165072

CONTENTS

xi

Preface

Brief guide on the use of symbols

xiii

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

The

turbulence

of

nature

1.

Irregularity

Diffusivity

2.

fluctuations

vorticity

1
2.

Reynolds

Large

3.

Dissipation

Three-dimensional

numbers 2.

flows are

Turbulent

3.

Continuum

flows 3.

1.2
of

Methods

analysis

Dimensional

5. Asymptotic

analysis

invariance

5. Local invariance

6.

1.3

The origin

of turbulence

turbulence

1.4
of

Diffusivity

Diffusion

with an imposed length

scale
8. Eddy
in a problem with an imposed
time scale 11.
a problem

in

Diffusion

diffusivity

10.

1.5
Length

in turbulent

scales

Laminar

Turbulent

Scalerelations
1.6
Outline

19.

turbulence

of

21.

the

and

Laminar

An inviscid

scales

length

friction

turbulent

15.

17. Small

estimate for the dissipation rate 20.

scales 23.

and turbulent

Molecular

material

14
Diffusive and convective

14.

layers 16.

boundary

scales in

flows

layers

boundary

24

2.

TURBULENTTRANSPORT

OF

MOMENTUM

AND HEAT

27

2.1
The

equations

Reynolds

27

The Reynolds decomposition

mean flow

30.

The

Reynolds

28. Correlated
stress 32.

variables
Turbulent

29.

transport

Equations for the

of heat 33.

Contents

2.2

Elements
shear

Pure

of the kinetic theory of gases 34

flow 34.
Molecular collisions

lengths 38. The correlationbetween

v,

35.

and v2 38.

and

times

Characteristic

Thermal

39.

diffusivity

2.3

of the Reynolds stress 40

and vortex stretching 40. The mixing-length
model
42. The
44.
A
term
45.
The
transport
length-scale problem
neglected
length
mixing
as an integral scale 45. The
47. Further estifallacy
gradient-transport
Estimates

stress

Reynolds

49.

estimates

49.

Recapitulation

2.4
50

transfer

heat

Turbulent

Reynolds'analogy

51. The mixing-length

51.

model

2.5
52
Turbulent shear flow near a rigid wall
A flow with constant stress 54. Nonzero
mass
55. The limitations of mixing-length
approach

transfer

55. The

mixing-length

57.

theory

3.

THE DYNAMICS OF TURBULENCE

59

3.1
of the

Kinetic

energy

Pure

shear flow

mean

59

flow

60. The effects

of

viscosity

3.2
Kinetic energy of the turbulence
Production

equals

Spectral
turbulence

70.

63

64. Taylor

dissipation

transfer 68.
energy
Pure shear flow 74.

62.

Further

microscale 65. Scale relations

estimates

69.

Wind-tunnel

67.

turbu-

3.3
dynamics

Vorticity

75

vector and rotation

Vorticity
motion 76. Reynolds stress
dynamics
rotational
Stretching

87.

76. Vortex

terms

in

the

equations

of

78. The vorticity equation 81.

vorticity
The
85.
84. Two-dimensional mean flow
is rota86.
Turbulence
for \302\253/\302\253/
of \320\237,-\320\237/
86.
The equation
An approximate
88.
Multiple
length scales 92.
vorticity budget
in

Vorticity

tensor

of

turbulent

magnetic

and

flows

field lines

93.

Contents

vii

3.4

The dynamics of temperature fluctuations

in the temperature field
Microscales

numbers 98.
the

in
Convection

boundary

atmospheric

Richardson

97.

convection

99. Monin-Oboukhov

scale

time

Buoyancy

95

95. Buoyant

length

100.

Convec-

100.

layer

4.

104

SHEAR FLOWS

BOUNDARY-FREE

4.1
104
momentum equation 106. The streamwise
momentum
108. Turbulent wakes 109. Turbulent
equation
jets and mixing
thickness 112.
111. Momentum
layers 110. The momentum
integral

Almost

Plane

flows

two-dimensional

parallel,

104.

flows

The cross-stream

4.2
113

wakes

Turbulent

Self-preservation

The

113.

wakes 118. Scalerelations

119.

profile

mean-velocity

The turbulent

energy

115.

Axisymmetric
120.

budget

4.3

The wake

of a self-propelled
125. Axisymmetric

124

body

Plane wakes

127.

wakes

4.4

Turbulent jets and mixing layers

127
Plane
128.
The
129.
layers
Mixing
jets

energy

budget

in a plane jet

131.

4.5
Comparative

structure

of wakes,

jets,

and

mixing

layers

133

4.6

Thermal plumes
Two-dimensional
integral

142.

135
plumes

Further

results

136.

Self-preservation

142.

5.
WALL-BOUNDED

SHEAR

FLOWS

146

5.1

The problem of multiple

146
scales
Inertial sublayer 147. Velocity-defect
law

147.

141. The

heat-flux

inte-

Contents

viii

5.2
and channels 149
Channel
flow
149.
The surface layer on a smooth wall
152.
The core
153. Logarithmic
friction law 156. Turbulent
region 153. Inertial
sublayer
data
on pipe flow 157. The viscous
subpipe flow 156. Experimental
on
wall
158.
data
the
law
of
161.
the
data
sublayer
Experimental
Experimental
on the velocity-defect law 162. The flow of energy
163.
Flow over rough
in pipes

flows

Turbulent

surfaces 164.

5.3
The geostrophic
law

The

167.

layers
5.4

in

the

166

layers

boundary

Planetary

layer
170.

ocean

Ekman

The

166.

wind

surface

168. The

The effectsof a pressure gradient on the flow

A second-order correctionto pipe flow
174.
profile

velocity

167. The

layer

wind

logarithmic

in

surface

The

velocity-defect
169. Ekman

profile

171

layers

slope

of the

logarithmic

175.

5.5

The downstream

of turbulent

development

The potential

179.

flow

boundary-layer equation 182. Equilibrium

layer 185. The law of the wall 185. The

pressure-gradient parameter 186.

Boundary layers
contaminants

zero

in

pressure

184.

flow

layer

boundary

The flow

velocity

distributions

190. Transport

of scalar

194.

6.

THE STATISTICAL

DESCRIPTIONOF TURBULENCE

197

6.1

The probability density

197

6.2
Fourier

The effects

and

transforms
of

spikes

characteristic

201
203. Parseval'srelation

functions

and discontinuities

6.3

Joint statistics and statistical

independence

207

in

law

friction

logarithmic

Free-stream

gradient

177

boundary layers

The pressure inside the

205.

181.

The

the

wall

186. The
188.
contam-

Contents

ix

6.4

functions and spectra

of averages 211.
convergence

210

Correlation
The

Fourier

The

212.

Ergodicity

transform of

214.
\321\200(\321\202)

6.5

The central

of

The statistics

218.

integrals

of the theorem

A generalization

220. More

220.

of integrals

statistics

216

theorem

limit

7.

TURBULENTTRANSPORT

223

7.1

Transport

in

223.

Stationarity

The

velocity 224.

Lagrangian

homogeneous

Stationary,

probability
scale

integral

223
turbulence

turbulence

homogeneous

stationary,

229.

without

density of the Lagrangian

velocity
The diffusion equation 230.

mean

226.

veloc-

The

7.2
flow

shear

Uniform

channel

230
230. Joint statistics

flows

in shear

Transport

flow 233.

Bulk

velocity

232.

Longitudinal

in pipes

measurements

in

dispersion

235.

7.3
of

Dispersion

235

contaminants

The concentration distribution

effect of pure, steady

The

235.
strain

effects of

The

238.

Transport

molecular transport
scales 241.

237.

at large

7.4
Turbulent

relative

flows
241
turbulence 242. Self-preservation243.Dispersion
rela245.
The
distribution
246.
turbulence
Gaussian
decaying
Disperflows 246.

to

Dispersionin

in evolving

transport

in grid

wake

Thermal

the
shear

8.

SPECTRALDYNAMICS

248

8.1

One- and

in

Aliasing
spectrum

three-dimensional spectra

250.

one-dimensional
The

correlation

spectra

248
248.

tensor and

its

The three-dimensionalspecFourier

transform

250.

Two

Contents

one-dimensional

common

spectra

251. Isotropic relations

253. Spectra of

254.

waves

simple

isotropic

8.2

The energy

The

A simple

258.

transfer

of turbulence

The spectrum
The

256

cascade

energy

Spectral
8.3

in
the
spectrum
inertial subrange

The energy

eddy 258.

cascade

260.

262

range

equilibrium

262. The

large-scalespectrum

264.

264.

8.4
The

of production

effects

The effect

of

spectra for
8.5

dissipation
Reynolds

large

inertial

subrange
Lagrangian

approximate

numbers

271.

Approximate

272.

274

Time spectra
The

and dissipation
267
269. The effect of production

277.

The

spectrum

Lagrangian

integral

time

scale

277.

An

278.

8.6

Spectraof
One-

and

spectrum
subrange

279
three-dimensional
280. The cascade in the temperature
spectra
281. Spectra in the equilibrium
range 282. The inertial-diffusive
283.
The viscous-convective subrange
284.
The viscous-diffusive
passive

subrange 285.
Bibliography

Index

295

scalar

Summary

contaminants

286.

and references

288

PREFACE

In the customary
description of turbulence, there are always more unknowns
than equations. This is called the closure
at present, the gap can be
problem;
closed only with models and estimates based on intuition
and experience.
For
a newcomer to turbulence, there is yet another closure problem: several
dozen

texts

introductory

these

and

the

in

monographs

book is designedto bridge

reader to the tools that must
A basic tool of turbulence

fluid dynamics
and advanced texts

exist,

general

the

closure problem

second

to

be used

bridge

the

to the idea that

is wide.

the

introducing

by

This

first.

is dimensional

theory

gap between

the

but

turbulence

in

analysis;

it

used

is always

should be
conjunction
if they are scaled properly. Thesetools
independent of the Reynolds number
for a first study of most problemsin turbulence;
sufficient
are
those requiring
mathematics
have
been
wherever
avoided
possible. Of course,
sophisticated
is
of
dimensional
the
reasoning
solving
incapable
actually
equations governing
flows.
A direct attack on this problem,
is beyond the scope
turbulent
however,
with

in

an appeal

flows

turbulent

of this book because it requires advanced statistics and Fourier analysis. Also,
even the most sophisticatedstudies, so far, have met with relatively little
success. The purpose of this book is to introduce its readers to turbulence; it
is neither a research monograph
nor an advanced text.
Some
prerequisite

of

understanding

a successful

for

viscous-flow

study of

much

and boundary-layer theory

of the material
presented

we assume that
the
reader
hand,
Fourier
Because
and
transforms.
processes
rank
the use of tensor notation
could
tensor,
little
tensor
analysis is needed to understand

the

other

is not
the

with

familiar

is a

pre-

here. On
stochastic

Reynolds stress is a secondnot be avoided; however, very

elementary

operations

on the

in Cartesian
coordinate systems.
equations of motion
We use most of the material
in this book in an introductory
turbulence
We
feel
course for college seniors and first-year
students.
that
this
graduate
book
text
fluid
can also serve as a supplementary
for courses in general
a bias toward
dynamics. We have attempted to avoid
discipline,
any
specific
will be useful
for meteorologists,
in the hope that the material
oceanographers,
and astrophysicists, as well as for aerospace, mechanical, chemical, and pollupollution control

engineers.

of
methods used in
The scope

this

book

turbulence

did

not permit us to

research.

describe the experimental

Also, because

this

is an

introduction

to

xii

Preface

attempted to

an exhaustive
list of references.
give
devoted
to
as
well
as some major
the
The bibliography
turbulence
and
papers. The most comprehensiveof the recent books is Monin
Yaglom's
and Yaglom,
Statistical Fluid Mechanics (Monin
1971); it contains a complete
of the current
journal literature.
bibliography
was
read
The manuscript
by Dr. S. Corrsin and Dr. J. A. B. Wills;
they
Hazuda
offered
typed several drafts
many valuable comments. Miss Constance
A preliminary
set of lecture
and
notes was compiled in
the final manuscript.
Several
of
students
contributed to the
A.
S.
1967
generations
Chaplin.
by Mr.
of the material. While
this book, the
writing
developmentof the presentation
research
authors
received
support from the Atmospheric SciencesSection,

we have not

turbulence,

lists

National

Science

HT

JLL

June 1970

Foundation,

books

under grants

GA-1019 and

GA-18109.

BRIEF GUIDEON

USE

THE

The theory of turbulence

OF SYMBOLS

contains

many,

equations of

the

often crude,
their

approximations.

Many

formal

consequences)
We adopt the
therefore do not really permit the use of the equality
sign.
If
in
is
the
involved
an
smaller than
error
following
usage.
writing
equation
For crude approximaabout
30%, we use the approximate equality
sign s.
~ is
approximations
the
that the nondimenmeans
symbol
employed. This generally
nondimensional
is not greater
coefficient
that would make the relation
an equation
than
5 and not smaller than
If
the
of
of interest
value
the
coefficientis
1/5.
if the
is to be comparedwith
data or if a
(for example,
theory
experimental
about the coefficient is in order),
the equality sign is used and the
statement
is entered explicitly. If the problem
coefficient
discussed is the selection of
relations

the

(except

make

does not

of motion, the order symbol

0, which
on the value of the coefficient,is employed.
commitment
terms have been selected,the equality
sign is used in the
that
the
with
the
error involved
understanding
equation,
in an equation

simplified
made arbitrarily

resulting
be

(often

any

dominant

the

After

can

terms

dominant

small

a Reynolds number)

completely consistent,

clear in

and

motion

but

by

without

in

most

the

increasing
limit.

We do

cases the

parameter

in

not claim that

of

meaning

the

the
we

problem
have

symbols

been

is made

text.

the

it may sometimes

Though

reminder

that

turbulent flow

without

relatively

few

recourse

seem confusing, this

usage

serves

be made
to experimental evidenceon that
no data are available,all one can
accurate

statements can

as a continuing
about
a turbuflow.

If

one

has

do is to find the
and other scales) and to
time,
(velocity, length,
of the
make crude (say within a factor of two) estimates of the properties
flow. This is no mean accomplishment;
it allows one to design an experiment
in a sensible way
in which
form
and to select the appropriate nondimensional
the experimental data should
be presented.

to study a
characteristic

flow

for

which

parameters

1
INTRODUCTION

flows

Most
The

occurring

the

earth's

the

in

conditions); jet
are

clouds

cumulus
of

layer

boundary

very stable

in

and

nature

in

in

Gulf

in

possibly

(except

troposphere are turbulent;

The water currents below the surface

the

motion.

turbulent

applications are turbulent.

is turbulent

atmosphere

streams

are turbulent,; the

oceans

in engineering
upper

is a turbulent

Stream

wall-jet

of

kind

of similar stars are in

The photosphere of the sun and the photospheres
interstellar gas clouds (gaseousnebulae)
are turbulent;
turbulent
the
motion;
in the solar wind is presumably a turbulent
wake of the earth
wake.
Boundary
are turbulent.
Most combustion processes
layers growing on aircraft
wings
flow.

is

in pipelines
fluid

homogenize

or gases. The flow

even depend on

often

and

turbulence

involve

oil

Chemical

turbulent.

it;

engineers

the

flow

of natural

and to accelerate chemicalreaction

water
in rivers and canals
is turbulent;

mixtures
of

and
ships, cars, submarines,
of turbulence clearly is an

aircraft

are

in

and

the wakes of
The

study

has a

which

activity,

and

in liquids

rates

motion.

turbulent

interdisciplinary

gas
to mix

use turbulence

very

laminar flow is the exception,

dynamics
range of applications. In fluid
the
rule:
one must have small dimensions and
viscosities
to
high

wide
not

encounter

laminar

flow.

flow of

The

lubricating

oil

is a

in a bearing

typical

example.

turbulent

Many
the

for

of

plume

In the

be observed

flows can

a smokestack

classroom, some

of

easily;

is not time wasted for a student

films
produced
by the National

of

turbulence.
Committee

the

Dynamics Films (for example, Stewart,

Fluid

clouds or

cumulus

watching

1969)

may

be used

to

advantage.

1.1
The

nature

of turbulence

Everyone who, at one time or another,

some idea about the nature
difficult to give a precise definition
of the characteristics of turbulent
some
smokestack has

Irregularity
turbulent

impossible;

has observed the

of
of

efflux

from

flow. However,
All one can
turbulence.

turbulent

is very

do is

list

flows.

or randomness,
characteristic is the irregularity,
flows. This makes a deterministic approachto turbulence
instead, one relies on statistical methods.

One

a smokeit

of
problems

all

Introduction

of turbulence, which
causes
rapid mixing and
increased rates of momentum,
heat, and mass transfer, is another important
feature
of all turbulent flows. If a flow pattern
looks random but does not
The

Diffusivity

spreading of velocity fluctuations

not turbulent. The contrailsof

exhibit
surely

turbulent

the
excluding

single

prevents

when

turbulent

of attack, it increases
of the resistance

the

aircraft

are a case in point:

excludthe contrails have a very
flow is not turbulent,
even

surrounding

it

is

it was

heat transfer

of

in

flow

and ocean

winds

between

fluid,

through

is
of turbulence
generated. The diffusivity
feature as far as applicationsare concerned:
it
most
important
large) angles
boundary-layer separation on airfoils at large (but nottoo

it was

though

a jet

the
just behind
aircraft,
for several miles.Such

region
diameter

constant

nearly

the

diffusivity

rates

pipelines,

in

machinery

of all

and it increases

kinds,

it

source

is the

momentum

transfer

currents.

flows always occur at high

Turbulent
Reynolds
often originates as an instability
of laminar flows if the
are related to the internumber becomes too large.The instabilities
Reynolds
of viscous
terms and nonlinear
inertia
terms
in the equations of mointeraction
is very complex:
the mathematics
interaction
of nonlinear
motion. This
partial
been
to
differential
has
not
a
where general soluequations
developed
point
solutions can
be given. Randomness and
combine
to make the equanonlinearity
equations of
turbulence
nearly intractable; turbulence theory suffers from the
absence of sufficiently
mathematical
methods. This lack of tools
powerful
all theoretical
makes
to problems in turbulence
trial-and-error
approaches
affairs. Nonlinear concepts and
mathematical
tools
have to be developed
the way; one cannot rely
on the equations
answers
to
alone to obtain
along
makes
turbulence
This situation
research both frustrating
and
problems.
it is one of the principal
unsolved
challenging:
problems in physics
today.

Large Reynolds

numbers

Turbulence

numbers.

Three-dimensional

vorticity

dimensional.Turbulence
For

vorticity.

of

description
characterize

were

two

known
substantially

this

turbulence
dimensional,

two

is characterized

by high levels

vorticity dynamics plays an

flows. The random vorticity
could
not maintain themselves if
since

an important

and three

is rotational

Turbulence

reason,

turbulent

as vortex

fluctuations

of

in

velocity

flow.
in

the

char-

fluctuations

vorticity-maintenance

stretching is absent in two-dimensional

such as the cyclones
dimensional,

des-

the

that

fluctuations
the

vor-

fluctuating

role

essential

mechanism

Flows that

atmosphere

are

which

1.1 The nature

of turbulence

determine

the weather,

characteristics

may

somewhere

be

or

shear

by

are not

since

even though

themselves,

strongly by small-scale
which interacts
buoyancy),

In summary, turbulent
flows
For example, random
ticity.
turbulentmotion

turbulence

influenced

always

the

with

high levels of

exhibit

waves on the surfaceof

char-

their

turbulence

(generated
flow.
large-scale

fluctuating

are not

oceans

vor-,
in

turbu-

they are essentially irrotational.

always dissipative. Viscous shear stresses

increases
the internal
of the fluid
at
work which
deformation
perform
energy
of the turbulence.
the expense of kinetic energy
Turbulence needs a continuthese
losses. If no energy is
to
make
for
viscous
of
continuous
up
energy
supply

Dissipation

are

flows

Turbulent

waves
such as gravity
motions,
supplied, turbulence decays rapidly. Random
sound
waves (acoustic noise), have
in planetary
atmospheres and random
In other words,
losses and, therefore, are not turbulent.
viscous
insignificant
the major distinction
random
waves and turbulence is that waves are
between

essentially
is essentially

nondissipative
dissipative.

Turbulence is a

Continuum
equations

of

flow are
this

point

far

ordinarily
in

often

continuum

larger

than

are dispersive),

phenomenon,

Even the smallest

mechanics.

fluid

they

(though

any

governed

scalesoccurring

molecular

while

length

in

turbulence

by the equaa turbulent

scale. We

return

to

1.5.

Section

flows are

flows

a feature of fluids
but of fluid
is
all
the
in
whether
flows. Most of the dynamics
same
fluids,
or gases,
if the Reynolds number of the turbulence is large
they are liquids
of turbulent
flows are not controlledby the
enough; the major characteristics
of
the
fluid
in
which
the
turbulence occurs. Since the
molecular
properties
of
are
each
flow pattern has certain
motion
individual
nonlinear,
equations
and boundary condicharacteristics
that are associated with
its initial
unique
conditions. No
solution to the Navier-Stokes equations is known;
consegeneral
in
available.
no
solutions
to
turbulent
flow
are
problems
consequently,
general
Since every flow is different, it follows that every turbulent
flow is different,
in common.
even though
turbulent
flows have many
characteristics
all
Students of turbulence,of course,
the uniqueness of any particular
disregard

Turbulent

Turbulence

is not

of turbulence

turbulent

flow and

concentrate on the discoveryand

describe entire classesor families

of turbulent

flows.

formulation

of laws

that

Introduction

on its environment. Becauseof

turbulence
depend
does not attempt to deal with all kinds and types of
of flows
way. Instead, theoreticians concentrateon families
like
and
wakes.
conditions,
jets,
boundary
layers,
boundary

The characteristicsof
turbulence

this,

flows
with

in

theory

a general
simple

fairly

1.2

Methodsof

analysis

been

flows have

Turbulent

than a century,

more

for

investigated

as was

but,

of problems
earlier, no general approach to the solution
The equations
of motion have been analyzed
in great detail,
but
it is still next to impossible to make
accurate
quantitative
predictions
without relying
data.
of
on
Statistical
studies
the
equations
heavily
empirical

in turbu-

remarked
turbulence

exists.

of motion

always lead to

equations.

This is called the

make

ad

often

(very

equal to the number

perturbation

to

have

schemes

solve

in making

problems

This book has

between

the equations
that

there are moreunknowns

in which

closureproblem

turbulence

of

assumptions to make the

hoc)

of

situation

theory:
number

of

than

one has to
equations

viable formal perturso far. The success of attempts

not been very
successful
turbulence
involved
depends
strongly on the inspiration
to construct

Efforts

unknowns.

the crucial assumption.

equations do not
capable of using)
gap

in

turbulence

been

designed

physical

simple

the equations

are of
needs

little

this
across.
In turbulence,
the
point
be willing
to use (and
story. One must
the
concepts based on experience to bridge
actual
flows. We do not want
to imply that

to get

entire

the

give

and

use;

spirited

we merely

inventors

want
just

to
as

make
badly

it unmistakably

clear

as dedicated analysts.

We recognize that this is a very specific, and possibly

biased, point of view. It
someone will succeed
in developing
in the future,
that at some time
is possible
a completely formal
of turbulence.
However, we believe that there is a
theory
in the
model
of turbulence
far better chance of developing a physical
spirit of
but it
be complete,
model
of the atom. The model need not
the Rutherford
no adequate
would
be very useful. The real challenge,it seems
to us, is that
model of turbulence
exists
today.
Turbulence
theory is limited in the same way that general fluid dynamics
would
be if the Stokes relation between stress and rate of strain in Newtonian
is not arbitrary:
one approach to turfluids were unknown. This illustration
between
stress and rate of strain
that
is to postulate a relation
turbulence theory
involves

a turbulence-generated

\"viscosity,\"

which

then

supposedly

plays a

12

of analysis

Methods

role similar to that

based on a superficial
these

the

in

path

Molecular viscosity

flows. Therefore,

the

on a

turbulence

indicate

of a turbulent

effects. In
rate

velocity
like

viscosity\"

\"eddy

(in

length\"

\"mixing

fluctuations

the

with

analogy

theory of gases)were

kinetic

by Taylor,
developed
in Chapter 2.
concepts are studied in detail
is a characteristic of
is a property
of flu ids; turbulence
of
use of an eddy viscosity to represent the
effects

to be

liable

misleading. However, current research

exhibit

they

semilocal theory

theories of

turbulence

in the analysis.

stage

Orszag,

Edwards,

recent

In

mean

relating

the

make

crucial

memory
one
stress to the
so that

at a
of theoreticians

assumptions

a group

years,

\"fluids,\"

in time,

and others)

Meecham,

speak

reasons,

and suffer

viscoelasticity

the memory is fading

circumstances,

to develop a
of strain.

early

way

turbulent

in simple flows, we may, for analytical

that,
of a turbulent flow. Turbulent
fluid
than
rather

favorable

(Kraichnan,

and

molecular

concepts

Phenomenological

is

flow

Phenomenological
fairly

the

This approach is
motions
trans-

flows.

laminar

in

in which

way

viscosity)

able

be

mean

and the

are non-Newtonian:

however,

may

between

These

others.

and

seemsto

viscosity

quantities.

molecular

(to replace
mean free

Prandtl,

molecular
resemblance

and heat

transfermomentum

transfer

of

have

very

developed

and sophisticated statistical

of turbulence,
in
the
theories
hope of
does
not need ad hoc assumptions
(see
Orszag,
finding a formalism that
are needed in these
1971). So far, however, rather
arbitrary
postulates
is so overwhelming
too. The mathematical complexity of this work
theories,
that
a discussion
of it has to be left out of this book.

formal

Dimensional analysis
turbulent

argue that

One

is dimensional

flows

some

aspect

of the

most

analysis.
of the structure

In

tools

powerful

of

turbulence

study of

in the

circumstances

many

it is

turbu-

possible to

only on a few

depends

a situation prevails, dimensional

If such
independent variables or parameters.
between
the dependent and independent
methods often dictate the relation
for a numerical
results
in a solution
that is known
variables, which
except
of this is the form of the spectrum of
coefficient. The outstanding
example
kinetic
turbulent
energy in what is called the \"inertial
subrange.\"

invariance

Asymptotic
of

the

characterized

asymptotic
by

very

Another
of

properties

high Reynolds

frequently

used

turbulent

flows.

numbers; it

seems

approach
Turbulent
reasonable

is to

exploit some
are char-

flows

to require

that

Introduction

in the limit as
behave
descriptions of turbulence should
properly
number
This
is
often
a
Reynolds
approaches infinity.
very powerful conwhich
makes fairly specific results possible. The development
of the
constraint,
The limit
theory of turbulent
boundary
layers (Chapter 5) is a case in point.
in an asymptotic
small
approach is related to vanishingly
process involved
effects
of the molecular viscosity.Turbulent
almost
flows
tend to be
indepenindependentof
the viscosity
(with the exception of the very smallest scales of mothe
behavior leads to such concepts as \"Reynolds-number
motion);
asymptotic
any

proposed

the

Local
the

invariance).

(asymptotic

similarity\"

Associated

invariance

of

concept
the

space

appear to

of the

be controlled

but distinct
or

\"self-preservation\"

characteristics

geometries,

with,

turbulent

mainly

local

from, asymptotic

invariance.
motion

by the

In simple
at some point

is

invariance
flow
in

geomtime

immediate environment.

and

The

scales of the flow

if the
may
vary slowly downstream, but,
to permit adjustment to the gradually
time scales are small enough
it is often possibleto assume
is
the turbulence
that
changing
environment,
similar
if nondimensionalized
and
with local length
everywhere
dynamically
time
scales. For example, the turbulence intensity
in a wake is of order
is the local width of the wake and
is the average
\320\261
\320\261
where
\320\254\320\270/\320\254\321\203,
\320\2531/\320\254\321\203
time

and

length

turbulence

mean-velocity gradient
Because turbulence
nonlinear

equations,

nonlinear

systems

one

across

the wake.

consists of fairly large fluctuations

may expect a behavior like that

with

governed
exhibited

limit cycles. Such behavior should

be largely

by nonby simple
indepen-

the characteristics of the limit cycle should depend

on
the
of
the
only
dynamics
system and the constraints
imposed on it. In the
same way, one expects that
the
structure
of turbulence in a given class of
shear flows might
be in some state of dynamical
in which local
equilibrium

independent
of

initial

conditions;

should approximately
balance local losses.If the energy
energy
of
mechanisms in turbulence
are sufficiently
rapid, so that effects
that this limitpast events do not dominate the dynamics, one may
expect
is governed
cycle type of equilibrium
mainly by local parameters such as scale
and
can
times.
Simple dimensional methods and similarity
arguments
lengths
of
in this kind
situation. Becauseone may want to look for
be very useful
in the spatial and the spectral domain), the problem
local scaling laws (both
one.
and time scales becomesan important
of finding
length
appropriate
inputs

of

transfer

Indeed, scaling laws

are at the

heart

of turbulence

research.

1.3 The

of turbulence

origin

1.3

The origin

turbulence

of

In flows

are

which

large Reynolds

laminar,

originally

numbers.

Laminar

pipe

at
instabilities
turbulence arises from
flow becomes turbulent at a Reynolds

in the
of 2,000
and diameter)
number (based on mean velocity
neighborhood
avoid creating small disturbances that
unless great care is taken
to
might
flow. Boundary layers in zero
transition
from laminar
to turbulent
trigger
become unstable at a Reynolds number U8*/v = 600
pressure
gradient

is the displacement thickness, U is the free-streamveloF*

the kinematic viscosity).Free shear flows, such as the flow in a
numbers because of an
mixing layer, become unstable at very low Reynolds
inviscid
mechanism
that does not operate in boundary-layer
and
instability
in
be
seen
the
smoke
of
transition
can
pipe flow. Early
rising
easily
stages
from a cigarette.
approximately

v is

velocity, and

On the

other

to

environment

hand,

turbulence

obtain

energy.

cannot
A

common

maintain

source

but depends on
of energy for turbulent

itself

its

in the
mean flow; other sources, such as buoyIf
flows are generally
shear
flows.
turbulence
maintenance
arrives in an environment where there is no shearor other
mechit
and
flow
the
number
decreases
the
tends
to
mechanism,
decays:
Reynolds
become laminar
The classic example is turbulence produced by a grid
again.
in uniform flow in a wind tunnel.
Another
to make a turbulent
flow
laminar
or to prevent a laminar
way
flow
from becoming turbulent is to provide for a mechanism
that consumes
turbulent kinetic energy. This situation
flows with
in turbulent
prevails
fields
low
and
in atmosat
numbers
imposed
magnetic
magnetic Reynolds
flows
with
to
a stable density stratification,
cite two examples.
atmospheric
to turbulent flow
from
laminar
Mathematically, the details of transition
are rather
in laminar
of the theory
of instabilities
poorly understood. Much
deal
flows is linearized theory, valid
for
small
it
cannot
disturbances;
very
with the large fluctuation
levels
flow. On the other hand,
in turbulent
almost
all of the theory of turbulent
is asymptotic
at
flow
accurate
theory, fairly
numbers
but
inaccurate
and
for
very high Reynolds
Reynolds
incomplete
numbers at which the turbulence
cannot maintain itself. A noteworthy
excepexception is
the theory
of wind-tunnel
turbulence
of the late stage of decay

velocity

buoyancy,

is shear

fluctuations

exist

too.

Turbulent

(Batchelor, 1953).
Experiments

have

shown

that

transition

is commonly

initiated

by

a pri-

Introduction

which

mechanism,
\321\202\320\260\320\263\321\203
instability

dimensional
intense

which

arise at random

positions

merge with each other

field of developed turbulent
and

when

wake flows become turbulent

become

they

In other
which

in this

times.

random

at

flow.

causes vortices

that

instability

disturbances

three-dimensional

localized

generates

an

is two

dimensional. The

are generally
secondary motions, which
unstable
themselves. A sequence of this nature

become

and

cases

simple

produces

instability

primary

in

three
gen-

\"spots\,

(turbulent

These spots

rapidly

grow

large and numerous

to

form

cases, turbulence originates from

subsequently

become

unstable.

Many

way.

1.4
turbulence

of

Diffusivity

or

mix

momentum,

moisture.

and

characteristic of turbulent

motion
is its ability to transport
such as heat, particles,
kinetic energy, and contaminants
and
several
The rates of transfer
are
orders of magnimixing
than the rates due to molecular
diffusion:
the heat transfer and
rates
of turbulent combustion in an incinerator
are orders of
than
the corresponding rates in the laminar
flame of a
larger

The outstanding

magnitude greater

combustion
magnitude

candle.
with an

laminar and
imposed length scale Contrasting
exercise not only for getting acquainted
with turbulence but also for recognizing the multifaceted role of the Reyone has a room (with
a characteristic
linear dimension
Reynolds number.
Suppose
L) in which a heating element (radiator) is installed.If there is no air motion
in the
diffusion. This process is
room, heat has to be distributed
by molecular
is
the
diffusion
the
(\320\262
equation
governed by
temperature;
7 is the thermal
assumed
to be constant):
diffusivity,
Diffusion

in a

turbulent

diffusion

problem

rates

is a useful

\321\2122\320\265
-\321\214\320\262
=

d-4.1)

?\342\200\224.

Of
We

OX-OXj

are

boundary

A.4.1)

of A.4.1)
looking for a specific solution
want
to
the
we
discover
Instead,

not

conditions.

with

the simple

may be interpreted
\320\2240

-~7T7,

tools of dimensional

analysis.

with

a given set

of

grossconsequences

of

Dimensionally,

A.4.1)

as

\320\2240

A.4.2)

1.4 Diffusivity

where

of turbulence

characteristic

is a
\320\220\320\262

temperature

difference.

From

we obtain

A.4.2),

A.4.3)
Tm~^,
relates

which

parameters

the

time scale

and

If

7.

room is 5 m,

of the

of 106 sec (more

the

7~m

of

linear dimension L

characteristic

scale Tm of this
100 h). In this estimate
time

the

than

diffusion to the independent

the molecular

diffusion

(the length

the value of

scale)

is of the

process

7 for

air

order

at room

and pressure has beenused G = 0.20 cm2/sec).

We conclude that
in
diffusion
is rather ineffective
heat through a room.
molecular
distributing
On the other hand, even fairly weak motions, such as those generated
by
small density
differences (buoyancy), can disperseheat through
the room
motion of the air in the room may also
quickly. Suppose that the turbulent
temperature

motions are present

of scales
are most effectivein
heat and since the largest possible scalesof motion
can be no
distributing
of
the
room.
a
than
the size
We
also need
characteristic
(this
larger
velocity \320\270
\320\270
of as an rms amplitude
be thought
of the velocity fluctuations
in the
may
scale u, the characteristic
room). For flow with a length scale L and a velocity
be characterizedby
This is a fair

< L).

time

the

length

scale L (that is,

since

assumption,

large-scale motions

is

d-4.4)

\320\223~-.
\320\270

Apparently,
radiator
buoyant

heats

Tx can be
the air

determined
its

if \320\270
can

only

acceleration

Suppose the

be estimated.

by \320\220\320\262
degrees
which
is
of
order
0.3
\320\264\320\220\320\262/\320\262,
in

This causes a

Kelvin.

vicinity

m/sec2 if

- 10\302\260K.
\320\220\320\262

If it
near
the surface of the radiator.
probably occurs only
=
is
h
0.1 m, the kinetic energy
of the air above the radiator
has a height
is of order 0.03 (m/secJ per unit
mass.
This corresponds
to a
which
\320\264\320\277\320\220\320\262/\320\262,
Much
of the kinetic energy, however, is lost becauseof
velocity of 17cm/sec.
in the room (the air near the ceiling
vertical temperature gradient
the stable
\320\270
of
tends to be hotter than the air near the floor). A characteristic
velocity
This

order
= 5
\320\270

acceleration

5 cm/sec may
cm/sec

still have to

be a reasonableaverage

and L = 5 m,
rely

in the

temperature

small

as about

on

throughout

the

room.

With

or about 2 min. Of course, we

Tt
molecular
diffusion to even out small-scaleirregularities
distribution. However, the turbulence generateseddiesas

1 cm

(this

becomes

estimate

100 sec,

can

be obtained

with

simple

equations

Introduction

10

based on the dissipation of kinetic

The temperature gradients
by molecular diffusion

few seconds if

t=

1 cm.

Diffusion

by

random

moleculardiffusion.
time

scale

Tt

Tm

Tm is

with

associated
in

The

a time

the inverse of the

is
time

turbulent

1.5).

eddies are smeared

out

is only

compared to
to
the
molecular
Tt

rapid

very
scale

Pecletnumber:

uL

gases the heat conductivity

the kinematic
viscosity v (for air vly
number), and since we are discussing
Since for

7\"t

Section

\321\203 \321\203

\320\270
L2

without

in

(see Section7.3),which

apparently

of the

are discussed

these small

of order^2/7

motion
ratio

those

energy;

is of
\321\203
=

0.73;

only

the same

order of magnitude

this ratio is

as the

known

as

Prandtl

orders of magnitude, we may

write

compromise,
v

is about
15,000.
example, the Reynolds number \320\257
flow
This exercise shows that the Reynolds number of a turbulent
may be
time scale to a molecular time
scale
that
interpreted as a ratio of a turbulence
would prevail in the absence of turbulence in a problem
with the same length
This point of view
is often
more reliable than
of \320\257
scale.
as a ratio of
thinking
terms
inertia
to viscous terms in the governing
of
equations. The latter
point
view tends to be misleading
because
at high Reynolds numbers viscous and
other
diffusion
effects tend to operate on smaller
scales than inertia
length

In our

effects.

Eddy

diffusivity

complicated,
means of a

it

is

properly

Since the equations governing

to treat the diffusive
tempting
chosen

effective

diffusivity.

turbulent
nature

are very
of turbulence
by

In doing

flow

so, the idea of

the turbulence itself is partly

If we use an
discarded.
trying
of a fluid
effective
we tend to treat turbulence as a property
diffusivity,
of a flow. Conceptually, this is a very dangerous
rather than
as a property
approach. However, it often makes the mathematics a good deal easier.
of turbulence
If the
could be representedby a simple, constant
effects
for the diffusion
should
of heat by
scalar diffusivity,
one
be able to write
to

turbulent

understand

motions,

1.4 Diffusivity

11

30

\320\2542\320\262

9f

dxfiX

in which
but

of turbulence

\320\232
is

sometimes

the

called \"eddy\" diffusivity

(often
diffusivity
representative
called the \"exchange coefficient\" for heat). In order to make

of reality,
one must insist that the
this equation at least a crude representation
be chosen
value of \320\232
such that the time scale of the hypothetical
turbulent
diffusion process is equal to that of the actual mixing process. The time scale
with A.4.7) is roughly
associated
L2
A.4.8)

T~\342\200\224,
\320\232

and

the

actual time

scale is 7\"t,

given

by A.4.4).

Equating

with
\320\223

7\"t,

one

K~uL.
It

A.4.9)
that

be noted

should

A.4.9), with
practical

coefficients

\320\243

that

estimate,
may

determined

experimentally

uL

(or

diffusivity

and

\320\232 \320\232

-a

dimensional

which

cannot

are used

coefficients,

predict

Expressions like

be needed.

in

frequently

applications.

The eddy

viscosity

is a

this

numerical values of

the

finds

the thermal

viscosity)

\320\232
may

be compared

with the

kinematic

conductivity 7:

\320\224.

A.4.10)

number may also be interpreted

to molecular
viscosity. A note
of
In
most
flow
though.
problems,
length
many different
of Reynolds numbers based on these
scales exist, so that the interpretation
scales may not always
be as straightforward
as in the example used
length
here.
It cannot be stressedtoo strongly
that
the eddy diffusivity
\320\232
is an artifice
not
the effects of turbulence faithfully.
which may or may
We
represent
One concludes
as

this

that

of apparent
warning is in order,

a ratio

this question

investigate

Diffusion

the diffusivity
The boundary

in

a problem
of
layer

particular

Reynolds

(or turbulent)

viscosity

in Chapter

carefully

with an

turbulence,
in the

2.

imposed time

we look at

boundary

As another

scale

layers

atmosphere is exposed to the

in the
rotation

example of
atmosphere.
of the earth.

12

Introduction

a rotating

In

is twice

which

If the

frame of reference,flows
are accelerated
the vector product of the flow velocity

of the frame

angular velocity
value

local vertical is about

the

to

parallel

is f/2,

reference

it

atmos-

that

follows

an imposed time scale of order 1/^. At a latitude of 40

z axis is
of f for a Cartesian coordinate system
whose

have

flows

atmospheric

degrees,the

of

by the Coriolis force,

and the rotation
rate.

10~4

sec\021

the Coriolis

is called

(f

parameter).
were

If
the
boundary
layer in the atmosphere
governed by a diffusion equation like A.4.1),
scales would be relatedby

so that

laminar,
its length

it

and

With v = 0.15

cm2 sec\021

and

however,

the

reality,

turbulent;

= 104
\320\242=\320\2231

this

sec, this gives Lm

atmospheric boundary
is about 103 m A

thickness

typical

appreciationfor
with

time

A.4.11)

L2m~vT.

In

be

would

by replacing

v by

\320\232
in

is

layer
km).

A.4.11)

= 40 cm.

One

always

nearly

can obtain

and substituting

some
for

\320\232

This yields

A.4.9).

A.4.12)

Lx~uT,

of
course,
merely rephrases A.4.4). In turbulent
boundary-layer
the
characteristic
of the turbulence
is typically
about
flows,
velocity
^ of
estimate
that
the mean wind
For a wind speed of 10m/sec, we thus
speed.
With
7\" = 1/f=
104 sec, A.4.12) then
u~0.3m/sec.
yields
Z_t~3x103m
thickness.
is indeed
of the same order as the observed
C km), which
From a somewhat different point of view,
we may argue that turbulent

which,

velocity u, exposed to a Coriolisacceleration

It
must
have a size (length scale) of order
u/f.
thickness
we can equate eddy size and
should be noted that
boundary-layer
flows the larger
eddies
seem to have sizes
turbulent
only because in most
in a direction
normal to the
size of the flow
comparableto the characteristic
or mixing,
the large
mean flow field (Figure 1.1). In estimates of diffusion
~
because
eddies are relevant
(\320\232 u/increases
they perform most of the mixing
eddies
which

with eddy
Arguments

determine
coefficient

a characteristic

with

imposes

a time

scale

Mf,

size).
of

this

nature

are often supplemented

the numerical coefficient in formulas

cannot
be found by dimensional

atmosphericboundary

layer,

like
reasoning.

by

experiments

because
A.4.12),
In the case of

to
this

the

1.4

13

of turbulence

Diffusivity

Figure 1.1. Large eddies in a turbulent boundary layer. The flow above the boundary
has a velocity I/; the eddies have velocities u. The largest eddy size it) is comparable
to the boundary-layer
thickness
between
the turbulence and the flow
(Lt). The interface
is quite sharp (Corrsin and Kistler, 1954).
above the boundary layer
layer

=
Lx

A.4.13)

\\ulf

would give

close

very

agreement

between

\"theory\"

and

experimental

evi-

evidence.

A.4.12),

A.4.11),

Using

thicknessesof

laminar

the

and T = Mf, we find the ratio between the

to be
and turbulent atmospheric boundary
layers

1/2
Lm

This

is the

square root of
layer

boundary

1/2
\320\276

A.4.14)

\\fu)

f\\v)

in

the

the

number

Reynolds

atmosphere,

associated

with

since u/f is proportional

the

turbulent

to the actual

is clearly
associated
\320\257
example, the Reynolds number
with the ratio
of
the turbulent
and molecular diffusion
scales:
length
flow penetrates much
turbulent
into
the
than
laminar
deeper
atmosphere
~ 107.
flow. In our example, \320\257
The results obtained here concerning
the different
aspects of the Reynolds
number may be summarized
that in flows
with
by stating
imposed length
is proportional
scales the Reynolds number
to the ratio
of time scales, while
in flows
with imposed time scalesthe Reynolds number
is proportional
to the
of most flows
square of a ratio of length scales. Since the Reynolds numbers
are large, these relations clearlyshow
that
is a far more effective
turbulence
length

diffusion

scale

Lt.

agent

In this

than

molecular

motion.

14

Introduction

The

been taken

scale has

time

or

turbulence as a multiple

not be

length-scale

length

flows are far

turbulent

Most

would

only a single

because

crude

rather

account.

into

introduction

this

complicated;

here are

discussed

examples

complete without

more
at

look

problem.

1.5

Length scales in
The

fluid

flows

turbulent

dynamics

of several length
existence
the description and analysis
scales

length

bounded

and

Incidentally,

at

of flows

high

scales,
of

some

of which

flows.

is characterized

numbers

Reynolds

assume very

In turbulent

bounded from above by

from below by the diffusive
this
is the reason why
spectral

exists,

the

roles

specific
a wide

dimensions

of the

action

in

range of

flows

of molecular

flow

field

viscosity.
motion is

of turbulent

analysis

the

by

useful.
Laminar

boundary

in laminar

scales

Let us take a look at the problem of multiple

layers
shear flows. For steady flow of an incompressible fluid with

constant viscosity, the

^

1
\320\252\320\270,
_

Navier-Stokes
equations

are

\320\255\321\200\320\2552\321\206| ^

A51)

\321\200
\320\255\321\205,\320\255\321\205\321\203\320\255\321\205\321\203'
\320\255\321\205,

One

would

be tempted

to estimate the

and
characteristicvelocity
viscous terms as vil/L2.The

inertia

terms

as U2/L

(U being a

the
length) and
=
that
ratio
of these terms is UL/v R, indicating
at large Reynolds
numbers. However,
terms should become negligible
viscous
to neglect
conditions
or initial conditions may make it impossible
boundary
field.
For
has
viscous terms everywhere in the flow
layer
example, a boundary
the no-slip
condition. This
to exist in the flow along a solid surface to satisfy
can be understood
for the possibility
that
viscous effects may be
by allowing
at high
associated with small length scales. The viscous terms can survive
the viscous
a new length scale ^such that
Reynolds numbers only by choosing
as the inertia
terms are of the sameorder
of magnitude
terms.
Formally,
L a characteristic

to

estimate

A.5.2)

U2IL~vU/t2.

The viscouslength
/

f~(-

t is

thus related to

the

scale

L of

the

flow

field

as

v V2
-\342\200\236-\302\273.

(,.5.3,

1.5

15

The viscous
(thickness)

the

downstream

the width
represents
to
the
relates
molecular
it

scale:

length

layer, because

boundary

it

across the flow,

away
the flow, of course, is negligible
momentum
by the flow itself.
deficit

momentum

of

Molecular diffusion

along
of

transport

from

the surface.
to the

compared

Figure

1.2 illustrates

situation.

this

and convective

Diffusive

may be

thickness

layer

in

is a transverse

length

of

diffusion

in turbulent flows

scales

Length

the

which

between

distinction

considerably smaller than

(or

layer

boundary

As A.5.3)

scales

length

\"diffusive\"

other

the

indicates, the boundaryfield

scale L of the flow

laminar shear

length

flow)

The

develops.

the

across

scale

and

flow

is essential
to the understanding
of
\"convective\" length scale along the flow
all shear flows, both
laminar
and turbulent.
are
Many shear flows
very
is much
slender: their width
smaller than their
(that is, the distance
\"length\"
some

from

length scales

longitudinal
approximations

t/L

-* 0

most

is

that

in

the

for

like
and

wide difference
regions

flows

leads to

of motion;

very

without

attractive
this

lateral

and

simplifying

feature,

analysis

flow

length

fields.

in weather
wakes, fronts
systems,
is not a semantic accident. Because
of the
as
these shear flows are identifiable
distinct
and distinct
dynamics
regions have distinct

layers,

boundary
Gulf

the
in

asymptotic approximations associatedwith

flow becomes independent of most of its environboundary conditions imposedby the overall flow. The
of the

shear

the

words

jetstreams,

shear

in

equations

separationbetween

to impossible.
powerful

environment,except

use of

the

in

would be next
The

origin). The wide

defined

suitably

Stream
scales,

These

diffusion

convection

Figure 1.2.
flat plate.

Length

scales,

diffusion,

and convection in

a laminar

boundary

layer

over

16

Introduction

characteristics;

the

are governed by specific

approximation ?/L+ 0, may
other
parts of the flow

they

asymptotic

equations governing

equations
be

of motion,

in

which,

simpler than the

substantially

field.

to compare turbulent
shear
flows to
laminar ones, even though
we
can do so at this
moment
only in a very
and velocity
scales in a turbulent
rudimentary way. The relevant
length
are
in
illustrated
The
1.3.
turbulent
eddies
transfer
layer
Figure
boundary
momentum
deficit away
from
the
surface. With characteristic velocity
of order
fluctuations
thickness
increases
u, the boundary-layer
/presumably
Turbulent

boundary

roughly as d{/dt~
origin of the boundary
time

(convective

layers

In

(vtI/\320\263;

with

In

analogy

turbulent

time

interval

the downstream position L is of order L/U

layer
so that we may estimate
(~ ut ~ uL/U. In effect,
we

scale),

to A.4.4)

layers, the
A.5.2,1.5.3)

and A.4.12),

layers

time

\"diffusion\"

could also have

we thus

scale t/u
been

used

to the convectivetime
for laminar
distance

diffusion

<f

boundary

increases

as

is retrieved.
can

write

the scale relations for

as

t/L ~ u/U,
(/\320\270

the

between

elapsed

and

laminar boundary
t = L/U, the result

boundary

5.5). The

Section

\320\270
(see

are equating the turbulent

scale
L/U. This procedure
layers.

is useful

It

A.5.4)

A.5.5)

L/U.

\\\\

Figure

since the

1.3.
fluid

scales in a turbulent boundary

Length and velocity
layer. The time
at L passed the origin
of the boundary layer
is of order L/U.

passed

17

1.5Length

in turbulent flows

scales

These relations merely relatecharacteristic

not
be used as formulas to compute
The relation between
layer.
boundary
fundamental

we implicitly

assumption

situation with an imposed

external
flow, must have a time scalecommensurate

and velocities; they should

of spreading of a turbulent

lengths

rate

the

the time

A.5.5),
scales,
rephrases the
encountered earlier, that is, that in a
flow the turbulence, being
of the
part
with
the time scale of the flow. As

conflicts
with eddy-viscosity concepts.
assumption
the
turbulence
has
such
a large time scale:the small
Fortunately,
in turbulence have very
eddies
time scales, which tend to make
short
them
of the mean flow.
statistically
independent

see later,

will

we

not

introduce

the

If

and A.5.4) and

\022
that
u/U is of the order of 10
again get some appreciation for

we

A.5.3)

compare

data, which suggest

we
range of Reynolds numbers,
of
turbulent
shear
flows.This
growth
rapid

experimental

a wide

over

friction

turbulent

and

Laminar

this

all of

relatively

correspond to a larger

momentum.

coefficient.

drag

For a steady laminar

with length L, the drag
layer thickness at the

layer

boundary

D per unit
the

Estimating

is equal

span

loss as

momentum

end of the

in two-dimensional

we may

plate,

to

the

flow

total

pU2(, where if

rate
is a

a plate
of loss of

on

boundary-

put

A.5.6)

D~pUH.
The

coefficient

drag

should

growth

rapid

(or friction

coefficient) cd is defined

by

A.5.7)

A.5.6)

Substituting

A.5.3), we

cd~2f

into

A.5.7)

and

For a turbulent
boundary
layer,
end of the plate is proportional
is proportional
loss of momentum

D~puUt.

the

relation

for

t/L

= 2fl-1/2.

given

by

A.5.8)
other hand, the mass flow
(see Chapter 5), so that
(puC)U. Consequently,

on the

at the

of

using

obtain

to put

to

deficit
the

rate

A.5.9)

18

Introduction

The

drag

scale

then becomes,

coefficient

relation

if

use the

we

definition A.5.7)

A.5.10)

layer,

that the turbulence

shows

evidence

Experimental

with

Reynolds number, so that the

given by A.5.10), should

coefficient of a laminar
boundary
point. Similar conclusionsare valid
Equation

the

and

A.5.4),

has

A.5.4)

another

drag

be

level u/U varies

coefficient
of a turbulent

very

slowly

boundary

much
than the drag
greater
illustrates
this
1.4
A.5.8).
layer
Figure
for heat- and mass-transfer coefficients.
very

interesting implication.

In

boundary

layers

as L increasesbeyond
In jets
limit.
the
other
fluid
at
rest
and
shear
on
and
t/L
u/U
hand,
entering
approach
layers,
finite
as L-*<*>. This distinction
is
values
the
asymptotic
origin of
some important
in the asymptotic treatment of the two different
differences
while
types of flow. In particular,
jets and mixing layers spread linearly,
and wakes u/U

wakes
Even

and

and boundary
so, most

turbulent

t/L

tend

layers

grow

shear

to zero

slower

flows

the

spread

farther

slowly

downstream
enough

to

they

make<!7Z.

travel.

~* 0 a

useful approximation.

10-

The drag coefficient of a flat plate. The several curves drawn

turbulent
flow over the plate)
laminar, partially
(partially
transition is very sensitive to small disturbances.
Figure

1.4.

transition range

in the
illustrate

transithat

1.5Length

19

scales

in turbulent flows

Small scales in turbulence

So far only the largest eddy sizes in turbulent
flows have been considered, becausethe large eddies do most of the transport
eddies
are as
of momentum
and contaminants. We have suggested that
large
in
that the latter is the relevant length
scale
as the width of the flow
and
big
of the turbulence
with the mean flow. For
the analysis of the interaction
other
some of the other aspects of the dynamics of turbulence,
however,
scales
are
needed.
length
in turbulent
flows. At
scales
We
shall
to find the smallest length
attempt
in smoothing
out velocity
small length scales, viscosity can be effective
is due to the nonlinear
fluctuations. The generation of small-scale
fluctuations
of
the generation
in the equations of motion; the viscousterms
terms
prevent
into heat.
small
small-scale
scales of motion by dissipating
energy
infinitely
This is characteristicof a small parameter like v (more properly 1/\320\257)with a
at large Reynolds numbers the
that
singular behavior. One might
expect
in a flow tend
is so small that
viscous
effects
of viscosity
relative magnitude
The
terms in the Navier-Stokes
small.
nonlinear
to become vanishingly
motion
at scales small enough
threat
counteract
this
by generating
equation
motion
The
smallest
scale
of
be
affected
to
adjusts
automatically
by
viscosity.
itself to the value of the viscosity. There seemsto be no way of doing away
with viscosity: as soon as the scale of the flow field becomes so large that
the flow creates
effects could conceivably be neglected,
small-scale
viscosity
at a
thus
effects
rates)
(in particular
motion,
dissipation
viscosity
keeping
very

level.

finite

these

that

large-scale
the

motions tend to

small-scale

Since

are

motions

statistically

turbulence and of the

small-scale

motion

should

mean

depend

small

have

time

scales, one may

independent of
If this

flow.
only

on

the

the

relatively

assume
slow

assumption makes sense,

rate at

it is

which

supplied

and on the kinematic viscosity.It is fair

large-scale
the
rate of energy supply
should
be equal to the rate of
dissipation,becausethe net rate of change of small-scale energy is relatedto
the
time
scale of the flow
as a whole.
The net rate of change,
therefore,
should
be small compared to the rate at which energy is dissipated. Thisis the
basis
for what is called Kolmogorov'suniversal
of the
theory
equilibrium
with energy by
to assume that

motion

the

small-scalestructure (Chapter8).
This

motion

discussion

suggests

that

the parameters

include at least the dissipation rate per unit

the

governing

mass

e (m2

small-scale

sec'3) and the

20

Introduction

kinematic

v (m2 sec '). With

scales as follows:

viscosity

and velocity

time,

7?=(^/e)i/4(
and

referred to as the

(see

velocity

one can form

parameters,

and Topper,

Friedlander

these scales are called

\"inner\"
scales.
The Reynolds number formed with

r\\

and

of length,

microscales

Kolmogorov

1962). In
v is

Russian

the

equal to

A.5.12)
that

illustrates

which

time,

literature,

one

Vv/v=1,
viscous

length,

A.5.11)

\321\203=(\342\200\236\342\202\254)>/4.
\321\202=(\342\200\236/\320\265I/2(

scales are

These

these

dissipation

the

adjusts

small-scale motion is quite

itself
to the energy supply

viscousand
by

adjusting

that

the

length

scales.
An
inviscid
estimate
for the dissipation rate
One can form an impression of
the differences betweenthe large-scale
and small-scale aspects of turbulence if
the
rate e can be related
to the length and velocity scalesof the
dissipation
A plausible assumption is to take the rate at which large
turbulence.
large-scale
to small eddies to be proportional
to the reciprocal
of
eddies supply
energy
unit
mass
the time scaleof the large eddies. The amount of kinetic
energy
per
is proportional to u2; the rate of transfer of
in
the
turbulence
large-scale
to u/f, where if represents
the size of the
energy is assumed to be proportional
the
the
see
later
Prelates
to the
eddies
or
width
of
flow.
We
shall
that
largest
methods.
scales
of turbulence,
which can be measured
by statistical
\"integral\"
here on as the \"integral
{ from
To avoid confusion, we identify
scale,\"
a more precise definition
for
2. Russian scientists speak of
Chapter
leaving
\"outer\"
scales rather than of integral
scales.
eddies is thus
of order
The
rate of energy supply
to
the small-scale
u2 'u/f=u3/?
be equal to
This energy
is dissipated
at a rate e, which
should
the

supply

rate.

\320\265~\320\270\321\2121(,

Hence (Taylor,

1935),
A.5.13)

states that viscous dissipation of energy

can
be estimated
from the
do not involve viscosity. In this sense, dissipation
large-scaledynamics, which
at a rate
in the sense that it proceeds
again is clearly seen as a passive
process
dictated by the inviscid inertial behavior of the large eddies.
estimate
The
should not be passedover
It is one of the
A.5.13)
lightly.

which

21

1.5Length

Sketch

1.5.

Figure

cornerstone

a significant
t/u. This

in turbulent flows

scales

of the

of ink

of a drop

breakdown

nonlinear

assumptions of turbulence theory; it

fraction
of their kinetic energy \\ u2
that
the nonlinear mechanism that
implies

in water.

large eddies lose

one \"turnover\" time

that

claims

within
makes

small

eddies out

of

characteristic
time permits. In other words,
\"dissipative\" as
is a strongly
nonlinear
turbulence
stochastic
damped
system. Some reresearchers
that this feature may be relatedto the entropy
believe
production
be kept in
concept embodied in the second law of thermodynamics. It should
ones

larger

is as

its

lose a

of their energy to
fraction
scale of their decay is t2 Iv, so that
their
viscous
energy loss proceeds at a rate vu2 It2, which is small compared
to u3It if the Reynolds number u?lv is large. The nonlinear
mechanism
is
smaller
the
and smaller eddies until
dissipative because it creates
eddy sizes
is almost
become so small
that
of their
viscous
kinetic
dissipation
energy
some
immediate. The reader
the
of this
for
gain
may
appreciation
vigor
or
milk that are put
in a glass of water
process by observing drops of ink

that

however,

mind,

direct viscous

(Figure

Ku(lvYva>

negligible

The time

(uflv)~U4

These relations

A.5.13)

Substituting

into

A.5.11),

we

obtain

= R ~3/4.

Tul(~Tlt= \320\253/vr1'2
v/u

effects.

1.5).

Scale relations
r\\l(~

large eddies

dissipation

A.5.14)

H'V2,

A.5.15)

= R~u*.
indicate

A.5.16)
that

the

length, time,

and

velocity

scales

of the

22

Introduction

in

separation

may
state
large

scales

suspect
of the small-scale

be

one

that

equilibrium

most evident at

will be

turbulence

a relatively

at

if

jittery

flows

different

with

scale is the size of

very

Reynolds
eddies: a

smallest

the

low Reynolds number has a relatively

Visual
evidence
of the small-scale

(Figure 1.6).
temperature

and index of
Temperature
with the smallest
associated
fluctuating

two turbulent

same integral

the

with

obtained

trembling,

of

structure

between

difference

structure

small-scale

such

eddies. The

so

numbers.

Reynolds

The main
numbers but
turbulent flow
can

are very much smaller than

those
of the largest
widens as the Reynolds number increases,
and the dynamical
that the statistical
independence

eddies

smallest

gradients
horizon

refraction gradients are

eddies; any

\"sees\" the
seen

are present

fluctuations

on a

optical

system

small-scale structure
very

hot

day

in

the

turbulence.

steepestif
that
of

\"coarse\"
structure

they

are

is sensitive
turbulence.

and the random

pattern

to

The
of

(a)

(b)

low Reynolds
1.6. Turbulent jets at different
Reynolds numbers: (a) relatively
Figure
number (adapted from a film sequence by R. W.
high Reynolds
number, (b) relatively
of
structure
used closely resembles the small-scale
pattern
Stewart, 1969). The shading
seen in shadowgraph pictures.
turbulence

1.5Length

23

light and dark

scales

in turbulent flows

seen on the

to a

next

wall

heating element

in

are good

sunlight

illustrations.
of a

dimensions

the

has

Vorticity

frequency (sec\021).

The

of the

vorticity

be proportional
to the reciprocal of the time scale r.
small-scale eddies should
From A.5.15) we concludethat the vorticity of the small-scaleeddiesis very
much
motion.
On the other hand, A.5.16)
larger than that of the large-scale

indicates that
large-scale

small-scale

the

This is

energy.

of

typical

most

motions,

is small compared to the large-scale

most of the energy is associatedwith

energy

all turbulence:

of the

with

associated

is

vorticity

small-scale

motions.

Molecularand

The Kolmogorov length

turbulent
motion.

scales

turbulent

the smallest scales occurring

convenient to demonstratethat

in

most

turbulent

and

time

scales are

At this point,
flows are indeed continuum

is

it

The
scales of length
decrease with
time
and
Kolmogorov
rates are associated with
large
increasing dissipation rates. High dissipation
\320\270
values
of
are
more
in
values of u. In gases,
to
occur
than
large
liquids.
likely
it is sufficient
to show that in gases
the smallest turbulent scales of
Therefore,
are normally
scales of motion. The
motion
molecular
very much larger than
the
scale
is
relevant
molecular
mean
free
length
%. The velocity scale of
path
in a gas is proportional to the
molecularmotion
of sound a in the gas.
speed
phenomena.

Kinetic
theory of
the kinematic viscosity

gases shows
of the

that

the

product

a%

is

A.5.17)

v~a%.

The ratio
might

to

proportional

gas:

of

mean free

the

be called a

microstructure

path

% to
Knudsen

the Kolmogorov length

scale
becomes (Corrsin,
number)

t\\ (this

1959)

A.5.18)

?\320\233}~\320\234/\320\2571/4,

we have used A.5.14) and

In A.5.18)
the turbulence
A.5.17).
=
ut/v and the turbulence Mach number M = \320\270/a
are used
Reynolds number \320\257
as independent variables. It is seen that turbulence might
interfere
with
molecular motion at high
Mach
numbers
and low Reynolds numbers. This
of situation
is unlikely to occur, becauseM is seldom
kind
large, but A is
illustration
is the situation
in gaseous
nebulae
typically
very large. A pertinent
where

(cosmic gas clouds)

(Spitzer, 1968).In

clouds

that

consist

mainly

of

neutral

Introduction

24

a~ 1 km/sec), while
~ 1011 m). With

the

it

A.5.18),

that

doubtful

seems

~ 10
is of order 10 (\320\270
km/sec,
number is of order 107 (t~ 1017m,
Reynolds
~
we compute that |/\321\202?
1/6. In this extreme case,

(viach

turbulent

the

hydrogen,

consist

number

the smallest

eddies perceive

In clouds

a continuum.

of
ionized
hydrogen,
temperatures are quite high,
M to about 1. The mean
about 10 km/sec and decreasing
free
remains
the
same
in
ionized
clouds
is
not
(the
path
%
roughly
density
from
different
that
in
neutral
so
that
R
reduces
to
about
clouds),
appreciably
for
the smallest
106. In this case, ?\320\233?~\320\267^,which
may be small enough
eddies to operate in a continuum.
time scale ?/a associated with
The ratio of the time scaler to the collision
molecular
motion
in
of
and
terms
R
M,
is,

that

mainly

a to

increasing

A.5.19)

ral%~RinM-2.
M =

For

10 and R

large as the

= 107, the
time

collision

ratio

is 1000.

time

scales are

and

with

the
fields)

length

scale of turbulence is 32

time

scale of the gas

molecules; for

= 1 and

times as
R = 106

be recognizedthat in ionized gases other length

associated with the motion of the microscopic particles
several other dynamical processes (radiation, cosmic rays,
that may be present, so that
rj may not always be a relevant

the
and

magnetic

smallest

It should

scale.

the smallest time

scales
in turbulent
motion tend to be much
than
molecular
time scales, the motion
of the
larger
gas molecules is in
statistical
so that molecular
effects may
approximate
equilibrium,
transport
indeed be representedby transport
coefficients
such as viscosity and heat
Because

conductivity.

from

equilibrium

require

treatment

These
were

with

representations would
large; the case %lt\\
the methods of statistical

become

~1

invalid
~

32
\321\202\320\260/|

if the

departures

would probably

re-

mechanics.

1.6

Outline

of the material

The bird's-eyeview of turbulence

sections
dynamics given in the preceding
In Chapter
sets the stage for a brief outline of this book.
2, we deal with
and mixing-length
of
theories. The dimensional
framework
eddy-viscosity
these theories is useful

in the

energy and vorticity

equations
some free shear flows like

analysis of typical
of turbulent
wakes

and

shear

flows.

In Chapter

flow are derived.In

jets are discussed. In

3, the

Chapter

4,

Chapter

5,

Problems

25

are

layers

boundary

and

diffusion

6. In Chapter

Chapter

To prepare a formal
an introduction

analyzed.

dynamics,

spectral

7, turbulent

diffusion

and

basis

for

the study of

to statistics is
mixing are studied.

given

in

The study of the spatial dynamics of turbulent

flows
that of the
precedes
spectral dynamics.There exist many similarities and analogies betweenspatial
and

dynamics

spectral

more easily

by

flow

shear

turbulent

number space
Chapter 8.

of turbulence. Also, spatial dynamics

can be visualized
to the subject. Oncesome
of the subtle features of
are understood, the dynamics of turbulence
in wave-

new

those

not

should

be too

perplexing. Spectral

is studied

dynamics

in

Problems

1.1
mass
scales

dissipation rate in a cumulus

energy
cloud, both per unit
entire cloud. Base your estimates
on velocity and length
of cumulus
clouds. Compute the total dissipation rate in
estimate the Kolmogorov microscalerj. Use p = 1.25 kg/m3
the

Estimate

for the

and

typical
Also

kilowatts.

andi>= 15x 10~6m2/sec.

1.2

source

cubical
of

energy

of volume

box

is present,

L3 is filled
so

with
the

that

fluid

in turbulent

turbulence

decays.

motion. No
Because the

scale may be assumed to be equal

Derive an expression for the decay of the
kinetic
to L at all times.
energy
number
of time.
As the turbulence decays, its Reynolds
as
function
a
|u2
decreases.
If the
number uL/v becomes smaller than
Reynolds
10, say, the
inviscid estimate e=u3/L should
be replaced
by an estimate of the type
e = cvu2/L2, becausethe weak eddies remaining at low Reynolds
numbers
to viscous dissipation. Compute \321\201
that
lose their energy
by requiring
directly
tor the
the dissipation rate is continuous at uL/v =10. Derive
an expression
decay of the kinetic energy when uL/v< 10 (this is called the \"final\" period
= 1 m/sec
=
of decay). If L = 1 m, v= 15 x 10~6m2 /sec and \320\270
at time \320\223
0, how
the
before
the
turbulence
final
of
take
enters
does
it
period
decay?
long
Assume that the effects of the walls of the box on the decay of the turbuturbulence may
this assumption
in any
be ignored. Can you
support
way?
turbulence is confined to

1.3

scale

The
v(fl

large

eddies

u, and a

the

box,

its length

in a turbulent

time scale tl?)

flow have a
=t/u.

The

length

smallest

scale/,

a velocity

eddies have a

length

Introduction

26

scale

scale \321\202.
Estimate
the characteristic
time t{r) of eddies of sizer, where
r is any
velocity v(r) and the characteristic
length in the range \321\206<\320\263<{.Do this by assuming that v(r) and t(r) are
determined by e and r only. Show that your results agree with the known
=
and time scales at \320\263
={ and \320\273
velocity
r). The energy spectrum of turbulence
=
=
is a plot of \320\225(\320\272)
\320\272\021
is the \"wave number\" associated
v2 (\320\272),
\320\272
where
1/\320\273
of size r. Find
with
eddies
an expression
for \320\225{\320\272)
and
your result
compare
scale 7j, a velocity

the

with

1.4
fly

data

An

the

the

through

50 m/sec.
length

a hot-wire

with

turbulent

The velocity
scale

of the large

is to

be designedso that
is the

the

length

expressed

noiselevel?

of

the

it

hot-wire

in terms

of

wing

tip

is to

layer of the atmosphereat a speed of

atmosphere are of order 0.5 m/sec,

eddies is about 100m. The hot-wire

will register the motion of the
anemometer

sensor be?

equivalent

its

in the

the

frequency

highest

anemometer mounted on

boundary

fluctuations

What

a time

8.

in Chapter

airplane

and

v,

If

turbulence

the

noise

will

encounter?

smallest

What

eddies.

should

electronic circuitry
is
what is the permissible

in the

intensity,

anemometer

of random

consists

Turbulence

treated with statistical

sophisticatedat this
values and

AND

OF MOMENTUM

TRANSPORT

TURBULENT

velocity

all

need to

not

does

analysis

decomposition of

a simple

stage;

it must

that

so

fluctuations,

The statistical

methods.

HEAT

into

quantities

be
be

mean

next few chapters.

We
shall
find that turbulent velocity fluctuations
can generate
large momenmomentumfluxes
between
different
of
a flow. A momentum
flux can be
parts
of as a stress;
turbulent momentum fluxes are commonly
called
thought
stresses. The momentum exchangemechanism
resemReynolds
superficially
resemblesmolecular
of momentum. The latter gives
rise to the viscosity
transport
of a fluid;
the turbulent momentum exchangeis often
by analogy,
reprerepresented

viscosity. This analogy

an eddy

by

mean

zero

with

fluctuations

will

for the

suffice

be explored

will

in

detail.

great

2.1

The Reynolds equations

In

a description

turbulence,

feasible. Instead,following
mean

3<7-

Reynolds

such as the

quantities,

fluid

incompressible

of the

at

all points

in

we develop

A895),

mean velocity.The

and

time

space is not

equations governing
of

of motion

equations

an

are

_ 9G- 1

flow

_
\"

dt

pdxj

'bxj

\320\251
\342\200\224*=().

B.1.2)

\320\264\321\205,.

indices
dj, is the stress tensor. Repeated
summationover
all three values of the index; a tilde

in any

Here,

at (Xj, t)

and

of a variable
(see

fluctuations

If

fluid

the

which

on

next

no Reynolds

term indicate a

denotesthe

summa-

value

instantaneous

decomposition

into

a mean

value

has been performed.

stress tensor a,-.- is given by

section)

is Newtonian, the

B.1.3)
In

B.1.3),

bjj is

the Kronecker delta, which

otherwise; p is the
(which

will

hydrodynamic

be assumed

pressure

to be constant).The

is equal

and
rate

to one

is
\321\206

the

of strain

if

/ =j

and zero

viscosity
is
defined
by
s}.dynamic

If

transport of momentum

Turbulent

28

into B.1.1)

is substituted

B.1.3)

the

invoked,

Navier-Stokes

9\";

pbx,

'dxj

92<7,-

'-

Reynolds

flow

Uj and

continuity

equation B.1.2) is

are obtained:

.
(v

B.1.5)

\321\206/\321\200).

The velocity

decomposition

fluctuations

velocity

if the

bXjbxj

Here, v is the kinematic viscosity

The

and

equations

1 dp
9t7,=
\342\200\224J-+U1\342\200\224*--\342\200\224+v
9r

heat

and

U/,

such

<7,-

is decomposed

into a mean

that

B.1.6)

We

interpret

average, defined by

as a time

Ut

'

fo + T

Uj=

Mm-

Time

averages

letters)

and

denoted

by

by

B.1.7)

Ujdt.

(mean values) of fluctuations

their

of
an

overbar.

are denoted

(which

derivatives,
products, and
The mean value of a fluctuating

by lowercase
are

combinations

other

quantity

itself

is zero

for example,

definition;

\302\260

U7=lim-f

B.1.8)

{u,-Uj)dt=ia.

time averagescorrespondsto the typical

situation, in
laboratory
which
measurements
are taken at fixed locations in a statistically
steady, but
a time
often inhomogeneous, flow field. In an inhomogeneous flow,
average
be
like U/ is a function of position, so that the use of a spatial averagewould
for most purposes. For a time
to make sense, the
inappropriate
average
in B.1.7)
In other
and B.1.8) have to be independent
of \320\223\320\276.
integrals
words,
the mean flow has to be steady:
The use of

^of

0.

B.1.9)

Without

this

time
averaging

T needed

this

problem

constraint

is discussed

The mean value

corresponding

B.1.7)

to measure

spatial

of a

derivative

in

and B.1.8)
mean

be

would

depends

meaningless.

on the

The averag-

accuracy desired;

6.4.

Section

spatial

values

derivative

of the

mean value

of a variable
of

that

is equal to the correfor example.

variable;

2.1The

29

equations

Reynolds

B.1.10)

bxj

dxj

bXj

bXj

out by
is carried
operations can be performed because averaging
of
over
a
which
commutes
differentiation
with
long
period
time,
integrating
with respect to another independent variable.
into mean and
The
p and the stress d/.- are also decomposed
pressure

These

lowercase letters for

Like

Uj,
by

with

fluctuations

are used for

B.1.11)

S,-- are

P and

independentof

mean

The

time.

stress tensor

and the stress fluctuations

given

O/.are

by

-p8tf + 2\302\273xs/y.
the mean

Here,

S^.-is

B-1-13)

//\321\206\320\251

a#

and

values

mean

mean. Specifically,

zero

p = 0,

p=P + p,

given

capital letters

Again,

components.

fluctuating

strain

B.1.14)
rate

Sy

and the strain-rate

fluctuations

Sj,

are defined

by
1 IbU:

1 Ibu

bU:\\

The commutation

is basedon

B.1.10).

Correlated

variables

between

averaging

\320\252\320\270\320\233

and

spatial

Averages of products

,01<0

involved here

differentiation

are computed

in

the

following

way:

+
UjUj

The

terms consisting

they are
averaging

B1.16)

UjUj.

of a product of

averaged, becausethe
is concerned, and the

mean

average

a mean

value

value and a
is a mere

of a fluctuating

fluctuation

vanish

coefficient as far as
quantity is zero.

if
the

30

Turbulent

If

and

Uj

UjUJ^O,

uncorrelated. Figure
A measure

variables.
Uj

and

is obtained

Uj

and

u2

variances

of momentum and heat

transport

to be correlated; if u,u- = 0, the two are

2.1
illustrates
the concept of correlated fluctuating
for the degree of correlation
between
the two variables
the square
root of the product of the
by dividing JljUJby
are said

Uj

this

uj;

gives

coefficient

a correlation

is defined

which
c\302\253,

by

c^^./iuj

B.1.17)

\302\246~u~fI'2,

with

the understanding

case.

If

=
Cjj

the

that

correlatedwith

is perfectly

convention

summation

does not apply

to beperfect.Each
= 1 if /
=/ = a).

is said

correlation

the
\302\2611,

itself

in

this

of course,

variable,

(\321\201\320\260\320\260

called a standard deviation

or root-meana
square (rms) amplitude;
by prime (for example,u/ = (u2I^2).
A characteristic
of turbulence
at some downvelocity, or \"velocity
scale,\"
in a boundary layer might
downstream
be defined
as the mean rms
position
The

of a variance is

root

square

is denoted

it

taken

velocity

scales used

in

across the
dimensional

at that

layer

boundary

be

could

analysis

position;

in

a precise

given

this

velocity

way

when-

definition

wheneverdesired.

mean flow If we apply

continuity equation B.1.2), we obtain
for the

Equations

the

If

the

because

average of
of B.1.8,

mean

are

also

vanishes

flow

from

we

B.1.18),

find

that

the turbulent

velocity

B.1.20)

The equations
and

of motion

for

that

bUjlbt

the

into B.1.1)

B.1.12)

resulting equation. This yields,if

particular, recall

fluctu-

incompressible:

= 0.

B.1.6)
substituting

to

B.1.6)

B.1.19)

B.1.19)

Subtracting

bUjlbXj

is taken, the last term

is incompressible:

equation

2.1.10). Hence,the

rule

= 0.

dUi/dxi
fluctuations

in this

terms

all

the decomposition

0),

all

mean flow Uj
and

rules

are obtainedby substitut-

average of all terms

on averaging are observed(in

taking

the

in the
partic-

2.1The

31

Reynolds

equations

-*-1

and uncorrelated fluctuations.

variable a has the
The_fluctuating
variableb for most Of the time;mistakesab
>0.The variablec,
on the
other hand, is uncorrelated with a and_6, so that ac = 0 and be = 0 (note that ab \320\244
0,
ac ^Odoes not necessarily
imply that be ^)
Figure

2.1.

samesign

Correlated

as the

32

Turbulent

of momentum and heat

transport

\320\255

B.1.21)

*
a*/

With

use1 of the
we

fluctuations,

for the

B.1.20)

equation

continuity

turbulent

velocity

write

may

7^

B.1.22)

'\320\255\321\205,=\321\215\321\2057Uyt

This term is

analogous to the convectionterm

Uj

it

the

represents

\320\255\320\246/\320\255\321\205\321\203;

mean transport
of fluctuating
momentum
by turbulent velocity fluctuations.
be no turbulent
If
U: were uncorrelated, there would
momentum
Uj and
is a key feature of turbutransfer
transfer. Experience shows that momentum
to be zero. Mean
turbulent motion;
the term B.1.22) of B.1.21) is not
likely
of fluctuating
momentum
may change the momentum of the mean
transport
thus
momentum
as B.1.21) shows. The term
B.1.22)
flow,
exchanges
the mean
momenbetween the turbulence and the mean flow, even though
the turbulent

turbulent

stress. Because

of

perceived as
reason,

term

transport

an

the

Reynolds

agency

that

0).
{\321\200\320\271~;

to a force

may be

B.1.22)

is zero

velocity fluctuations
Because momentum flux
is related

momentum
of

Newton's

by

of

thought

as the

second
law, the
\"divergence\" of a

decomposition, the turbulent

stresses in the mean
produces

all stresses
2.1.22) are rearranged, so that
yields the Reynolds momentum equation:

B.1.21,

together. This

can be

motion

flow.

For

can be

put

this

to-

B-1-23)
If

we

that 2=.. is given

flow may be written

recall

turbulent
=

\320\242\321\203
2,y

pUjUj

= -P

bjj

by

+ 2\321\206
S/j

= -pUiUj-

In

honor

of the

Reynolds stress

total mean

stress \320\242\321\203
in a
B.1.24)

pUjUj.

The Reynoldsstress The contribution

stress tensor is designated by the symbol
Tjj

the

B.1.13),

as

of the

turbulent motion

to the

mean

r,y:

B.1.25)
original developer

tensor. The

Reynolds

of this
stress

is called
the
theory, \321\202,\321\203
=
as can be
is symmetric:
\321\202,\321\203
\320\242\321\203,,

part

of the

2.1The Reynolds

33

seen

by inspection
stresses (pressures);

equations

of B.1.25).

of

components

diagonal

normal

are

\321\202\321\206

and p<v|. In many flows,

of mean momentum.
transport

are pu\\, pu\\,

values

their

The

these

normal stresses contribute little

to the
The
are
shear
a
dominant
in
of
role
stresses; they play
off-diagonal
components
Tj.of mean momentum transfer
motion.
the theory
by turbulent
The decomposition of the flow into a mean flow and turbulent
velocity
fluctuations
has isolated the effects of fluctuations
on the mean flow. Howcontain the nine
for the mean flow
B.1.23,
2.1.24)
However, the
equations
of
which
as
(of
components
only six are independent of each other)
r/yunknowns additional
to P and the three componentsof
This
illustrates
the
Ur
closure problem of turbulence.
for
if one obtains additional
equations
Indeed,
unknowns like
Navier-Stokes
are genequations,
Tj: from the original
UjUjUj
inertia terms. This problem
is characteristic
of all
generated
by the nonlinear
nonlinear stochastic systems.
have attempinvestigators
frustrating
prospect. Therefore, many
attemptedto
guess at a relation between r/y- and S/y-. This is a tempting approach
of the Reynolds stress in the equations
of motion seems
becausethe function
is a

This

to be similar to
possiblerelations

of the

that

between

viscous stress 2/uS,y.

r/y-

and

S/y-

in Section

background material on the viscous stressis given

Turbulent

of

transport

Turbulence

heat

We

the nature

investigate

2.3; before

this

of

some

2.2.

in Section

transports

is done,

passive

contaminants

chemical species, and particlesin much the same way as momentransfer

in turbuheat
use, we develop the equation governing
is approximately
of a constant-density
fluid. The density
constant if
turbulent flow
differences
remain relatively small, if gravity-induced
density
temperature
stratification
may be neglected, and if the Mach number of the flow is small.
for heat in a flow:
The starting point is the diffusion
equation
such

as heat,

momentum.For

later

or

oxj

The

thermal

m2sec\"J.

oxjOXj

The temperature
temperature

fluctuations

0=G + 0,

is
\321\203

diffusivity

The ratio

0,

at

(x/V

assumed

to be

the Prandtl

is called

vly

t)

constant;
number.

is decomposed

in

a mean

its

are

dimensions

value 0

and

tem-

such that

B.1.27)

Turbulent

34

9=

G=

lim

0 = 0,

= O.

B.1.29)

The last condition has

an

B.1.28)

ddt,

-J

9\302\251/9f

sensein

of momentum and heat

transport

been imposed

'

\\

OXj

Xy

mean heat

The

cp p(8uj

striking;

heat flux is

Qj

in

terms

all

it

is the

transport heat

in

B.1.30)

per

unit area

specific heat

at

time

unit

and

constant

in a turbulent

thus

a sum

pressure)
B.1.31)

of the contributions

The analogy

analytical foundation
much the same way

the

of the molecularmotion
B.1.24)

between
for

then

flow

\321\203
\320\255\320\265/\320\255\321\205\321\203).

turbulent motion.

of the

the average of

taking

OX

flux

is the
(cp

becomes

Qj

and

\320\255

5(/
The

averages would not make

situation.

unsteady

Substituting B.1.27) into B.1.26)

the resulting equation, we obtain

3G

time

because

and B.1.31)

belief that turbulence

and

is strik-

may

trans-

as momentum.

2.2

Elements of the kinetic theory of gases

In
this
section
we discuss the molecular

other moleculartransport
For

gases,

theory of
Pure

the

rudiments

liquids

shear flow

is not

of

background

the

and

viscosity

coefficients
in dilute perfect gases (Jeans,1940).
of kinetic theory are straightforward,
but the kinetic
as
well
nearly
developed.

Let us take a steady pure

shear

flow,

homogeneous

is taken to
nonvanishing
component
velocity
Xi, x3 plane. The only
of x2 only. If the flow is laminar, the only nonvanishing
is a function
of the viscous shear stress are
components
\320\27612=\320\27621=\321\206\320\264\320\2701/\320\264\321\2052.

in

the

be U\\;

it

com-

B.2.1)

flow situation corresponding to B.2.1)is sketched

in Figure 2.2.
The shear stressai2 must result from molecular transport of momentum
in the x2 direction.
Let vt and v2 be the xx and x2 components of the
of a molecule
instantaneous
relative to the mean flow. The xx
velocity

The

Pure shear flow. U2 =

2.2.

Figure

of the kinetic theory

Elements

22

35

of gases

6/3 = 0 and

with respect to

all derivatives

vanish.

mvx of a molecule with mass

with i^. The momentum

momentum
if

is correlated

v2

proportional
Xj
the

to

m vxv2.

there

in the

momentum
overbar

If

represents

are N

m is

transported

x2 direction is Nm viv2
an average taken over

unit

x3

x2 direction

unit time and

is proporof

area. Here,

of molecules.

number

large

and

the transport

volume,

per

the

per molecule

transport

molecules per

in

x,

which is the density p, and momentum

Now, Nm is the mass per unit volume,
flux
a stress.
per unit area and time may be equated with
Hence,

B.2.2)

The minus
in B.2.2) is needed becausepositive
sign
momentum deficit in a flow with positive o12

values

of v2 should

carry

The
\320\253/\\1\320\252\321\2052.
analogy

and

of the Reynolds stress given

is
B.2.2) and the definition
in B.1.25)
intentional: a stress that
is generated
as a momentum flux
can
be
always
written as B.2.2), no matter
what
mechanism
causes the momentum flux.
between

Molecularcollisions
estimates

(the

the

average

right-hand

distance

Kinetic

theory

of transport

B.2.2) as follows.
between collisions of

side of

coefficients

Suppose
molecules)

the
is

in

gases

mean free
%. The

estipath

unusual

36

Turbulent

of momentum and heat

transport

becauseX

notation is selected

has

to be

reserved for one

of the

length

scales

molecule coming from x2 = \342\200\224%

collides
with another
molecule at the reference level (x2 = 0). This process is
illustrated
in Figure
2.3. If we assume
that because of this collision
the
molecule coming from below adjusts its momentum
in the xx direction to
of its new environment, it has to absorb an amount of momentum
that
to
equal
occurring

in

On

turbulence.

the average, a

B.2.3)
is equal to the amount of momentum
because
the upward-traveling
molecule
x2 =0,
deficit with respect
to the mean momentum x2 = 0.
The
side of B.2.3)
right-hand
may be expanded

The

quantity

lost

environmentat

by the

carries

in

environ-

a momentum

a Taylor

series. This

yields

B.2.4)

2\"\320\254\321\2052

The

second

\320\252\321\205\\

and higher

terms

in

the

expansion

may be

neglected if
B.2.5)

\320\264\321\205\320\263\320\252\321\205\\

Figure 2.3.

Molecular

motion

in a shear flow.

2.2 Elements

37

local

scale

length

kinetic theory of gases

of the

the

<fof

Ux {x2) is defined

flow

as

\320\255?\320\233/\320\255\321\2052
_

may be

B.2.5)

Hence,

B_2>6)

as

written

B.2.7)

t\302\273\\%.

For air at room temperature and

all flows the condition B.2.7)
be

may

density,

is indeed

= 7

x 10~6

cm, so that

This

satisfied.

almost

for

implies that

B.2.4)

by

approximated

M = m%bUJbx2.
model, the
with v2, apart from a

this

In

B.2.8)

simplified

correlated

needed

sign

a12. The number of collisionsoccurring

and time may be estimated as Na,
area

for
unit

due to the
N again

where

speed of
representative for the rms molecular velocity).If the

molecules per

volume

unit

collision is M, the
proportional to

= oMNa

a, 2

Here, a

is

an

oNma%
unknown

ordinary temperatures
value for convenience.

BecauseNm
0i2 = \\pa%
If

we

v =

compare

per unit

transfer

momentum

Using B.2.8), we

MNa.

a is the

and

can

thus

area

sound

is the number of
is a good

(which

time

= 0 per

level x2

transfer

momentum

and

must

write

B.2.9)
which

coefficient,

p, B.2.10)

of order

be

should

ua is afj^jiuAiniaLciy
pressure,
(\320\273\320\265\321\215\321\215\321\210\321\201,
approximately

one.

In

=-; we shall

use

\320\267

this with B.2.1)

and

use

pv, we

\321\206

obtain

B.2.11)

\\al
formed

with

these variables is

B.2.12)

2\"

out
to be of the
this Reynolds number turns
the viscosity is defined on the basis of
because

That

this

B.2.10)

aJ=v

at

air

becomes

bUxlbx2.

The Reynoldsnumber

per

be propor-

bUx /dx2.

and
anu

is

that

vx

convention

sign

reference

the

at

of

is the part

? bU\\lbx2

quantity
minus

order one is no
molecular

accident,

motion

with

38

Turbulent

velocity scale a and

not a

of momentum and heat

transport

scale

length

?. The Reynolds number

because at length

number

significant

dynamically

B.2.12), however, is
of order

scales

(such as

diffusivities

number

Prandtl

times and lengths

is called the Knudsen

Characteristic
the

flow

i;_3

=
be
of

v/y).

The

ratio of
K. With

number

to the local length scale I of

B.2.12), we obtain

V _3M

_3U

the

continuum. For air at room temperature and pressure,

gas
= 3.4 x 102 m/sec, so that
7 x 1\320\241\320\2238
a
v = 15 x 10~6 m2/sec. It should
m,
noted that elementary kinetic
as given here cannot predict ratios
theory
is not a

BZ13)

*~7~2~\320\260\320\242~2\320\260~7/\320\22327?-

The Knudsen number is thus

and the Reynolds number

In

most

ratio of the

to the

proportional

R.

flows

M\302\253R,

number

Mach

that

so

the condition

B.2.7) is easily satisfied.

is a ratio of length
of momentum are of

number

Knudsen

The

The

scales.

time scales

in

involved

time
transport
scaleis the time interval %la between collisions; this is typically of the order
of 10~10sec.The time scale of the flow is the reciprocal of the velocity
to
If the
velocity gradient is 104 sec\021,
corresponding
gradient
\320\253)\\1\320\254\321\205\320\263.
that
flow
is
It
is
seen
the
time
of
the
10~4
sec.
scale
quite rapid shearing,
changes in the flow are slow compared to the time scale representing molecmolecular

This

molecularmotion.

not

be disturbed

of times

suggests that the thermal

very much by the flow:

before the

flow

has

advanced

interest,

motion

too.

The molecular

of the

collide

molecules

molecules
many

should

thousands

appreciably.

The correlation between vt and v2 For future reference, it is useful

obtain some idea of how well the molecular velocity componentsV\\ and
with
are correlated. The part of V\\ correlated
v2 is proportional
as shown
%\320\253)\\1\320\254\321\205\320\263,

by

B.2.8). Taking representative values for a

to
v-i

to

rapid

= 104
sec\021),we find that
(? = 7x 10\"8m, bUxlbx2
= 7 x 10~4 m/sec. A correlation
\321\201
coefficient
between
% \320\253)\321\2051\320\254\321\205\320\263
i^ and v2
be
defined
as
may
flow

shearing

in air

B.2.14)
Here,

v2'

is the

rms value of

thex2

component

of

the

molecular

velocity.

As

Elements of the

22

39

kinetic

of B.2.14)

a comparison
use the results

and

we have

B.1.17)

shows,

we may

estimate

given,

previously

of gases

theory

used vx' = v2'.

If

we

that

(Z2,5)

Since v2' is of the sameorder of

3.4 x 102 m/sec for air at room
2 x

10~6,

as lilt,

may

vt

we find

a parameter

M2/R,

We

that

indicating

estimated

speed of sound a, which

as the

magnitude

conditions,we

find

correlated.
and v2 are very poorly
the correlation
coefficient is

which indeed tends to be extremely

the state of the gas is hardly

is

\321\201
is approximately

that

that

conclude

that

small
disturbed

If

is

dUi/dx2

of the order of
in most

flows.

by molecular

of
momentum transfer. In other
the dynamical equilibrium
the
words,
motion of the moleculesin shear flow of gases is, to a very close
the same as the equilibrium
state
in a gas at rest. This implies
approximation,
that
shear flow is not likely
to upset
the equation of state of the gas, unless
M2/R is large.
In anticipation
of results that are obtained in Section
the
2.3, we note that
correlation
coefficient
of turbulent
defined in a manner
velocity
fluctuations,
similar to B.2.14), is not small
in turbulent
shear flow. Consequently, the
\"state\"
of the turbulence
is not independentof the mean flow field; on the
the
interaction
the mean flow and the turbulence tends to
between
contrary,

thermal

be quite

strong.

Thermal

diffusivity

Molecular

transport of momentum.

B.1.31); in
Q2

=-

In terms
Q2

transfer

here, the

quantities

rate is given
only

by

nonvanishing

\342\200\242
\320\255\320\265/\320\255\321\2052

pcpy

of molecular parameters,this

conditions).

thermal

because molecules
do more than

diffusivity

is

is

B.2.11) and
is

larger

than

p/7

the

(air at room condidiffusivity for momentum

= 0.73

energy
average carry more thermal
make more collisionsper unit time. Energetic molecules thus
that

them and

component

B.2.17)

equation we have used

The

is similar to the
term of

the second

B.2.16)

=-0.93cpPa$\342\204\226dx2.

In this

with

flow used

model

the

scalar

of

transport

heat

The

travel

a proportional

faster than

share

in

transporting

heat.

Turbulent transport

40

of momentum

and heat

2.3
stress
Estimates of the Reynolds
in terms
can be interpreted fairly
seen that molecular
easily
transport
a similar
It is very tempting to apply
motion.
of the parameters of molecular
as a
We again use a pure shear flow
heuristic treatment to turbulent
transport.
in Figure 2.4. Using
is illustrated
basis for our discussion. This flow
B.1.25)

We have

we
B.1.31),
transfer to be
and

the

find

momentum

of turbulent

rates

and

transfer

heat

T12=-pu1u2l

B.3.1)

H2

B.3.2)

=\321\200\321\201\321\200\320\262\320\2772.

The

symbol

H2 is used

stress

Reynolds

to avoid

and vortex

with

confusion

Let

stretching

the total rate

us consider

of heat transfer

the Reynolds stress

only. The existence of a Reynolds stress requires that the velocity fluctuafluctuationsux
and u2 be correlated. In a shear flow with bUilbx2 >0, negative
ones when u2 is
of ux should occur more frequently
than
values
positive
intricate
and vice versa. This is a rather
problem: the energy of the
positive,
eddies has to be maintained by the shear flow, because they are continuously
to smaller eddies. Moleculesdo not depend
on the flow for their
losing
energy
on the
are
because
the collisions between molecules
elastic.
Eddies,
energy

2.4.

Figure

I/,

l/,

system

Turbulent

pure shear flow.

The
instantaneous
(\321\205\320\263).
that
moves with a

The

mean

velocity

is steady:

streamline pattern sketched

velocity I/,

@).

refers

U2
to

= U3 = 0 and
a coordinate

2.3Estimates

41

other

that

those

are

than

others.

Evidence

1967) suggests
the
maintaining

vortex

between

The

that

they

rather

Figure

2.5.

rate of

strain

the
flow.

vorticity

from

are being strained

in

more

by

the

shear,

good correlation

detail

in Chapter

3)

would

mean flow described here is essenwitheddies (velocity fluctuations

plane) may on occasion have appre-

mean sheartends to rotate

lose their

and

strain

them

in

capacity for extracting energy from the

quickly.

of

interaction

dynamic

energy

extracting

the

and

to thexi,x2

but the

stress,

Reynolds

theory

in

to maintain the

we discuss

(as

Two-dimensional

These considerations

kinetic

2.5

Figure

tends

allowing

normal

a component

mean flow

in

between eddies

dimensional.

a way

and

u2

Lumley,

in maintain-

transfer.

interaction

essentially three

appreciable

eddies

u2, thus

efficientenergy

and

Ui

momentum

angular

and

ut

between

and

with that of
whose principal axis is roughly
aligned
Such eddies are illustrated
in Figure
2.5. The energy
for eddies of this
is believed to be associatedwith
kind

as the

of

shear flow

the

eddies
more effectively

most powerful

the

energy;

from

vortices
rate.

stretching:

conservation

their

(for example, Townsend, 1956, Bakewell

eddies
that are more effectivethan
most

correlation
are

mechanism

transfer

such

the

that

desired

the mean flow

the mean strain

without

to maintain
can absorb energy

shear

need

hand,

thus

Reynolds stress

of the

gases

suggest
is at

between

that

best a

a simple
very

the mean

crude
flow

transport

theory patterned after

of reality. The
turbulence
is too strong

representation
and

the

Three-dimensional eddies (vortices

with vorticity u>) being stretched
by the
S. The fluctuating velocity
has strong components in the plane normal to
vector. Note that the shape of these eddies may differ widely from flow to

for a simple transport

to allow
energy

and

of turbulence.
that
be noted

should

It

receive

eddies

the picture

be

energy

may be entirely

mixing-length
obtained
by

particles\")
motion

the

in

of

presented

analysis

in

other

heat

and

model.

of

dynamics

vorticity

understanding

The

transport of momentum

Turbulent

42

discussion

this

ways

detailed

a more

Also,

the eddies

analysis

(Chapter 3) is essential
only

applies

(from buoyancy

to shear

or a magnetic

of

the

to

the

flows. If
say),

field,

different.

for the turbulent momentum flux

model An estimate
can
(\"fluid
analyzing the random motion of moving
points
turbulent
shear flow. A formal
of the statistics of
treatment
is
in
7; the less rigorous
wandering
points
given
Chapter
for a first look at turbulent
here is more than
adequate

transport.

at time
2.6)
point starts from a level x2 = 0 (seeFigure
=
t 0. Its Xi momentum
where u\\ @,0) stands
per unit volume is puv @,0),
for the instantaneous
at x2 = 0, t = 0. If we assume that the moving
velocity
as it travels upward,
it has a momentum
point does not lose its momentum
deficit AM = pux (x2, t) \342\200\224
it
when
an arbitrary
level x2 at
pHi @, 0)
passes
time f. Using
the
of velocities, we can write
the
Reynolds
decomposition
momentum
deficit as
Suppose

a moving

= p[U1(x2)-Ul@)]
If

the

neglected and

Figure

of the

contribution

2.6.

if

the

B.3.3)

+p[u1(x2,t)-u1@,0)].

difference

Transport of momentum

turbulence

to the

Ui(x2)

\342\200\224

by turbulent

can

momentum

deficit

may

be approximated

Ui@)

motion.

be
by

2.3 Estimates

43

Reynolds stress

of the

x2 bU\\lbx2, where the gradient

is taken

= 0,

atx2

AM

be approximated

may

by

AM = px2
The

volume

transported

the

moving

point.

x2 = 0 may
T12=5p-^

B.3.4)

dUi/dx2.
area and unit
= dx2/dt, so that

per unit

Now, u2
written
as

be

x2 direction is O2of
momentum
flux at

in the

time
the

average

\342\200\224

B.3.5)

(xl).

ax2 dt

The overbar here denotes an

all moving points

over

average

that

from

start

x2 = 0.

The dispersionrate

d(x\\

)ldt

may be

as

written

Section 7.1)

(see also

B.3.6)
the

If

fluid

at

environment,

x2u2

would

did

point

any

u2

remain

would

increase

to

continue

not continually
constant
for
in

time

exchange
any

moving

given

increased.

asx2

transverse

scale

length

{(see Figure 2.6),

rms velocity in

we may

estimate

and

point,

This is not realistic;

instead,we expect that the correlation between u2 andx2 of

increases.
If we assume
decreases as the distance traveled
of x2 comparable
become essentially uncorrelated at values
u2'f. Here,u2

its

with

momentum

a moving
that

thatx2u2

u2

point
and

x2

to some transis of order

the dispersion length

called the mixing length. Of course, this very estimate
of x2u2
that
is
not
momentum
when
travels
in the
conserved
the
moving point
implies
so that this estimate
makes the expression for the momentum
x2 direction,
deficit
AM given in B.3.4)
very dubious, to say the least.
is the

the

x2

direction;

{ is

scale

With

2x2u2

2ciu2

V,

becomes

B.3.5)

B.3.7)

\321\20212=\321\2011\321\200\320\2702\320\237\320\2701/\320\264\321\2052.

The

coefficient ci is unknown.

numerical
We

the eddy viscosity

define

momentum),

in

analogy

Ui/bx2.

with

Pj (or

B.2.1),

turbulent

exchange

coefficient

for

by the equation

B.3.8)

44

of momentum and heat

transport

Turbulent

Comparing B.3.7)

and

we find

B.3.8),

that the eddy

is given

viscosity

by

B.3.9)

v1=cxuil
the

If

length /

mixing

the

and

velocity

were

u2

known

in the

everywhere

flow field and if the mixing-length model were accurate,the closure

problem
stress
would
related
to
known
be solved. The unknown
be
Reynolds
and to the mean velocity
of
variables
a
solution
the
gradient,
equamaking
equations of
motion
is not quite that simple.
possible. However, the situation
if we were willing
to
Even
not
B.3.7) as a model, u2' and /are
accept
but
of
the
This
that
and/
flow.
properties of the fluid
properties
implies
u2
would

may

the

on

dependent

the

throughout

vary

position

flow field,

This

flow.

the

in

making

the

eddy

is not a

viscosity variable,
very

depen-

prospect.

promising

to flows for which

restricted
applications of B.3.7) are usually
Consequently,
it can be argued that
is
constant
(at least in the crossu2'
approximately
stream direction) and for which
/ is either constant or depends in a simple

geometry of the

way on the
In

of

reality,
scales.

length

that

argue

The

eddies contribute

be taken to
problem

length-scale

B.3.4) of the

of

concerned.
motion

in a broad

/occurs

in B.2.7),

fluctuating
way

more to the
therefore

be proportional

to

The approximations
deficit

momentum

carried

transfer

momentum

favors
the

spectrum
one may
than small

large-scale motions; for

eddies.
size of the larger
in

involved

the

by a moving point

estimate

need to be

the distance over which

is transBecause
momentum
be accurate
the approximation B.3.4) of B.3.3)
should
i?of the
of order/.
Let us define a locallength
scale
distances

considered.

carefully

is of

transported

order/,

over transverse
mean

model

mixing-length

/ may

simplicity,

flow

in view of the

However,

large

eddies. The

shear

consists

turbulence

flow

Karman,

(von

by

1930)

B.3.10)

b2UJbx\\'
The

U\\ (x2)

approximation

order/is

valid

turbulent

to the

width

Ux @)

= x2

dUl/dx2 for

all

values

of

x2 of

if

only

B.3.11)

&\302\273\\t.
In

\342\200\224

flows,
of

the

the largest eddies tend to have sizes comparable

/
1. Consequently,
flow, as we have seen in Chapter

however,

is

of the

2.3 Estimates

45

have to

conclude

B.3.4)
which links the stress to

cannot be used for

is an

turbulence

associated with

rate

the

AM

given

Therefore,

Taylor seriesexpansion

by

the

its environment;

with

it finds

the

of

turbulence

of

\"state\"

fluid.

itself.

The approximation

B.3.3)

model,

gradient-transport

at the same point

in time and space,
It should be emphasizedagain
turbuthat

in which

term

transport

neglected

of the

part of the flow, not a mere property

Turbulence interacts strongly

strongly on the flow
A

which is normal

direction,

of strain

flow.

turbulent

irreducible

depends

deficit

\"turbu-

.5?are trans-

/and

both

that

thex2

truncation

the

that

is not justified.

in

involved

This makes the

scaled?.

length

flow.

mean

We

they are

scales:

length

to the

local

order one. Note

A3?of

number\"

\"turbulentKnudsen
transverse

order as the

of the same

usually

stress

Reynolds

neglected the

B.3.4) to

momentum

the

contribution

\342\200\224

p[u1{x2,t)

with this
Let us call this p Aux. The momentum flux associated
Ui @, 0)].
an average over many
term is p u2'Aui, where the overbar again
denotes
difference
The
should
be
moving
velocity
Aul
very small for transpoints.
to
but
it
transverse distances
small compared
could
be appreciable for values of
I,
is no a priori reason why
this
term can be
there
x2 of order {, so that
involved
neglected. However, in view of all of the other dubious assumptions
in the mixing-length model, it does not seem useful to pursue
this
issue.

The mixing

as

length

an integral

scale

In

the

derivation

of B.3.7), we used

1 d

It is

reference

* 0

and

implies
Topper,

WZr*l=
2 dt
The

velocity

level x2

how /could

investigate

how the value of x2

x2(t)=
This

to

worthwhile

consider
the

B.3.12)

clu2't.

x\\ \\

2 dt

= 0. We

as the

increases

can

be defined. For

this

moving point travels

from

write

B.3.13)

u2(t')dt'.
that

purpose,
away

B.3.12) may be

as

written

(Taylor,

1921; see

Friedlander

1962)

u2(t)u2(t')
J\320\241
0

u2 (t)

B.3.14)

dt'.

can be taken

inside

the

integral

because

it

is independent

Turbulent transport

46

of t'; the averaging

done over many

time

of

origin

u2(t1) should

coefficient

in this

considered

flow

correlation

chapter,
u2 (t) and
Let us define a

between

= r.
time differencet\342\200\224t'

into B.3.14), we obtain

I\342\200\224 =
\320\246 \320\246
f*c[T)dr.

large values of

c(t) is

shown

the

the

as the

decreases
\321\201{\321\202)

u2 (t)

velocities

in Figure

The area under

=

B.3.16)

coefficient

The correlation

it is

because

integrand

time.

\321\201(\321\202)
by

B.3.15)

Substituting

on the

only

depend

correlation

not over

steady situation like the

the
is irrelevant, so that

a statistically

In

the

points,

on the

be performed

can

process
moving

and heat

of momentum

and

u2

(t')

time
are

interval

uncorrelated.

increases;

A sketch

at

of

2.7.
curve

in Figure

2.7 is given

by

B.3.17)

c(r)err;
t>

^\"finite.
enough at large r to make
scale.
The
integral
adjective \"Lagrangian\"
is used
it relates
to moving points (\"fluid
to indicate that
The
particles\.")
is used whenever
correlations between two fixed points
adjective \"Eulerian\"
in a fixed frame of referenceare
considered.
A more detailed discussion is

it is

The

given

assumed that c(r) decreases

called the Lagrangian

rapidly

time ^is

in Chapter

7.

\321\201
It)

Figure

tails,

2.7. The
many

do not.

Lagrangian

correlation

curve.

Some correlation

curves

have

negative

2.3

47

of the

Estimates

Reynolds stress

fluid
loses its capability of transporting
momentum
Moving
correlation between x2 and u2 becomes zero. The time interval
B.3.16) should thus be large enough to make c(t) zero.The
then becomes (see alsoSection7.1)

we

in
rate

dispersion

B.3.18)

\\^
If

the

when
t involved

define

(Taylor,

1921) a

length

integral

Lagrangian

by

scaled

B.3.19)

we can
2 at

write

as

B.3.18)

?f)
?f)

B.3.20)

U2

The time scale 5\" is hard

the motion of many
that
or

photographic
however,

the

Eulerian

length
integral

experimentally, becauseit requires

be followed, say with
fluid
tagged
particles
radioactive
tracer methods. In most turbulent
flows, howscale (L is believed to be comparable
the transverse
to
scale
t, which is defined by
to determine

B.3.21)

is performed
of
over a long period
averaging process used in B.3.21)
time, with a fixed transverse separationx2 and zero time delay between the

The

determination
two velocities. Experimental
of the same order of
If
li_ and /are

'? where^isdefined
The
in

us

gradient-transport
detail because
great
demonstrate

now

turbulent shear

flow

by

of/is

relatively simple.
we thus may estimate

magnitude,

B.3.21)

(see also

Sections 7.1 and

x2u2

8.5).

The mixing-length
model
has been discussed
fallacy
of its ubiquitous
use in much of turbulence theory. Let
that B.3.7) is merely
a dimensional
necessity in a turbu-

dominated

by a single

velocity scaleu2

and

a single

length

scale I.
The

correlation

coefficientCi

2 between

ut andu2 is definedas

B.3.22)
Hence,

we

may

write

B.3.23)

Ti2=-ci2puiu2.
In

all

turbulent

flows, ut' and

u2' are of

the

same

order of

magnitude

so that

Turbulent transport

48

B.3.23) may be written

r,i

and heat

of momentum

as

B.3.24)

c2p(u2J.

coefficients
by shear, the unknown
ci2 and c2 are
one: ut and u2 are well correlated
in eddies
of order
that can absorb
always
energy from the mean flow by vortex stretching (Figure 2.5). Note, however,
maintained in other ways, say by buoyancy, c12 and c2
that
in turbulence
may be quite small.
in momentum
The eddiesinvolved
transfer have characteristic vorticities
of order u2'/f; they maintain their vorticity
because
of their interaction with
In

turbulent

the

mean

driven

flows

Let us

shear bUilbx2.

write
B.3.25)

\320\2702'/6=\321\201\320\263\320\264\320\270\321\205/\320\264\321\2052,

effective
In
and

that

mechanism

we are

effect,

same order if

no

time of the

the

that

of the

part

length

mixing

mean

characteristic

other

of eddies is the

straining

that

saying

fluctuating

the

If

2.5 suggests it is, c3 should be of order one.

the characteristic
time of eddies (t/u2)

Figure

merely

characteristic

the

turbulence is the
and the differential
and

coefficient.

c3 is a nondimensional

so that

flow

times or
flow. In

.5?defined

scale

length is of the

should

(dUx/dx2)~l

in

are

lengths

are

B.3.10)

because

it is

particular,

sameorder as the

present,

be of the

implied that I
of the same order
of large
into a
transposed

length

scale

about
time scales made here may
be
eddies. The statement
rates
if so desired: if c3~
statement about vorticities or strain
1, B.3.25)
found in the larger eddies is of the same order as the
states that the vorticity
that
the respective strain rates arealso comof the mean flow, and
vorticity
comparable.

If we

use B.3.25)

to

for

substitute

one of

the

u2

occurring

in B.3.24),

we

find

B.3.26)

bx2,

of course, is equivalent

that
we can relate the stress
=
to
mean velocity gradient at x2
0 becausethe correlation
the
between
ut and u2 is good and because the time-scale ratio is of order one.
of momentum
No
conservation
needs to be assumed;
the
mean-velocity
=0 may be used becauseit is a convenient
atx2
gradient \320\253)\\1\320\254\321\2052
representarepresentative
of bililbx2
an environment of scaled. Indeed, B.3.16)is
throughout
one member of a class of expressions
only

which,

to

B.3.7).

We see

at x2 = 0

,
0)~put

dU,
\342\200\224

|xa

| </),

B.3.27)

2.3 Estimates

49

B.3.26)merely

stress as

we may treat the local

time. In short,
conservation of

Uy

that

is

u\\

and

u2

for a gradient-transport

imply

produces
postulate.

Comparing B.3.23) and B.3.26), we see that the part of

correlated with u2 is of ordertbUylbx2.If the correlation
between
and u2' are of the same order, we may
is good and if \320\270
write
\321\203'

B.3.28)
\320\255\321\2052

8X2

make

The

by
eddy

is thus

stress

viscous

T'2

signs with dUi/dx2.

switch

r12

proposed

of order one; the modulus of dUi/dx2 is used

This expressionis the one originally
Prandtl (see Hinze, 1959).
is of order u2 'I. The ratio of the Reynolds stress to the
viscosity

c4 is a coefficient

In B.3.28),

to

be mistaken

not

should

not

does

mechanism that

of the

\"localness\"

local rate of
characteristic

one

estimates

Further

T12

or

momentum

stress; B.3.26)

the

by the

determined

were

it

if

and
is only one characteristiclength
a
is
dimensional
B.3.26)
necessitythat

there

because

strain

Reynolds stress

are implied by B.3.24)

and B.3.25).
The localized estimate
is the most convenient member of this
In other words,
class.

which

of

all

of the

^Tl^
'
v

HdUl/dx2

B.3.29)

Cl%
-'\"'\342\200\242

one of the

in Chapter
1: the Reynolds
be
may
interpreted as a ratio of
In most
diffusivities.
that the Reynolds
flows, R( is very large, which
implies
stress is much larger than the viscous stress. In other words, turbulent transtends to be much
momentum
more
than molecular transeffective
transport of
If
is
the
in
this
the
viscous
terms
the
transport.
case,
equations for the mean flow
be neglected.
The dependence of the mean
flow on the Reynolds
may
number is thus small, except in regions where I and v/u2
are of the same
This

substantiates

of

number u2t/v

order of

We have

and one

may

eddies

be

found

time

as small

general conclusion must

in a state
of equilibrium
turbulence is continually

of the

scale

that

which

trying

time

the

the

turbulence

reciprocal
in

adjust

a shear

of the

is independent

to

with

one

to

its

characteristic

scale of the turbulence

mean flow. Under certain

as one-tenth of
be

flow

in a shear

that,

characteristic length,

proportional to the
t/u2

obtained

results

turbulent

magnitude.

Recapitulation

velocity

the

is

circumstances,

of bU\\lbx2,

but the

flow cannot possibly be

field
involved.
flow
The

environment,

without

ever

Turbulent transport

SO

andu2-

be

cannot

model

be

must

one

only

time

by

the

coefficient
theory

for

of
after the kinetic theory
even though a mixing-length
in a situation
sense
where

rejected,

dimensional

scale are

for molecular motion,

the Reynolds stress thus
gases; the mixing-length
expression

like

one

length

characteristiclength

and

only

B.3.26)
scale and

relevant.
than one

more

where

situations

In

of order 10~6.A

to be

patterned

makes good

good correlation between

the value of 0.4
\\\342\200\224UiU2\\
~0.4t/i'u2';

correlation

the

to

contrasted

seen

was

which

turbulent shearflows

I\" all

should be

and heat

conclusionis substantiated

succeeding. This
U\\

of momentum

of the

time

are

stress and rate of strain

between
generIf, for instance, the turbulence is mainly
an un(as in an atmospheric
by buoyancy
generated
boundary
layer with
is
unstable
there
no
for
the
need
of
temperature
vorticity
gradient),
bUilbx2
the mean flow
to be of order t/2'/I, so that
can be said a priori
about
nothing
the value of the coefficient cx in B.3.7).
a very
Problems
such as this require
careful study
of the kinetic energy budget of turbulent
motion.
In the model problem consideredin this chapter,
downstream
variation in
of the assumption that
the flow was suppressed by virtue
U\\ is only a funcIn most flows, however, downstream
function of x2.
do occur, introducchanges

involved, the problem

generally becomes

time
introducing

scales

such as the

the distance X\\

have
to be taken

relation

intractable.

nearly

some

from

account

into

reciprocal of 9l/1/3x1and length scales such as

defined origin. These parameterswould
were it not for the fact that
in many
flows of

suitably

practical interest

^^.
dxi

,\302\253Xl.

B.3.30)

dx2

almost everywhere in the flow, the downstream

changes in the flow field are slow compared to the time scale of the turbuthe turbulence may be in approximate
with respect
turbulence, so that
equilibrium
to its environment
at all values of the downstream
distance
This
Xi.
concept
is vital to the theory of turbulent
shear
flows (Chapters 4 and 5).
If

these

hold

inequalities

2.4
heat

Turbulent

transfer

are transportedby turbulent

in much the same
motions
of heat in the pure shear flow considered in
this
is a good example. We assume
does
not
here that the heat flux
chapter
cause significant buoyancy effects.
Passive contaminants

way

as

momentum.

The transfer

2.4Turbulent

51

The vertical

analogy

Reynolds'

transfer

heat

H2

=\321\200\321\201\321\200\320\2702\320\262.

An

eddy

H2=-

is a

7-p

If

v-yly-y
H2

that

Recall

the

flows,

transports
T\\ \320\263
may

to one,

is equal

= _

by

B.3.2):

by
B.4.1)

does

which

turbulent

to one: turbulence

1959).

H2 is given

\320\255\320\262/\320\255\321\2052.

mere definition,

most

In

flux

is defined

for heat, jj,

diffusivity
pcpjy

This

heat

not assume

just

and

as

rapidly

of

nature

is close
\321\200-\320\263/7-\320\263

as momentum

(Hinze,

as B.3.8):

be expressed

heat

number\"

Prandtl

\"turbulent

heat

the

about

anything

transfer

momentum

are related

by

\320\2550/\320\255\321\2052
\"

B.4.2)

billlbx2

ODTl2

heat
flux
Reynolds'analogy: It is used to estimate the turbulent
stress and the mean velocity and temperature fields are known.
The
an
on
avoids
statement
the
of
the
diffusiviexplicit
eddy
analogy
magnitudes
it can be applied even if
for heat and momentum, so that
and jj
ties
Vj
cannot be determined.

is called

This

if the

The

mixing-length

heat

flux as

model

H2 = -pcpcsu2

Mixing-length

theory (Taylor,

1915)estimates

t \320\255\320\262/\320\255\321\2052,

the

B.4.3)

coefficient of order one.The mixing-length

model of turbulent
is not as misleading as the model of momentum
heat transfer
betransfer,
the
because
of a fluid particle is more nearly
than its
conserved
temperature
momentum. Even so, B.4.3),
like its stress counterpart,doesnot need to be
defended with a mixing-length
model in order
to justify its use in situations
c5 is a

where

with
and

a single
is good
\320\262

characteristic
and

length

and

velocity.

If

the

correlation

B.4.4)

\320\262'1{~\320\252<\320\2641\320\252\321\2052,

the

heat transfer
The

assertion

between

if

can be expressed
as B.4.3).
B.4.4) may be understoodas follows.

Consider

turbulent

u2

Turbulent transport

52

of momentum

motion between x2 = 0
flow

x2

by B.3.10).

defined

field,

and

and heat

&, where

the

local

Let us assume that

the

Z?\\%

length
mean

scale of the
temperature

difference between x2 = 0 and x2 = &\\s A\302\256.In turbulent

flows, ?Cand ?are
of the same order of magnitude, so that the eddies, in attempting to mix the
of order
\320\2240.This
field, create temperature fluctuations
implies
temperature
~ \320\2240if (~
that \320\262'
is
in
the
which
most
differential
S?,
concisely
expressed
form B.4.4). Strictly
an average value of \320\2550/\320\255\321\2052
between
x2=0
speaking,
be used, but the definition
of if implies that \320\2550/\320\255\321\2052
and x2 = if should
is of
= S?,so that
the same order of magnitude
between
x2 = 0 andx2
everywhere
value may be used to representthe average.
It should be kept in mind,
that a local interpretation
of B.4.3),
however,
though often convenient,
a local

more restrictive

it needs

than

The expression6'/?~\320\252@1\320\252\321\2052
often
is
because
the
counterpart
u2'/f~ bUxlbx2l
turbulence

mixes

latter is

valid

rate.

more reliable
former

passive scalar contaminants over scales

if the turbulent motion is maintained
is not

a passive
of

dynamics

contaminant;

turbulence,

to

of
its

that

a mean

mean

tur-

the

whereas

order/,
by

\"mixing\"

not merely

momentum

expresses

only

Momentum

its

than

merely
of

relates to the

is

to be.

strain

momentum

kinematics.

2.5

shear flow near a rigid wall

the concepts developedin this chapter to a pure shear flow in
the vicinity of a rigid,
in
but
is sketched
wall. The flow
porous
geometry
or suction) through the wall,
2.8. If there
is no mass transfer
Figure
(blowing
we shall find that there is only
scale. In that case, mixing-length
one velocity
from
models may be used. However,
if the mass-transfer
velocity is different
two
see
that
there
are
scales.
We
shall
zero,
theory
velocity
mixing-length
Turbulent
Let

us apply

cannot

cope

that

with

We take the

We take U3 = 0

occurring

in

problem.

mean flow
and

a very

to

be steady

= 0 for
\320\254\320\240/bXj

wide channel,

and homogeneous in

/ = 1,2,3.
with

the

certain velocity to maintain

the momentum
with
turbulent
> 0 is supposed to be filled
The equations of motion
are

x2

bil2
=
^\320\255 0,

The flow

upper

may

wall atx2

of the flow.

the*!

,x3

plane.

of as

be thought
\302\260\302\260
-*\342\200\242

moving

at a

The entire half-space

flow.

B.5.1)

2.5 Turbulent

53

shear flow

near

a rigid wall

2.8.

Figure

Turbulent

flow near a

rigid

surface

with mass

transfer. The surface

is at

rest

(O)=O).
\302\253/,

'\302\273
_\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
T
I \302\246

B.5.2)

12-

\320\254\321\2052

at once; because U2 has to

B.5.1) can be solved
of
downstream
virtue
by
homogeneity,
U2 is uniform:

Equation
Xi

U2

With B.5.3),

The

B.5.2) can be integrated

to

of

x\\

and

x2,

but it does

yield

B.5.4)
=
Ut @)

condition

boundary

0 is implied

in

B.5.4).

Let

us define a

\320\270
by

velocity

B.5.5)

T12@)=pul.
If

the

contribution

not

2.3.

Section

Ux =

friction

of

B.5.3)

vm.

The mass-transfer velocity vm is independent

in
need
to be zero as in the flow considered

pvm

be independent

to values of x2 where
shear stress 7\"i 2 should

is restricted

analysis
to

the total

x2U\\lv\302\273

be

1, the

negligible, so that

viscous
we

may

write

B.5.6)

54

Turbulent

all values

at
u\302\2732

kind is called a
turbulent

If
which

is equal to
0, the Reynolds stress \342\200\224
U\\U2
effects
are negligible. A flow of this
it also occurs close to the wall
in most

viscous

that
layers (Chapter 5). Assuming
that u2 must be independentof

we conclude

The scalerelation

to u,.

vm

constant-stresslayer;

boundary

correlated,

the

stress

of x2 for

constant

with

flow

of momentum and heat

transport

of the

vorticity

and u2

x2

and

are

proportional

The

is
\302\253i

itself.

x2

constrains

no

If

sense

in the

motion

somelevel

scales are

length

that

transport

to distances smaller
the only dimenflow,

is restricted

x2

imposed on

this

for<f is

choice

correct

sionally

of order one.
the turbulent

a coefficient

downward from

of momentum
than

B.5.7)

wall

rigid

B.5.8)

<=<x2x2.
A

With

implications of
becomes
B.5.7)
of the

study

comprehensive

Chapter5.

B.5.8),

B.5.8) is

until

deferred

Chap-

B.5.9)

dUJdx2 =u#/kx2,
which

and

mean flow becomes

uJt^QLi bUilbXi,
in which

well

of the turbulence

the vorticity

between

B.3.25)

u\\

to

integrates

readily

=
\342\200\224

B.5.10)

const.

I|nx2+

The coefficient

as the

\320\272
is known

for short). Experiments

constant of von
that

shown

have

\320\272
is

Karman

constant,

(Karman

to 0.4

equal

approximately

(Hinze,1959).
The

in B.5.10)

constant

additive

{Ui =0 at x2

condition

because B.5.10) is

not

=0).
valid

Reynolds numberx2 UiIv is of

In this
models

velocity,

flow

can

scale

be used
(u\302\273),so

this

at values

of x2

order

which

cannot
are

so

by

the

no-slip

be enforced
small that the

unity.

transfer

because there is
that

condition

However,

mass

without

is presumably determined

through the surface,

only

no ambiguity

one

length

mixing-length

scale (x2)

can arise.Specifically,

and

one

B.3.7)

becomes

\320\2531\\1\320\252\321\2052.

B.5.11)

be-

2.5 Turbulent shear

55

is
\342\200\224U\\U2

Because

mass

and
velocities,u\302\273

= 0,

vm

B.5.11) produces

B.5.10) upon

can

formula

mixing-length

If vm \320\244
0, the

transfer

vm.

be applied

scale, however, remains

be

without

assumption

to w/x2, where
vm. Letus write

has two characteristic veloci-

problem

The length

problem cannot
restrictive

if

of the

version

wall

success.

equal

Nonzero

to t/,2

equal

Prandtl's

integration.
with

near a rigid

flow

is

further

making

B.5.12)

bUJbx2=w/x2.

The numerical

coefficient needed in

unknown

scale

velocity

Integration of

U1/w=

This

tox2.

proportional

assumptions. The least

we can make is that
should
be proportional
bU\\lbx2
on u* and
an undetermined velocity scalethat
depends
solved

In x2

has

B.5.12)

been absorbed

in

the

un-

w.

B.5.12) yields

+ const.

B.5.13)

This equation is not a solution

to the equations
of motion; it is merely a
law
the
Because w is unof
differential
B.5.12).
consequence
similarity
are
it has to be determined experimentally.In this
flow, vm and \320\270\321\211
unknown,
we may write
the only two velocity scales,so that
B.5.14)

w/ut=f(vm/uj.
results

Experimental

w/u* are

on

w/u\302\273. If

that

the
\302\273u\302\273,

vm

w should

Reynolds

stress

given

stressis larger

(vm > 0), the Reynolds

friction

velocity

be proportional to
is smaller

than

Figure
u,2;

2.9.

that

In

the

this results

becomes
In

vm.

so
t/\302\2732,

in
than

case
in

w/u* decreases.

of blowing

If

the

of

increase

so

unimportant,

relatively

case of suction

the

an

{vm< 0), the

suction

rate

is large, the Reynolds stress becomesso small

that
turbulence
cannot be
to laminar
flow. If
maintained; this causes reverse transition from turbulent
the
suction
0, the situation is further
complicated
by the fact that
vm<
toward the wall but also turbulent kinetic
imports not only mean momentum

energy.

The

approach

mixing-length

assumption
substituted

by

expressed
into

the

The

B.5.12).

equation

preceding
If

the

of motion

analysis was based on the asvelocity profile B.5.13) is

resulting

B.5.6), there

results

B.5.15)

Turbulent transport

56

of momentum

and heat

-0.2
Figure

scale of

The velocity

2.9.

data collected by

if

characteristic

as a

on using a

insist

However,

use w

we

a rigid wall

near

flow

transfer

mass

with

if we

and

model

mixing-length

velocity, we

continue to

write

should

B.5.16)

dUi/dx2,

where a3 is an

(based on

1965).

Tennekes,

coefficient.

unknown

If

substitute

we

B.5.12)

into B.5.16),

we obtain
B.5,17)

=a3w

A stress
states

seems.

a3w2

For

vm

of x2

independent

stress dependson
difference

the

However,

values

is

that

that the

0,

between

w=2.5u\302\273

x2

is clearly not a
because

l/t

correct solution:

B.5.15) and B.5.17) is not as large

so that a3 =0.16. For
2.9),
(Figure

that
of vm/u*, Figure
2.9
shows
+18
be
may
approximated by t/*2

w/u* = 2.5
vmu*

like B.5.15)

x2-

as
small

A+9 I'm/\"*).so that

if vm/u*

is small.

except for the suppressed dependence x2.

be to substitute
B.5.16) into B.5.6)
approach would
based
on B.5.12).
Upon integration,
making a further substitution
much

B.5.6)

presumably depends on

This is very

on

A third

without
this

yields

B.5.18)

This expression agreesneither

with

B.5.15)

nor with B.5.17).

it

57

Problems

A fourth
length

after

formula;

= lag

-uiu2

w from the mixingwould be to use B.5.12)to remove

in
of
This
results
Prandtl's
version
the mixing-length
B.5.16).
there results
B.5.6)
integration of the equation of motion

approach

formula

B.5.19)

vm(\\n\320\2606\321\205\320\263)]2.

of B.5.19)
velocity profile is obtained by substitution
of B.5.19)
claim that it agrees with their expericoefficients
experimental data.
B.5.19) contains two adjustable
However,
(a5 and
of which
a6), both
may depend on vm/u^. Like B.5.15), B.5.17), and
is not a solution
to the equations
of motion.
B.5.19)
B.5.18),
The

corresponding

into B.5.6).

The proponents

The limitations
abundantly

clear

of

that

mixing-length

mixing-length

At this point
theory
models are incapableof

it has

become

abun-

turbulent

describing

of
one
characteristic
containing more than
velocity with any degree
of
of
the
None
that
were
tried
a
clear
the versions
picture
consistency.
gives
on the
roles of the two velocity scales; the effects of vm/u*
integration
constants remain altogether unresolved.Let us recall that mixing-length exas the combination of a statement
about
the
can
be understood
expressions
a statement
about the mean-velocity gradient
stress (-uiu2 ~w2) and
if
These statements do not give rise to inconsistencies
~w/x2)(bU\\lbxi
is only one characteristic velocity,but they
be used to obtain
there
cannot
solutions to the equations
of motion if there
are two or more characteristic
that
to w in unknown
In other words, mixingvelocities
contribute
ways.
is useless because it cannot
theory
length
predict
anything substantial; it is
often confusing
because no two versions of it can be made to agree with each
other.
be used only to generMixing-length and eddy-viscosity modelsshould
generateanalytical
for the Reynolds stress and the mean-velocity
expressions
proin turbulent
flows characterprofile if those
are desired for curve-fitting
purposes
a single velocity
characterized
scale. The use of mixingby a single length scale and
in
turbulent
flows
whose
laws
are not known beforetheory
length
scaling

flows

beforehandshould

be avoided.

Problems

2.1 Considera

fully

developed

turbulent

Couette

flow

in a

and wide parallel plane walls. The distance

walls is 2/7, the lower wall is at rest and the upper wall moves
Uq in its own plane. Assume that the flow consists of two wall
two

infinitely

long

channel

between

between

the

with

a velocity

layers

(Section

Turbulent transport

58

2.5)

center line of
at the lower wall
coefficient
at the center line) in terms

friction

velocity

near the

that

assuming

constant

additive

the

Estimate

number is so

Reynolds
thickness of

at the

match

which

these

and heat

of momentum

sublayers

the

that

small

is equal to

Find an expression for the

velocity profile
\"viscous sublayers\" in

logarithmic
exist

there

channel.
=

2t/*2/L/c2, where Uc is the mean

of an appropriate Reynolds number.

(cf

the

in

walls

the

Reynolds

B.5.10)
which

by

the

stress is negligible. The thickin the

profile
velocity

10j>/u,.Sketch the

channel.

2.2

obtained

evidence

Experimental

a more accurate
flow is obtained

if

Repeat
0.07/\321\210\302\273.

the

flow

assumed

analysis of

1959)

(Hinze,

suggests that

Couette
velocity profile
that the eddy viscosity is nowhere larger than

Problem 2.1 on

in

this

turbulent

basis.

is released in a turbulent
flow with charact.
The
velocity
length
temperature of the patch is
than
the
ambient
but
the
difference
and the
higher
temperature,
density
effects of buoyancy
be neglected.
Estimate the rate of spreading of the
may
of hot fluid and the rate at which
the maximum
difference
patch
temperature
that
decreases. Assume
the size of the patch at the time of release
is much
smaller than I and much
than the Kolmogorov microscale 17. The use of
larger
an eddy diffusivity
is appropriate,
and length
but the choice of the velocity
in
scales that are needed to form an eddy diffusivity
careful
requires
thought,
as
as
the
the sizeof
scale
the length
particular
patch remains smaller than
long
t. In this context,
a review of Problem 1.3 will be helpful.
2.3

A certain

it is

in pipe

of the

representation

2.4

A vortex

the

wing

the

thickness

in

of the

the

hot fluid

characteristic

generatorin

a Boeing

of

qualitativedescription

transfer

of

amount

and
\320\270

characteristic

of

the

shape

of a low

aspect-ratio wing

is located

on

of the vortex generator is comparable to

707. The height
turbulent boundary
over the wing. Give a qualitalayer
the effect of the vortex generator on the momentum

boundary

layer.

3
OF TURBULENCE

DYNAMICS

THE

2, we studied

In Chapter

of the

effects

the

turbulent

on

fluctuations

velocity

other side of the issue. Two major

of the turbulence
kinetic energy
maintained?
to the study
and vortex stretching
so important
of
as follows. We
turbulence?
To help answer these questions,we shall proceed
first
derive
for the kinetic energy
of the mean flow and
that
of the
equations
turbulence. We shall see that turbulence extracts energy
from
the mean flow
at large scales and that this gain is approximately balancedby viscous dissipadissipationof
at very small scales. Realizing
that
of energy at
energy
dissipation
small scales occurs only if there exists a dynamical mechanism that transfers
the mean flow. We now
questions arise. First, how
Second, why are vorticity

to

In order

analyze

of vorticity.

scales

by

number is

the

strain

this

gives

strain-rate

opportunity

fluctuations

play

3.1
Kinetic energy of the
We found
in

an

of

analysis

rate demonstrates the

us the

in

2.1

the

the

dissipation

interaction
role

way,

the

is transferred to
is
rate of energy

if the Reynolds
between the vorticity

fluctuations

dynamical

energy

of strain-rate
other

problems

num-

and

fluctuations;
in which the

a role.

that the

equations of

motion

for

steady

mean flow

fluid are

incompressible

stress

vorti-

that

and

flow

mean

Section

that

obtained

to discusssome

= 0.
The

that

we first
turns

discover

shall

of vorticity.

fluctuations,

of Reynolds stresses. It
shear stress with
transport

understanding

mean-square vorticity
The

enough.

large

Reynolds

stretching and

vortex

to the

proportional

the

With

generation

the

be studied. We

can

role of vorticity

the

in

turn to a study

we then

scales,

of the

appreciation
are involved

they

equations

small

small

convenient to associate

stretching
vorticity

an

gain

how

to be

out

scales to

from large

energy

to the

turn

is the

C.1.2)
tensor
+

is

\320\242\321\206

\320\242\321\206
-\320\240\320\254\321\206
2;uS,y

-p

\320\270/\321\206.

C.1.3)

The

60

of turbulence

dynamics

of strain

The mean rate

S/.- is

defined

by

Since the mean momentum

the turbulent
is zero,
velocity fluctuations
U7of
we cannot discuss the effectsof the mean flow on the turbulence very well in
of mean momentum. We shall
terms
for the kinetic
the equations
study
of the mean flow and
of the turbulence
instead. The equation governenergy
the dynamics
of the mean-flow energy
is obtained
governing
by multiplying
\\iljUj
C.1.1) by Uj. It is useful to split the stress term in the resulting equation into
two components. The energy
becomes
equation

Because

is a

pUj

UiUi)

rate

\320\264\320\270,/\320\264\321\205-,

mean-flow

energy
to

f
J

is a
\320\277.-

performed by

7~;y.

side of

This

term

volume on whose

C.1.6) represents
integrates

surfaceeither

of

transport

to zero

if

the

integra-

U, vanishes.
\320\242\321\203.
or

divergencetheorem,

the volume

stress

the

by

ir(TiJUl)dV=
J \321\203
OXj

The vector

the right-hand

on

a control

According to the

Ct 1 -6>

TijSiJ-

\321\212\321\205~-(TijUi)

term

first

integrationrefers

The

to the

is equal

becomes

\320\252\321\205~-

The

the

and

Tjj

thus

C.1.5)

tensor, the product 7\",y bUjlbxsymmetric part S,y of the deformation

symmetric

\320\242\320\223)

product of

C.1.7)

njTijUfds.

to the surfaceelement
surface S of the control volume

unit vector normal

the

stress

integral

of

on the

can

\320\242\321\203
S;y

change

the

total

amount

cfe.

If the

work

is zero,

only

of kinetic

energy.
of
conservation
is lost to or re-

of
deformation work; by virtue
that
energy of the mean flow
retrieved
from
the agency that generates the stress. The
distinction
between
deformation
work
is
to
the
transfer
and
crucial
spatial energy
understanding
of turbulence.
of the dynamics
term

energy,

T/jS,-.-

it

is called

kinetic

represents

Pure shear flow

As

variables depend on

an illustration,

x2

only

and

let us take a pure shearflow in which all

of U/
the only nonzero
component

in which

3.1 Kinetic

61

of the

energy

is Ux. For this

turbulent
energy equation reads

Couette

0 = ^-G-12(\320\2431)-7-12^1

work

done

Because

the

the

7\"i2;

C.1.8).

performed
this

does not

instead, it is all traded

C.1.8), because this equation

stress field does

in a

implies

that

7\"..

generally

an

be

will

generates the stressand that

the deformation work
unless
However, no specificconclusions
The

deformation

Substitution

various stresses to the deformation

is caused
by the stresses that
into 7\";yS,y yields

\320\224\321\205,

Ax,

U, @)
3.1.

by

bUx/bx2.

deformation

work.
contribute

to

\320\242\321\206.

C.1.9)

T12

Figure

\\UjU-,
7\0212

expect that

lij=2vLSijSij-pi

of

energy

that
of the agency
input term for the energy
the kinetic energy
will decrease
of
because
\\UjUj
this loss is balanced by a net input of energy.
of the indivican be made without a study

work

of C.1.3)

in

A constant

change

work

of the

individualcontributions

stress is

term

is consistent

is constant.

to

unit

9G\"! 2U\\)lbx2

work. This

the tendency

per

of the

second

change of the kinetic

for deformation
a flow;

accelerate

not

result

is balanced exactly by the deformation

9G\0212t/i)/9x2
Work is performed, but
does not change. We
\\UjUj
work

the stresses

by

in C.1.8).
The average value
average stress is equal to the
work
left-hand side of C.1.8)is zero,the

flow;

with

done

work

term

first

the

3.1,

Figure

by the

stresses

the

by

in

C.1.8)

the rate of

that

to the

is equal

volume

sketched

illustrates

3.1

flow, which is

0*2

0*2

Figure

flow

mean

Stresses on a small

volume

element

in a pure

shear flow.

of turbulence

The dynamics

62

pressure to

of the

contribution

The

in an

work

deformation

incompressible

is zero:

fluid

-PS/jSij

The

-PS,;- = -P

0.

C.1.10)

OX/
of

contribution

negative;

-r-' =

consequently,

to the deformation

stresses

viscous

viscous deformation

work

work

represents

always

is always

a loss

of

kinetic energy. For this reason, the term 2/x S,yS,y is called viscous dissipation.
is related to the strain
not to the vorticity
Note that the dissipation
(the
rate,
the
of
is
related
to
part
skew-symmetric
vorticity
bUj/bxj).
of
is also
The contribution
stresses to the deformation work
Reynolds
to
occur
in
situations
in
of
tend
most
flows:
values
negative
dissipative
u,Uj
with positive S,-:, as we have
in Chapter 2. Positivevalues of
can
seen
U/Uj
S,y
is a
in which
occur in unusual
even then the region
situations;
ujUj S,y >0
small
fraction
of the entire flow. Since turbulent
the destresses
perform
deformation
the kinetic energy of the turbulence benefitsfrom
this work.
work,
For this reason \342\200\224p
is
known
as
turbulent
production.
energy
up.- S,y
The

effects of viscosity

equation for the

mean

flow

If

is substituted

C.1.3)

mean-flow

refers

of

energy

to the

surface of

terms

integral

on the

right-hand

mean-flow

energy

by Reynolds
property

C.1.11)

jSij.

i]i]

The first three

work, transport

into C.1.5), the energy

becomes

of C.1.11)
are called pressure
of
viscous
stresses, and transport
by
side

stresses, respectively.The
expressed

by C.1.7):

if

word
UJVl

\"transport\"
is zero

on the

can only rethree terms

of C.1.11)
volume,
the
control
volume.
redistribute
inside
energy
are negligible. This can be
In most
flows the two viscous terms in C.1.11)
the scale relation bUjbXj ~ tt/t ({is an
demonstrated
by invoking
easily
in
~\302\2532which
were developed
scale) and the stress estimate \342\200\224UjUj
integral
is
charac2.
if
the
turbulence
Of
these
relations
are
valid
course,
only
Chapter
We define
if no other characteristic scalesare present.
characterized by \320\270
and /'and
the representative velocity \302\253
by
a

control

the first

3.2

63

Kinetic

of the

energy

turbulence

C.1.12)

S^IujUj.
With

~\320\270/(and

Sjj

production is estimated

, turbulence

~u
\342\200\224UjUj

as

C.1.13)

'ujuj
in

same

the

way, energy
=

-u,uj

C2

Ui

by

transport

is estimated

motion

turbulent

as
C.1.14)

\320\260\320\256/Sfj.

In most simple shear flows, the

order one. Comparing
C.1.13)

corresponding viscous

with the

C.1.14)

are of

and
\320\241\321\206
C2

coefficients

undetermined

and

that the turbulence terms arsui/v times as large as the

viscous terms. This Reynolds
number
in situatends to be very
(except
large
situations very
close to smooth surfaces), so that
the viscous
terms in C.1.11)
can
illustrates
that the gross strucordinarily be neglected. This conclusion
again
structure of
flows tends to be virtually
turbulent
of viscosity. Visindependent
terms

C.1.11),

Viscosity

makes

we see

itself
the

Although

additional

obtaining
not

contain

mean

felt only indirectly.

for the energy
equation
the

into

is obtained

the former

mean

the

flow is

helpful

in

of turbulent

motion, it does
the momentum equation for the

dynamics

than

information

more

any

since

flow

insight

of

latter

the

from

by mere

manipulation.

3.2

Kinetic

of the turbulence

energy

The equation
velocity

B.1.1) by
which

is

the

exercise,

obtained
the

taking
\320\270,,

governs

mean

the

governing

fluctuations

time average of

kinetic

energy of the

is left to the

which

kinetic

energy

by multiplying

reader.The

all

| u~ju~J of the turbulent velothe Navier-Stokes equations

terms,

mean

final

and

flow.

equation,

subtracting
is a fairly

This

C.1.11),
tedious

the turbulent energy

budget, reads

C.2.1)

4pjf^.
The

quantity
1

(bu;

^2(\320\246

s,y

is the

fluctuating

rate

of strain,

defined

by

bui\\
<3-2-2>
\320\246)-

The

64

rate of

The
transport
kinds

two

are

change of

of

control volume

of or

out

flux

merely redistribute

in

C.1.11),

into a closed
one point

from

energy

to another.

flow

The

these terms

is zero,

energy

those

like

terms,

transport

If the

flux.

energy

due to pressure-gradient work,

transport
by viscous stresses, and

is thus

\\upt

by turbulent
velocity fluctuations,
of deformation
work. The

divergences

in the

of turbulence

dynamics

occurs

-u;Uj

Sjj
this

anticipated,

the mean

in

more important.

are

terms

deformation-work

production

and in

C.1.11)

term apparently
the turbulence.
and

C.2.1)

with

The turbulence produc-

opposite

signs.

serves to exchangekinetic

As we

Normally, the energy

exchange
loss to the mean flow and a profit to the turbulence.
The last term in C.2.1) is the rate at which
viscous
stresses
is
strain
This
deformation work
the
rate.
fluctuating
always
against
flow

energy, since the

term

dissipation;

the

unlike

turbulence

of

dynamics

is

quadratic

dissipation

and cannot

s,y. The

in
term

in

C.1.11),
be

ordinarily

term

it

is

had

between

energy

involves

perform
a drain

which

of

viscous

called

is essential

to the

neglected.

equals dissipation In a steady, homogeneous,

pure shear flow
all averaged quantities
except
U, are independent of position and
is a constant), C.2.1)reduces
to

Production
which

(in
in

Sjj

C.2.3)

jjijyy.

This equation

states

that

in this

flow

rate

the

of production

of

turbulent

It should
stresses equals the rate of viscousdissipation.
do not balance,
shear flows production and dissipation
this
are nearly always of the same order of magnitude.
Keeping
though
they
we may use C.2.3) as an aid in understanding
those features of
in
mind,
For this reason,
turbulence that are not directly related to spatial
transport.
energy

Reynolds

by

be noted

in

that

C.2.3) is often

written

form.

If

we

define

C.2.5)

e=2vs~js~jl

^\302\273=e.

in symbolical

C.2.4)

P^-liJujSg,

C.2.3)reads

most

simply
C.2.6)

3.2

65

Kinetic

to

order

In

valid

turbulence

C.2.6), we

interpret

in mind

turbulence

in shear-generated

only

the

employ

again

estimate -UjUj ~\302\2532,keeping

the stress

and

of the

energy

one

with

scale relation
~a/e
S,y
that these estimatesare
scale and one
length

velocity scale.
this

With

/7

//

C.1.13) as an

estimate

Reynolds stress.

for the

becomes

C.2.3)

budget

\\o.4t..//

/\320\243/\320\243\"

the Reynolds

Since

we use

provision,

The energy

very large,

is generally

number\302\253^

we concludethat
C.2.8)

\302\273S^-.

The

fluctuating

strain rate

is thus

s;y

very much

the

than

larger

mean rate of

the Reynolds number is large. Since strain

rates
have the
when
Sjj
to the
dimension of sec\021, this implies that the eddies contributing
most
of
small
have
time
scales
to the
convective
dissipation
energy
very
compared
of
flow.
This
time scale
the
suggests that there should be very little direct
between the strain-rate fluctuations
interaction
and
the mean flow if the
do
not
number is large. In other words,
interact
Reynolds
strongly,
S,y ands,y
strain

because

they are not

effects introduced

eddies do not
If

this

of turbulence

structure

small-scale

change

by

the

same

tends to

shear, so
rotations or

mean

under

the

band. Therefore,the

frequency

be independent

that

of

all averages

reflections of the

case, the small-scale structure

small
scales is called local isotropy

is the

Isotropyat

to

tuned

is called

(seeChapter

orientation

any

to the small

relating
coordinate

isotropic

system.

(Figure 3.2).

8).

that
The preceding considerationssuggest
any length scale
I if a balance
of
must
be
than
involved
much
smaller
verv
s,y
is to be obtained. The situation
is similar
between production and dissipation
to the one in laminar
(Section 1.5). In laminar
boundary-layer
theory
layers, we had to select the thickness S in such a way that the
boundary
viscous
term
of motion could be retained;
essential
in the
this
equation
~ ft\021/2
be able to proceed in a similar
\320\254/L
A.5.3). Here, we should
yielded
is proportional
to
of several
way. The dissipation of energy
sjjs~-; this consists
of which cannot be measured conveniently.
most
terms like (\320\252\320\270/\320\252\321\205-\320\263,
the small-scale structure of turbulence tends to be
However, as we mentioned,

Taylor

microscale
in

estimates

66

The

of turbulence

dynamics

\302\246\321\217

\321\211
\320\250
\321\210
\320\263\320\260\302\2535
\321\200

\320\257\320\274

\321\210
\320\257\320\272

\320\231
\321\210
\320\226!

\320\231\320\240

55
\320\225\320\266

\320\240

\320\250

\320\246

\321\202
\320\251

\302\246\321\221
\320\226

\321\210

\320\226

\321\200

\321\210

(\321\201)

(\320\254)

3.2. The shading pattern used in this book: (a) was selected because it is an
Figure
The other patterns,
isotropic random field, like the small-scale structure of turbulence.
(b) and (c), have preferred directions; they are not isotropic.

isotropic.

In

e = 2vslisii

= 15i>

The

derivation

like

Ot/i/9*iJ

of C.2.9)

C.2.9)

is not

given

here;

that contribute tos,y s,y

one
larger than

In many

involved.

Let us

define

flows, {\320\252\320\270i/dxiJcan
a new length scale X by

=u\\l\\2

Cui/3xiJ
The

length

who

first

scale
defined

curvature

u\\,

so

u\\
a2,

(Hinze,

so many

because

components are

relatively easily.

be measured

which

isotropic

of

Taylor microscale

autocorrelations;this
be

made

because

was defined
turbulence

(see Section

honor

in

of G.

microscale is also associated

The Taylor

=\302\2532can

small-scalestructure
approximately

bookkeeping with terms

The coefficient 15 in
1959).

C.2.10)

the

is called

of spatial velocity
that

it involves

=\302\2532/X2.

C.2.10).

The substitution

to

J.

(buxlbxi

is considerably

C.2.9)

the dissipation rate is equal

turbulence,

isotropic

at

as

in

is discussed
isotropic

1U/U,-,

is

equal

I. Taylor
with

in Section

turbulence

to uf.

u\\

6A
=

u\\

Since the

large Reynolds numbers is

8.3), we use

the

always

Kinetic energy of the

22

67

turbulence

C.2.11)

e=15v\302\2532/\\2,

with

\320\233
defined

as a convenient estimateof e.
^can
be obtained from the simplified energy
of order\302\253/<fand
if -up-,
is of order \342\202\254?,
we obtain

by C.2.10),

between

A relation

budget C.2.3).

If

is

S,-.-

and

C.2.12)

The ratio
Tl
\320\233

X/iHs

/1C\\1/2
/15\\

then

given

// ul\\t\\

\342\200\224
1/2

by
/1E\\1/2
/15\\

...
C\022-13)

\"'
7=\320\253

(\321\202)

In

C.2.12,
order one.
always

3.2.13),

\"\320\253

Because in

much smaller

energy is due to

Scale relations

turbulent

all

the

than

The

which was introduced

in

constant,

which

of turbulence.

X is not the

The smallest scaleis the

smallest

Kolmogorov

Chapter

X and
tj can be understood if we
the estimate C.2.11) of the dissipation

and

definition

C.2.7)

strain-rate

fluctuations

definition

of e

have

Sj.-

of turbulence.

this

Calling

time

scale

we
\321\202,

find

the

(sec\021);

1. This is no

Chapter

= 0.26

scale

r~l

to the one

is identical

was

found

physical reason at all for

that can be determined
microscale should thus be
ul\\

the

dissipative

that

C.2.15)

scale

length

e. The

rate

of a frequency
scale associated with
the

the dimension
a time

defines

thus

to the

return

considerations
in

t],

1:

C.2.14)

The difference between

This time

scale

length

microscale

q=(i>3/eI/4.

structure

of

is presumably

flows R( \302\2731, the Taylor microscale X is

scale I. Again
we see that dissipation of

microscale

Taylor

in turbulence.

occurring

integral

eddies

small

the

undetermined

is an

= 0.26

this

is

unambiguously

used

\320\2501'2.

discoveredby

elementary

considera-

coincidence. The dimensions

are such that
of
s,y
scale. There is no
by taking a as a velocity
choice of characteristic velocity;the only scale
only

in

the

the

time

combination

scale

\321\202.
The

Taylor

C.2.11):
C.2.16)

The

68

microscale is thus

The Taylor

field

not

does

and

of turbulence

dynamics

are strong.

effects

assistance of a
Even

It

velocity

used

is

so,

For

convenient.

future

/?7/2=

=15

R(

The

C.2.13).

defined

Rx =
This

X,

and

17

are

1/2

Rx .

C.2.18)

A is the

same as the

in C.2.12)

used

one

Reynoldsnumber,

C.2.19)

number may be interpreted

(which

scale

of the

\\lu

is

energy

Spectral
the

turbulence

from

C.2.7):

from the

strain-rate

fluctuations

(Corrsin,

transfer

The

exchange

scale

eddy
enters

large-eddy time

of the

C.2.13)) and the

time

1959).

between the mean

and

flow

of the

large eddies. This is clear

to

turbulence

the

production^

The energy extracted by

the turbulence
at scales
mainly
size.

of

turbulent

comparable to the

1, this implies
from

ratio

turbulence

the

to

comparable

t.

viscous dissipation
at scales

Chapter

energy

is governed by the dynamics

large eddies contribute most

mean flow thus

integral

The

as the

to X2/v by virtue of

proportional

0* increases with

because

that

the

this

internal

spectral

the other

microscale

dynamics

scales. All

of

occurs

hand,

found

As we

17.

of turbulence must
the

available

rate may

always

be

dictated
time

scale

estimated
C.2.20)

e=A\302\2533lt,

there

exists

only

one

characteristic

length

in

transfer

experimental

energy transfer proceeds at a rate

is of order u1) and their
(which

energy of the large eddies

is
of order t/o\\. Thus, the dissipation
(which
by the

on

energy,

Kolmogorov

large scales to small

evidence suggests that

provided

is

by

Reynolds

energy

and

which

u\\lv.

mainly

given:

C.2.17)

Rx is the microscale

parameter

scalet/u

the

1/4

constant

undetermined

The

(,

relating

expressions

use,

\342\200\224/?^\\

1/4

255 \\1/4

length of the strain-rate

of
which
sizes
in
any group
eddy
dissipative
is not a dissipation
it
is
with the
because
defined
scale,
scale which is not relevant for the dissipative eddies.
frequently because the estimate s;y~\302\253/X is often
a characteristic

not

represent

( (Taylor, 1935).The

as

3.2 Kinetic

69

of the

energy

turbulence

estimate C.2.20) is independent of the presenceof turbulence

production;
C.2.12) is thus a valid statement about the dissipation rate even if production
do not balance.
and dissipation
Of course, turbulence can maintain
itself
only if it receives a continuous
is
If
the
of
only
production term and if e is estimated
energy.
supply
\342\200\224U/US/j
balance
approximate
shear flows may be written

the

with

C.2.20),

many

turbulent

between & and

which

and

if

\342\200\224ut-uj

in

This

justification.

estimate

because
\320\260\321\212It

and the
has

\342\200\224UjU:
approximate,

vorticity
rate

strain

that

order a/t,

of

receives

This is

distinct

^must

so that

estimates

energy

budget

R{112

wherever

The

C.2.1)

from

the

be of order \320\270\320\263'/(
must be of order

good
in

the

correlation
same

range

orders of magnitude
of the other terms of the original
need to be established.We shall use s,y~WX and ~K/t~

needed.

The pressure-work term

9 /1~X

be of order

support

between t/,
of frequencies.
Further

2? must

of order a2
a
be obtained. Conversely, C.2.21) states that
can be obtained only if
and alt occur
and
uj
S/j

to be

is to

stated

that

from C.2.21). With

e of
is
of
order
and
with
that
energy transfer
S;.- of
of the large eddies is maintained
by the vorthe mean flow,
from C.2.21) that
we conclude
if a balance
between 0> and e, however
approxnow

spectral

order alt becausethe

ticity

states

~ a2
was
This discrepancy arises becausethe estimate
\342\200\224u/Uj
theoretical
2 as an empirical statement without
Chapter

if 0>=e.
\320\260\321\212/{

introduced

It

by C.2.20).

order a2 and S,-.-is of

is of

because

is estimated

of C.2.12), which

interpretation

original

order

\320\230
9 911

needs careful interpretation.

if 0>=e
\320\270\321\2121(

in

as

\342\200\224\320\275\320\270
^ ~ \320\233
yy3 If

This equation

occurs

in

C.2.1)

is estimated

as

C.2.22)

be of order pu2 and

the
fluctuations
because
the
pressure
p should
of averaged
determines
the gradients
length scale of the flow, which
should
be of the same order as the large-eddy
size/.
quantities,
motion is estimated
as
Mean transport of turbulent
by turbulent
energy

because

local

The dynamics

70

It is

to

tempting

of turbulence

estimate

by viscous

transport

stresses in

the

way:

following

This estimate, however, is too large because

it assumes that uf and
are well
Sy
correlated. This is not likely
because
the time scale of the eddies contributing
to
most
is much
smaller than the time scale of the eddies contributing
Sjj
can easily be resolvedby substituting
most to \320\270,.
The
the definition
problem
= \320\236:
and employing
C.2.2) of s^ into C.2.24)
\320\255\320\270,/\320\255\321\205,2

\320\255
\342\200\224

= v

()
(u/Sg)

2v

\320\2552
\320\255
,
\342\200\224-\342\200\224

(I

ujUj) )

(I

Both terms on the

viscous

the

\320\2552
\320\255
\342\200\224\342\200\224

C.2.25)

u,u,.

are of order v<?

term is

of C.2.25)

side

right-hand

correct estimatefor

+ v

transport

the

so that

If1,

C-2-26)
\320\252\321\206^-'\320\242-\320\242*?'

C.2.24)

Comparing

between

is of

u-t

and

ordert/\302\253

s/yand

and C.2.26), we see that

the
correlation
coefficient
must be of order R^.112.
The
time
scale of the large eddies
the time scale of the dissipative eddiesis of order
The
X/\302\253.

of these time scalesis X/^ which

is of order Rf112 by virtue
of C.2.17).
The correlation coefficient thus
with
the ratio of the time scales
scales
involved.
One
interact strongly
at large
say that u-t and Sy cannot
might
are not tuned
to the same frequencyrange.
Reynolds numbers because they
ratio

estimates

The

C.2.22)

of turbulent
large. The other
transport

transport

production

and

The

cannot

be measured and

with Uj,
the

pressure

scales that
Wind-tunnel

developed
low-speed

terms

becausep

partly
wall

As

of

need

the

as the

magnitude

be retained

be rather
its

fluctuations

most

in

it

because

correlated

poorly

is that

A possible explanation

ufj-., so that

is

number

Reynolds

to

viscous

the

only

neglected, partly

tends to

tend

to have

of the velocity fluctuations.

an application

here, we discuss the

wind tunnel. Wind-tunnel

if

that

same order of

1956).

(Townsend,

is a weighted integral
are larger than those

turbulence

are of the

so that they
rates,
term is sometimes

pressure-work

except near a

be neglected

can

energy

dissipation

flows.

C.2.26) show

through

decay of

nearly

turbulence

of the equations and

estimates

homogeneous

turbulence

is commonly

generated

in
by

a
a

3.2

71

in

illustrated

the

nonzero

flow

without

is zero,

If

then

should

reminder
If

3.3.

turbulence

shear. The flow geometry is illusis

no turbulence production. The
there
S,y
serves
as a
decay through viscous dissipation.This

in a uniform

Figure

turbulence

of the

energy

screen

or

grid

Kinetic

that the approximation & ~ e is not always relevant.

frame
of reference is chosen such that
is the only
U\\ (a constant)
of
the
mean
component
becomes
C.2.1)
velocity, the energy
budget

C.2.27)

It

has

been

transport

terms

in

assumed

term can
C.2.27)

may

that the Reynolds

be neglected.The
be estimated

number

orders

R(

of

is so

large

magnitude

that

as follows:

C.2.28)

Ut

viscous

the

of the various

= constant

grid
Figure

3.3.

Geometry

independent of x,,

of wind-tunnel turbulence. The

because of
downstream

but\302\2532decreases

mean
viscous

flow

velocity

dissipation.

Ul is

The

72

of turbulence

dynamics

C-2>29>

C.2.30)

The distanceX! is
immediate vicinity
distance

from

measured

a virtual

origin

in the

is presumably

which

disturbulence-producing
grid. The downstream
is the appropriate length
scale
in the estimate of the downstream
and
the integral scale/ is not a measure
for
\320\270^(\321\200/\321\200
+1ujUj):

Xi

the

of

decay of \\up-t

the downstream
in the

downstream

itself.

More

and no characteristic

turbulence

of the

inhomogeneity

direction is imposed, so that

specifically,

a2

if

9/9xi

then

~x\\

can scale

only

length

with

\320\270
are
small:
\302\253 U.
grid turbulence, the velocity fluctuations
turbulent
then should be negligible
transport terms in C.2.27)
compared
the transport by the mean flow, so that the energy equation reduces to

In

\320\255 ,

tfir
The

3xj
=

C.2.28)

the time

and C.2.30)

turbulence.
We would

mean

like

scale of the
to the

is equal

which

the

with

that

suggest

to

flow

running

(in
time

flow) is of the same

determine

how (

and

this

case the

on the

order as the

\320\270
change

downstream.

in terms
gives only one relation between f and \320\270
that another
Such
relation is needed to solvethis problem.
from
The time scale of energy transfer
obtainedas follows.

the small eddies is

large eddiesthemselves
in

Chapter

r ~l\\u.

The

is T~t2Iv

1). The

scale

time

(based

ratio of

associated

scales

and

suggests

so

U\\,

can be
eddies
to
large
with the decay of the
a relation

the

estimate

like

is

C.2.33)

Tfr~tulv,
which

of the

Equation

of Xi

on a simple diffusion

these time

observer

scale

time

of

X\\/U\\

\"age\"

clock of an

C.2.32)

those used

to

C.2.32)
that

states

The

C.2.31)

Call

the mean flow,

moving

-e.

estimates

dimensional
<j

which

(\\ujUi)

Xi

that

so

\320\252\320\2702/dxx~aa2/x\\,

that

at large values of

R( =?u/v the large eddies are

affected

3.2

73

Kinetic

of the

energy

turbulence

that these time scales, todissipation. We now assume

with
the running time X\\/U\\,
are the only independent variables of the
together
problem.This is a fair assumption, since this flow has no time scales imposed
from
outside.
A relation
between the independent and dependent
variables
should exist; in nondimensional
form it may be written
as
little

very

Since

direct

by

to tdlv,

is proportional
\320\242/\321\202

can

this

be rewritten

of ul(\\% by requiring 1
in which utcan be a function
way
of g should be
This is supported by the fact that the argument
turbulence
in
its
wind-tunnel
a constant, as predicted
Hence,
by C.2.32).
initial
period of decay (where R(\302\273 1) should have an approximately conconstant
number.
Reynolds
Keeping in mind that Rt should be independent of

Now, the
be

xu

only

a constant.

from

find

we

C.2.32)

1\342\200\224
_\302\253--\342\200\242\302\246:*.

C236)

are undetermined.

constants

The

?/t\\ are constant

and

C.2.37)

(R{vI12.

proportional toxi

by

virtue

of

Because R( is a constant, the

3.2.18). Hence A. and
C.2.17,

ratios/\320\233

1? also

are

ll2.

that the turbulent energy

as xf1,
while all length
decays
as
These
to
be
rather
results
are
crude
Xi1^2.
expected
approxigrow
a small number
approximations, because
only
they are based on the assumption that
We

conclude

scales

of

nondimensional

the

predicted

and

Corrsin,

groups

is relevant.

Experimental

evidence indicatesthat

30% of the observed values (Comte-Bellot

exponents are within
More realistic results can be obtained
1965).
by spectral
analysis

(Problem 8.3).
At

indicated

large

from the grid,

the turbulence
preceding analysis. The final period

distances
in the

decays

much faster than

as this is called,

of decay,

74

The dynamics

cannot

be understood

with
dimensional
since the asympsimple
estimates,
but with little energy)
larger
largest eddies (much
than/,
The largest eddies are the ones that
survive
in the end;
is
to
needed
resolve
their
(Problem
8.4)
decay.

of the

asymptotic behavior

is

complicated.

very

spectral analysis

if only

interest

adopt the
=
Uj
of

bUjlbxj

of

both

= 0.

= 9/9x3

so

0 = ~uiu2-

UjUjU2

\\

these terms are of order a3 If;

smaller C.2.26), has been neglected.
The main features of the energy
All of

for

the

equations

transport
sipative

and

kinetic

the

of the

energy

are obtained

the

in

C.2.38)

term, which is much

have

compare

already
C.2.38)

\321\200 9xi

6x 2

+-p^--^9x2
p

9x2

\320\276

+lp^_A.(ill|lla)

9x2 ^

9x3

The

sum

These

if
way as the equation for \\uJTf,
number is so large that_the
Reynolds

be isotropic,

the

equations

for

In

equations
viscous
cHs_-

\\u\\,

-u2

respectively,

0=

been discussed.
with the

three velocity componentsindividually.

same

'

0=

Reynolds number

-e.

viscous-transport

to

is neglected and if the

structure
can be assumed to

^u\\ are,

If the

/I

budget

it is worthwhile

geometry,

simple

The turbulence production

\342\200\224U\\U2
bilxlbx2.

\320\255\321\2052
\320\264\321\2052\\\321\200

this

nonzero component
of S,j are Si2

components

reads

u2p +

\342\200\224

U2 = U3 = 0,

Ui (x2).

the only

flow,

nonzero

to |9?/i/9x2.

C.2.1)

budget

this

Ux

is also of
2. We

in Chapter

discussed

chapter:

flow

shear

pure

steady

situation

only

equal

\342\200\224~\320\251\320\251
S12
\342\200\224u2u\\
S21

is large, the energy

In

the

that

are

which

that

in

used

notation

is di/1/dx2,

andS21,
is

it relates to the

because

0, 9/9xi

\320\264/dxj

then

The energy budget of

flow

shear

Pure

of turbulence

of these

C.2.39)

{plp+ iul)u2 -\\e,

three equations

C.2.40)
C.2.41)

_ie>

equals C.2.38),as

it

should.

Note that

because of incompressibility
\321\205 \342\200\224
9u2
p\342\200\224-+/?
+p
OX
OX]
ox2

ox

\320\264\320\2703
\320\252\320\270,
0.
7\342\200\224=p\342\200\224=

9x
9x3

9x
9xy-

,\342\200\236.,.

C.2.42)

3.3 Vorticity

75

kinetic

and
^\320\2702

The

in C.2.42).

listed

from

energy

that the

terms. The u2 and

their energy from the pressureinteraction

1/3 com-

the

in

in

terms

transport

but that

elsewhere,

equation

C.2.39)

\\u\\

have no production

it/f

receive

thus

must

components

produc-

and

occurs

energy

equations for

we seejhat the entire

for

with C.2.39-3.2.41),

C.2.38)

Comparing
productionof

dynamics

not

would

terms

could import

C.2.39-3.2.41)
how the

explain

and

u2

u$ com-

all: | u\\ and ^u\\ have to be generatedsomehow.

the
Because
the sum of the pressure terms is equal to zero, by C.2.42),
without
terms
between
components,
pressure
changing the
exchange energy
if
total amount of energy. Also,
and \\u\\ are to maintain themselves,
^u2
components

have

that

p bu\\lbxi

so

losses,

dissipative

notwithstanding
positive,

energy at

can

and
must
be
p \320\254\320\270\321\212/\320\252\321\205\320\263
\320\252\320\270\320\263/\320\252\321\2052

posi-

must be negative. This, of

can

course,

\321\210\321\205\320\270\320\263
if
only

is not isotropic. Indeed,in most shear flows ^uj is roughly

m summary: thet/j component has more
as large as
anc'
^\320\2702
\\u\\all of the production of
than the other componentsbecauseit receives
energy
kinetic energy;the transfer
of energy to the other componentsis performed
interactions.
pressure-velocity
by nonlinear
the turbulence

twice

3.3
dynamics

Vorticity

flows are characterizedby high levels of fluctuating vorticity.

This is the feature that distinguishes
from other random fluid
turbulence
motions
like ocean waves and atmospheric gravity
waves.
we have
Therefore,
to make a careful study of the role of vorticity
fluctuations
in the dynamics
of turbulence.
from
Section
2.3 that Reynolds stresses may
be associated
Recalling
we
with eddies whose vorticity
is roughly
rate,
aligned with the mean strain
for the mean flow
are
first show that
terms in the equations
the turbulence
All

turbulent

with transport

associated

of the
amplified

vorticity

equation.

line

stretching
a turbulent

by

in

vorticity

between velocity

and

and

We shall

due to the
shear flow

vorticity

of vorticity.

stretching

find that
strain

also

fluctuations

We then

to a study

turn

be amplifor the mean

will be explored; the interactions
and
transport
again include both
rate.

indeed

can

vorticity

The

equation

stretching.

Because the scale of eddiesthat

energy

transfer

from

of vortex stretching.

large
We

eddies
shall

are

stretched

by a

to small eddies

study

strain

may

the mean-square

be

rate

decreases,

considered

vorticity

the

in terms

fluctuations

The

76

The ultimate

in detail.

,-

into

of turbulence

dynamics

will turn out to

heat,

is large.
when we say that
number

equal

approximately

section

this

summary,

is rotational

turbulence

dissipation of kinetic energy

to v 00,00,-if the Reynolds

attempts to explain what

and dissipative.

The

tensor

rotation

and

vector

Vorticity

In

the

transfer,

energy

be

is the

vorticity

mean

we

curl of the

velocity

vector:

shows

relation

This

^-*,
The

is

to the

related

\321\201\320\276,

be split

into

up

deformation rate dDj/dxj. The

and a skew-symmetric part:

a symmetric

'3.3.2,

been introduced

s}.- has

rate

strain

the rotation

is called

that

can

rate

deformation

tensor;

it

before. The skew-symmetric

is defined

tensor

7\321\206

by
C.3.3)

\321\215\321\205,.

the alternating tensor et-jk in the definition of c5,- is a skew-symmetric

\320\272
are in cyclic order, -1 if /,/,
are in anticyclic
tensor (it is +1 if /, /, \320\272
order,
to the
are equal),
the vorticity vector is related only
0 if any two of /, /, \320\272
part of \320\264\320\277/fdxj:
skew-symmetric

Since

S/

C-3-4)

*\321\206\320\2727\320\2721-

with some

Conversely,

tensor algebra it

is found

that
<3-3-5\302\273

\320\252~-\320\273*\320\247\320\272*\320\272-

is due to

fact

the

desired,

may be

Vortex

terms

by

taking

operation,

between the

relation

one-to-one

The

the

we

that

has

7\321\206

only

represented as the

in the

vector

vorticity

and

the rotation

three independent components

of the axial vector
components

The vorticity
equations of motion
equation
Navier-Stokes equations. Before
we

curl of the
want

to

look

at the

way

in

which

vorticity

tensor
if so

which,

\321\201\320\276,-.

is obtained
this

perform

appears

in

the

3.3

77

dynamics

Vorticity

equations themselves.
of a stress, we may write

Navier-Stokes
a gradient

1
\321\215
\320\252\320\271, \320\252\321\200

the inertia term

treat

we

If

as

\320\277.-

9t/;/9x.-

\320\254\320\263\320\271-.

C-3-6)
-*\321\210-7\321\214\320\223\320\246\302\256\320\244+\"\321\212\321\200\320\2231'

Here,

the continuity

has been

0
\320\264\320\270.-/\320\264\321\205,

equation

used. This particular

way

the Navier-Stokesequationsserves as a reminder that the Reynolds

of the velocity
stress is the contribution
fluctuations to the convective terms
in the equation
of motion.
The convective
stress
term may be decomposed as follows:

of writing

OX/

\342\200\224
\320\270:
\342\202\254j.k

cok

\342\200\224

(j

be expressedin

The viscous term may

C.3.7)

UjUj).

of vorticity

terms

by putting

\320\2552
.

dxy \\dxy

\320\255\321\205,-,

3 ~
\342\200\236

= -ve

C.3.8)

J?.

4*

bXj

The continuity
If C.3.7)

In

irrotational

= 0 was used to remove the secondterm.

equation duj/bxj
into
there results
and C.3.8) are substituted
C.3.6),

flow,

vorticity part of the

gradient of the dynamic
equation.

In turbulent

S>k
inertia

=0

by

term
pressure

so that

definition,

vanish.
\\puf>j

the viscous term

The inertia term

and C.3.9)

flow, of course,neither

of

these

then

and

reduces

reduces to the
conditions

the

to the
Bernoulli

is satisfied.

78

The

of turbulence

dynamics

Figure

3.4.

The

mass)

f, and

f2.

cross product

vorticity-velocity

\320\271-.
The cross-productterm
\320\265,.\320\272
&>k
to the CorioMsforce 2 e,jk Dj

of motion

if

the

that
would
\320\271\320\272'

force

(Magnus

for

u\\,

the

geometry

of the

from

decomposed

force\"

\"vortex

becomes
u2
\342\202\254/.-\320\272
\320\271:\320\241\320\267\320\272

the

an angular

be helpful.

may

\342\200\224

?3

the

In

3.4

Figure

U3 co2.

In

vorticity

and from
Uj bUj/dxj
into a mean vorticity

turbulent

flow,

equation
illustrates

d{UjUj)/dXj.

?2,- and

vorticity

forces arise

cross-product

instantaneous

The

vorticity

assume

is

\321\201\320\276,-

fluctuations cj;-:

we

is

velocity Uk

C.3.10)

03,,
\342\202\254},\302\246
&,\302\246+
If

It

equation

involved.

Reynolds stress and

both

theory.

in

is twice the angular

the vorticity term because \320\241\320\254\320\272
fluid element).
is also related to the lift
The vortex term
\320\220
effect) experienced by a vortex line exposed to a velocity \320\271.-.

term

the

with

rotating

appear

unit

from

interpretation

graphical

system were

coordinate

(the factor 2 is absent

velocity of a small

to turbulence

is crucial

analogous

forces (per

the body

generates

that

the

flow

in the

is steady

averages, the equation for the

mean

velocity

mean, so that

U,

may be

written

can

we

use time

as

C.3.11)

Clearly,
and

an

Reynolds-stress
interaction

term

gradients

contain

between the

vorticity

both

a dynamic-pressure
fluctuations

and

gradient
the velocity

3.3Vorticity

79

dynamics

In many turbulent flows the contribution

of the turbulence
to
the dynamic pressure is insignificant
The dynamic
because
\\ujuj\302\253\\UjUjwith
stress is then associated mainly
the intersignificance of the Reynolds

fluctuations.

let
and vorticity. For a closerlook at this interaction,
between
velocity
= \320\236,
us consider a two-dimensional
mean
flow in which U\\ \302\273U2,U3
and in
which downstream derivatives of mean
are small compared to
quantities
interaction

cross-stream derivatives
the

Because

only

U2

flows

wake

and

boundary-layer
conditions,

nonzero

(see Chapters 4

5).

\302\253 \320\255/\320\255\321\2052,
the
vorticity

9/9xi

to most

corresponds

and

these condi-

Under

of ?2,- is Q,3= bU2/bxx

component

and

\302\253Ui

This

<<9/9x2).

(9/9xi

\342\200\224

bili/bx2.

fl3 is

component

approximately equal to -\320\2531\\1\320\252\321\2052.

In the

equation
flow are

mean

\342\200\224U2
bUilbx2

for

the

U\\

+ U2

cross-product

vorticity

U2Q,3 and

\342\200\224

first

The

U3Q,2.

is zero

the
second
\320\252\320\27021\320\252\321\205\\,

terms associated with the

of these is equal to

because U3 =0,

=0.

Q,2

is equal to -Ux dUJdxx -U2 bU2/dxi

in this flow;
-b(\\UjUj)lbxi
the small term U2 dU2/bxi
cancels
the same term generatedby U2Q,3.
If we
and
the contribution
of the turbulence to the
neglect the viscous term
the equation for Ux may be written as
dynamic
pressure,
Also,

C.3.12)
and

B.1.23)

Comparing

derivative

of the Reynolds

and

C.3.12)

observing

that

duj/dxi

vortex terms representthe

find that the

we

\302\253 b(uiU2)/dx2,

cross-stream

shear stress\342\200\224uxu2:

g
\342\200\224\342\200\224\342\200\224 \342\200\224
(\342\200\224\320\270
u2 CO3
u3co2.
i u2)

C.3.13)

0X2

This result can be obtained

co2 =dui/dx3
can be written

\342\200\224bu3/bx\\ into

Some understanding
by

-Ulu2~

a{bUJbx2.

a is

employing

approximately

by substituting
u2co3

of dynamic

as gradients

obtained

If

also

of

the

the

\342\200\224

u3co2

cj3 = du2/dxi
and

neglecting

\342\200\224

and

dui/dx2

all

that

terms

pressures.
vorticity terms

turbulent

in

C.3.13)

may

be

estimate

C.3.14)
independent of x2

flows), the Reynolds-stress

gradient

(this

becomes

is true

for many turbulent

shear

The

80

of turbulence

dynamics

(uxu2)u{

C.3.15)

C.3.14) is a scaling law,

C.3.15)

consider

now

able to

C.3.16)

0X2

by u2

and u3co2.

u2co^
of

component

direction

\342\200\224\320\2573
approx-

\320\253

0X2

nonzero

bU\\lbx2

\320\260\320\277\321\212.

0X2

Let us

as

\320\255?23

~al

Because

because

reservation

considerable

with

an equation.

not

be written

may

9
(Ulu2)

be viewed

needs to

C.3.15)

course,

approximately,

\320\253bUy

\320\264\321\2052
\320\252\321\2052
\320\252\321\205\\

\320\254\321\2052

Of

a.

?2;-

same

the

in

is Q,3.

If

way as

treated

flow

the

In

vorticity

here, the

be transported

can

momentum is transported,we

of

transfer

same as the

C.3.17)

this

1932).

term

on the

first

constitutes

expression

(Taylor,

numericalcoefficients

Of course,

involved,

be represented by
of C.3.13)
comparison

cannot
a

side

right-hand

1/3CJ2 is associated

an

expression

and

C.3.16)

a change-of-scale

with

of C.3.16),

have been

which

theory of vorto be the

because the numer-

a mixing-length

C.3.17) does not

are not necessarilyequal. However,

C.3.17),
U3CJ2,
From

be

write

adoption

vorticity

x2

should

\320\255\321\2052.

The

only

the

in

it

from

omitted

is clear

need

C.3.16)

that the other

and
term,

like C.3.17) because ?22 = 0.

of
we conclude that the nature

effect:
C-3.18)

\302\253\320\277\321\212^.

the

with

depend

approximately

negligible;

vorticity

on the

the

the

jets:

and
\320\2702\320\270>\320\267
ujco^
considered.

the flow, the

?23 (see also the

to 9(-t/1t/2)/9x2

If the

appart
is
scale
approxlength

vortex-stretch ing

force

C.3.18)

should

gradient may then be interpreted as vorscale according to C.3.17).This may explain

of
has had some success in the description
theory
in those flows, the length
is roughly constant
scale

should

transport

cross-stream

flow

Reynolds-stress
which

turbulent wakes and

in

kind of

across

transport,

why vorticity

of

contributions

constant

since it is associated

order

of

C.3.35)).

following

The relative
apparently

force,

of size

change

discussion

be

be called a vortex-stretching
of eddies with vorticity

term u3cj2 may

The

direction.

3.3 Vorticity

81

dynamics

length scale if changes

A case in point

If the

- uJ').

this

In

direction, vorticity
surface layer with constant

in thex2
is the

is inadequate.

theory

transport

stress (-UiU2

flow,

\342\200\224

C.3.19)

OX2

so that
=

= 0

7\\l/
\342\200\224!!
+
.
\320\272\321\2052\320\270,-\321\202-\302\261
\320\272\320\270,

to

According

term

vorticity-transport

One

final

ki/* di/1/dx2

force

stretching

so
=

b2Uilbx\\
\320\272\321\2052\320\270*

The deceleration

deceleration.

= uJkx2,

biljbx2

C.3.19),

needs

observation

C.3.20)

ox2

0x5

ox2

of

\342\200\224
balances
\320\272\320\270*?1\320\267

made.

to be

because the vortexforce.

vorticity-transport
local length scale of the

is avoided

flow

this

The
\320\2552?/!/\320\255\321\2052<0.

that

\342\200\224
thus
is a
\320\252\320\236,$1\320\252\321\205\320\263
\320\272\321\2052\320\270*

If

the
the

to the eddy sizeif, the order of magnitude of

and
is
in this section,
is of order
u1It,
\320\2762\321\210\320\267
\320\2703\320\260\320\2672 Now, as we see later
\321\201\320\276,so
that
the
correlation
coefficient between \321\201\320\276,This
and u, is of order \\lt.
ufK,
is similar to the correlation betweenu, and
which was discussed earlier; the
s,y
correlationis poor because most contributions
at high freto \321\201\320\276,are made
most of uj is associated with
while
low frequencies.
frequencies
field

mean-flow

is comparable

Let us return

The vorticity equation

is obtainedby applying
equation C.3.9):

the

to

operator

equation. This equation

to the Navier-Stokes
d/dxq)

the vorticity

\"curl\"

(epq/

\302\273'
\320\255\320\263
\320\255\321\205,\320\255\321\205\342\200\236

C.3.21)

Here,
sure

the tensor identity

in C.3.21)
term

Spjt5a/has
is zero because it involves
=

epQieijk

skew-symmetric tensor ep
Accounting

for

all

of

the

\302\246
and

Kronecker

Spj-8qk

the

symmetric

deltas

in

been

the

tensor operator

C.3.21),

The

used-

product

we obtain

Pres\"

of the
.

\320\2552/\320\255\321\205,\320\255\321\205

The dynamics

82

of turbulence

.
C.3.22)
K
k
^\320\272\320\271\320\272^\320\270[\320\251+\321\200\320\254^\\ \320\252\321\205\320\272
}
\320\252\321\205\320\272\320\252\321\205\320\272
dxk

bt

bxk

viscous terms
(the divergence of the

of the

first

The

dxp

divergence

in

C.3.22)
curl

because
is zero):

is zero

of a vector

zero

has

vorticity

C.3.23)

ljk

\320\252\321\205\320\272
bXjbxk

The

index
+

\320\242^

9f

of the

form

final

vorticity equation is

(changing

p to

/ and the dummy

for convenience)

\320\272
to/

3.3.24

^\320\223-^/\320\223^\320\223\320\242^'
'
>

bxj

dxj

dXjdXj

introduced
in
the form of the Navier-Stokes
equations
is valid for an incompressible
2, C.3.24)
constant-property fluid.
Chapter
we interpret
the first term on the right-hand side of C.3.24),we want
Before
of
does not contribute to it.
to show that the skew-symmetric part
7\321\206 9u,/9xy
this
is
into
and
such
that
For
purpose,
split up
9t7,/9xy
s,y,
7\321\206
In

with

keeping

bu;

C-3-25)

Becauseof

the

of 7r the

definition

second term

in C.3.25)

becomes

C-3-26)

^jnr-\\eijk^fik-

Since/ and
-1

\\

eikj

be interchanged

to

yield
C.3.27)

\302\246

Zfik

in
we obtain a change
the indices / and \320\272
elkj,
we
find
is
skew-symmetric. Hence,
eijk

interchanging

because

eijk ?jjuk

survives

9\320\277/ ^
-r\342\200\224
+U-.

be true

This can

bt

indices they may

dummy

\"/\"*

eijk

Again

-1

\320\272
are

in C.3.25).

'

eiJk

term

is zero.

The vorticity equation

_
\320\251= \342\200\236
\342\200\224
\302\246
+ v
\321\201\320\276

bxj

dxjdxj

'.-s,''

sign

C.3.28)

ojjdk.
if this

only

in

92co/
.

Consequently,only
then

may

be written

the

term

in s},-

as
C.3.29)

3.3 Vorticity

83

term

The
by

\321\201\320\276.represents

amplification

rate. In the

context of this

5}.-

strain

the

rate

strain

the

of

components

dynamics

Vorticity

is of

< 0)

we

the

the

vorticity equation.

It

flow.

two-dimensional
are

<22

The.vortex-stretch

occurs.

\"sink\"

or

\"source\"

coi and

section,

importance;

vorticity vector
of
vortex axes by
turning
shall concentrate on the comof

rotation

that represent vortex stretching.

ajysw
of present
can be amplified by stretching
vorticity by
apparently
in an environment
On the other hand, vorticity
is decreased
rates,-,-.

the strain
where squeezing (s}y

This

minor

and

zero,
ing

term
for vorticity is the most interesting
to recognize that the term does not

is essential

a flow is

Suppose
so that the
term

then

entirely

nonzero

only

of the

occur

in

plane. Then
is c53.
component

in thexi,x2

vorticity

becomes co3s,-3.However, in a two-dimenand

can be different from zero. A twos22

?i 2 (=521),Si i,
flow cannot turn or stretch

two-dimensional
flow

only

the vorticity vector.

A simple
of vortex stretching
illustration
is the accelerated
flow in a windso that ?22 and s33
Here (Figure
tunnel contraction.
3.5)
?\321\206is positive,
dimensional

to satisfy
is
increasedby
flow, cji
The change of vorticity
must

be negative

of

conservation

Figure

3.5.

left to right,
be conserved.

angular

the

continuity

vortex
by

stretching,
vortex

mdmentum.

equation (s};-= 0). In this kind of

while co2 and c53 are attenuated.

stretching

The

angular

is a consequence of the
of

momentum

Vortex stretching in a wind-tunnel

contraction.
the vorticity component u, is amplified
because

As the

flow

con-

a material

speeds up from

angular momentum has

to

The dynamics

84

of turbulence

effects were absent; if the

area and moment of
inertia
of
become
the
the
in the direcsmaller,
component
angular
velocity
direction of the
must
in
increase order to conserve angular momentum.
stretching
Vortex
involves a change of length
as Figure 3.5
always
scale,
stretching
of vorticity
consult
readers
should
illustrates. For a full account
kinematics,
element

volume

texts

general

in

a mean
substituting

for Dj

and

we

I/.- into

In

?2,-and

C.3.29)

turbulent

and

Batchelor, 1967).
is decomposed

the vorticity

flow,
fluctuations

vorticity

according
\321\201\320\276,-

to C.3.10).

the corresponding

and

C.3.10)

cross-sectional

its

that

(for example,

flows

vorticity

After

so

dynamics

in turbulent

Vorticity
into

fluid

if viscous

constant

remain

would

is stretched

element

fluid

taking

the

Reynolds decompositions
of
all terms
in the equation,
average

obtain

bXj

From

the

C.3.10)

fluctuating

been assumed to be steady.

C.3.23) we conclude that both the mean vorticity
is, divergenceless):
vorticity are solenoidal (that
and

second equation

the

the turbulence

terms

in

in

and the

C.3.31)

can

C.3.30)

continuity equation
be rearranged as follows:

C.3.32)

\342\200\224= \342\200\224

given

in C.3.32)

in the equation for Uj,

interaction

This

with

term,

C.3.33)

(cOjUj).

coy

The term

0,
\320\255\320\270,/\320\255\321\205,-

\320\255
\320\255\321\201\320\276,_

cjjS/j

and

C.3.31)

p-0.
\320\255\321\205,-

^=0,
\320\255\321\205,With

bXjbXj

flow has

mean

The

''I

' \"

'
dXj

it

is

is clearly analogous to
due to mean transport

fluctuating

velocities

of course,

changes the

direction. Properly speaking,

uf
mean

C.3.32)

in

the
vorticity

direction
only

is a transport

the

Reynolds-stress

of

through
\321\201\320\276,-

of the
if

t/y-co,-

gradients

changes

\"divergence.\"

term
its inter\320\255/\320\255\321\205-.

in the

x,-

85

The

3.3Vorticity

dynamics

term given

in

the stretching
strain rates.

Two-dimensional mean
and

of fluctuating

rotation

and

is the gain

C.3.33)

terms

turbulence

in

by

by fluctuating

components

vorticity

caused

vorticity

=
\320\236,
U3 = 0, Sl\\ = O2 = 0, \320\255/\320\255\321\2053
of motion was discussed earlier),the

In a flow with

flow

(whose
\320\253\320\252\321\205\\
\302\253\320\255/\320\255\321\205\320\263
equation

major

(or loss) of mean

the

for ?23

equation

are

\"

\320\255\321\201\320\276\320\267
=\320\263\342\200\224
\320\246\320\274\320\267),
\320\270,-\342\200\224
\320\255\321\2052
\320\255\321\205,-

C.3.34)

'

\320\255
\342\200\224

C.3.35)

{u3u>2)-

OX2

The products

and
\320\270\320\263^\320\263
U3CO2

by

a body

as
interpreted

with

confirmed

force associated with

by

C.3.35).

sourcesor sinksfor
mean

Q,3

vorticity

C.3.18, 3.3.35)

mean vorticity
vorticity

due

to the

change

mean

vorticity.

is constant
conclude

to a net
transfer

In a surface

surplus

vorticity

of

nature

these

to the turbulence

\321\201\320\2763

interprefield

is conforces are

03CJ2

body

stress, the

3.3.34)

C.3.17,

is balanced

by

of

a flow

layer with constant

along streamlines; from

that ?23 is maintained

transport
of

of eddiesin

of size

The vortex-stretching
cross-stream gradients
of

The

we may

due

the

was

\320\255?23/\320\255\321\2052,
whereasU3CO2

scale.

length

varying

to the Reynolds-stress
gradient
body force arising from transport

are related

U2W3 was interpreted as a

a field with
a mean
in
u-2
gradient

C.3.13);

because

and

the gain

of

by the loss of mean

by

vortex

stretch-

of C.3.34) and C.3.35)

becomes
if C.3.17)
involved. Even
and C.3.18) are adopted as crude
extremely
of \320\2702\321\210\320\267
it would be presumptuous to difmodels
and
\320\270\321\212\321\2132,
respectively,
these
in
order
to obtain models for C.3.34, 3.3.35),
differentiate
equations
becausethat would amount to differentiating the Reynolds-stressscaling law
In vorticity-transfer
twice.
is igC.3.14)
theory, of course, the term \321\201\320\276\320\264\321\203
and the transport
term C.3.34) is scaledon basis of C.3.17).
ignored
discussion
that
In the
u2co3 and U3OJ2 both
following C.3.20) we found
are of order J1 It. The cross-streamgradients
should
scale with the
(\320\255/\320\255\321\2052)
local length scale of the mean flow, which is comparable
to t{ in flows without
are of order \302\2532//2.
multiple scales. Therefore,C.3.34)and C.3.35)
stretching.A

more

comprehensive

interpretation

of turbulence

The dynamics

86

The

of ?2,12,- An
because the interaction
in terms of
only

be studied
9

/1

C.3.30)

Multiplying

co^cj/.

\320\276
\320\276-

?2,-

and

n,

Zw,+v
1 ''

term on the

first

bXj

(\\* ap,)
'
\302\246?-\342\200\224
bXbX

bX

is the

of C.3.36)

side

right-hand

C.3.36)

' -v^^L.
bx

vorticity-velocity interactions. This term

term of UjUh. The second term
on
transport

by turbulent
turbulent

by

9fi/

'

' '

'

bxj

dxj

The

and

terms, we find

rearranging

is

can

mean

between
fi,-$2;.

the square of the mean

vorticity
and fluctuating vorticities

for

equation

dynamics

needed

C.3.36) is like the

in the

term

turbulence-production

of cj/CJ/, in

of

transport

the

fi;-Si#-

to the

is equivalent

side of

right-hand

We

equation.

energy

occurrence of
anticipation
the same term (with opposite sign) in the equation for cj/Cjy. The third term
or shrinking
is stretching
of mean
rate.
The
vorticity by the mean strain
fourth term is amplification or attenuation
of fl,-fl;- caused by the stretching
of fluctuating
term
strain rates. The fifth
vorticity components by fluctuating
is viscous transport of \320\246.$2;.,and the sixth is viscous dissipation of
Q.p.r
~ */2It and
mean
The
vorticity
fl;- is of order alt. Because
oi/Uj
are of order U3/\302\253f3)(vlui),
and all
the viscous terms in C.3.36)
coy Sjj ~u2lt2,
the
the other terms are of order \320\260\320\2631(\320\263.
therefore,
only
Generally
speaking,
may call it gradient production

viscous terms can be neglected.In

the

only

nonzero

C.3.36) may

then

\320\255
1
= U: -\342\200\224
(A \320\2373\320\2373)

'

The

\342\200\242
\320\255\320\245

(see the

of fl;- is
approximated
by

Q,3.

\320\255
\342\200\224
(\320\2373
\023\"/)

\320\255?2\320\247
\342\200\224
+ ^\320\267
\"ySsy
'
OX:

'

OX:

term

stretching

involves no

flow

a two-dimensional

component
be

of the

+ UjU>3
'

Q,jQ,jSl- is zero

change of length

discussion following

scale,

the

in

At

large

two-dimensional

last term

in

x2 plane

thexi,

numbers,

Reynolds

'

\342\200\242

flow.

of C.3.37) may

If

be

C.3.37)

the

flow

neglected

C.3.35)).

for c^co, The equation

of the mean-square
vorticity fluctuato
the
one
followed for the
a
similar
by
procedure exactly
the
of
kinetic
We
leave
the
turbulent
equation
energy.
algebra as an exercise
for the reader; the final
result
is, if the flow is steady in the mean,

The

equation

fluctuations is

obtained

3.3 Vorticity

87

dynamics

1 \320\255
\320\264\320\237,-

\320\255\342\200\242\302\246

\320\255

_
+

aJ

9w;-

\"\"

\"^

\"\320\232

+\321\200\321\214^\320\223^

first term on the

The
of

term

This

<*),<*),\302\246.

way

as

turbulent

UjUj

and

UjUJ.

in

d(UjUjUj)/dXj

the

equation

of

transport

in the
?2,-?2,-

turbulent

mean-square

the

same

between

energy

This term is analogous to

fluctuations.

velocity

production

gradient

exchanges vorticity between u,-co,-and

energy production {\342\200\224UjUjS/j)exchanges

term is the

second

The
turbulent

is the

of C.3.38)

side

right-hand

\320\255\321\201\320\276/
\342\200\242
{3-3-38)

9^7 I*}

vorticity

by

term

transport

for UJuj.

term
is the production of mean-squareturbulent
vorticity
by
this
is one
We shall soon see that
stretching of turbulent
vorticity.
of the dominant terms in the equation for
as the case may be) of
The fourth
term
is the production (or removal,
of vorticity
caused
flucturbulent
(or squeezing)
vorticity
by the stretching
fluctuations
by the mean rate of strain
S,y.
It occurs
in the equation for
The fifth term is a mixed productionterm.
with
of
the
same
the
stretching
sign. Evidently,
fluctuating
vorticity by
Sift/
strain-rate fluctuations
and cj/cj,- at the same rate.
produces
fl/fl;
The
sixth
and seventh terms on the right-hand
side of C.3.38)
are viscous

The

third

turbulent

and

transport

Turbulenceis
However,

if

the

C.3.38) can
than

the

The

rotational

Reynolds

be obtained,

vorticity:

Sift

= 0
0

respectively.
for

equation

number

strain-rate

vorticity

looks

nearly
\321\201\320\276;\321\201\320\276,-

is large, a very

because

mean strain rate and

mean

a3jU,=

of cojojj,

dissipation

simple

form of

are much

fluctuations
are much

fluctuations

intractable.

approximate

larger

than

larger

the

(u/\\J.

S,jS,j =OMtf,

C.3.39)

(\302\253A)a,

=0MO2.
\320\237\320\224-

C.3.40)

for \"order of
As before, <S stands
were
obtained
earlier; we have
SI/

magnitude.\"

to

prove

The

that the

estimates
first

of

for s,j,
C.3.40)

5/y,

and

is a valid

88

The

we can

statement before
definitions of

\"

Vtf
Now,

algebra applied

to the

C.3.41)

rijrij-

WU

C.3.42)

\320\2552<\"/^>/\320\255\321\205/\320\255\321\205/-

is of

Consequently,

order *2/X2, but the right-hand

side of C.3.42) is
at large Reynolds numbers C.3.42) is approximated

Substituting

into

this

C.3.44)

we concludethat

From this

of

first

order

indeed is rotational,

The strain-rate

\302\253A,just

that

the

with

like

This

s/;-.

the

Reynolds

large

vorticity

if

proves

C.3.44),

relation

fluctuations.

may

C.3.46)

and

approximate

enable
many

us to
of

the

in

C.3.38)

beforethat

fluctuations

of the

parts

and

vorticity

that

mind

in

the

a causal

dissipation

Reynolds numbers

deformation-rate tensor have

value.
The estimates

vorticity
contain

have to be estimated with care

effect of the mean strain
distorting

which

be kept

in flows with high

that

budget
the

simplify

terms

it should

strain-rate

the

skew-symmetric

vorticity

is also associatedwith

of energy
but

states merely

the same mean-square

about

tur-

as

be rewritten

between

only

Indeed, C.3.44)

the symmetric

An

this

shows that dissipation

This is a useful
result,

relation exists
rate.

of

C.3.45)

v \321\201\320\276/\321\201\320\276/.

This

large

by

ujj.

Because of

that

fluctuations.

rate e is defined

dissipation

is

number

with viscous dissipation

associated

are

fluctuations

We recall

energy.

is of

\321\201\320\276,-

is a valid statement

C.3.40)

Turbulence

enough.

es

by

we find

C.3.41),

\302\253,-a;,.S2s/ys/y.

turbulent

of order
<3-3-43>

sijsiJ-rijr'T

the

defini-

yields
\321\201\320\276,\320\223\321\206,

s,yS,y

u2l(:2.

tensor

Some

proceed.

and

S/j,

=2

\"/\"/

of turbulence

dynamics

C.3.39) and

C.3.40)

should

budget C.3.38) appreciably. However,

mixed products like cj/Uj and coys,y,
because
rate

S,y.

they are nonzero

From C.3.13) we

due to

the

concluded

89

3.3 Vorticity

UjUj=

\320\241(\302\2532/\320\233;

from

C.3.47)

we concluded

and C.3.33)

C.3.13)
=

dynamics

that

C.3.48)

0U2/<f2).

\320\277^\321\203~

We also need the orders of magnitude of \321\213,-<\320\276,of t/\321\207\320\276/\320\253,-.

The
and
diagonal
of
of
are
order
but
the
components
\302\2532/\\2,
off-diagonal components are
w^y
different from zero only in response to a mean strain rate. The mean strain
rate
is of order alt so that it can only weakly affect the vorticity
structure
S/j
whose characteristic
that the effect of
frequency is a/X. Therefore,we expect
to the time-scale ratio (\\la)l(?la)= X/t:
be proportional
Sfj should

The

a and

coefficients

The

ratio

time-scale
term

\\lt

here

applied

for
one. The discount
the
discount neededin U/W.-.

of order

be

should

\320\254\321\206

is analogous to the

becomes

in C.3.38)
\321\210;-\321\210\321\203
Sy

b'i

\"/\"/ SU tf

\\aSii

Because 5/7

as a result

= 0

<3-3-50>

JSH+---)-

of

and

incompressibility,

6\302\253

S/,

alt, we

that

find

C.3.51)

The transport term

9(u-cj/cj;)/9x-

\320\255
I)
\342\200\224
= u,\342\200\224
\320\270\321\213\321\213:

' '

bxj

'

(cj/cj/)
'

'

be

as

written

C.3.52)

dxj

This term
the

'

may

not

does

of mean

distribution

is an

depend

effective

gradients of oJJcJj,

We

obtain

vorticity,

but

rate

strain

on inhomogeneity

assume that

If we

u- should

be

well

motion

turbulent

correlated

in

with

the

so that

With the results

estimated.

square vorticity.
of

\"mixer\"

on the mean

obtained above, most

of

the

terms

of C.3.38)

can be

The dynamics

90

of turbulence

\302\253\302\273*\302\253

C.3.60)

C-3-61>

In the

term

stretching

on

cooperates

has been left

at

mainly

scale as s,y.The

scales smaller

?2/X2

X. In

than

been

has

~atlv

used.

operator Ujblbxj has been estimated

estimates

used

necessary, because coterm C.3.61)

dissipation

XAf is

with

viscous

undecided,since we expectdissipation

length

the relation

no prorating

C.3.60),

same time

the

in

the

equations

as

for the

of

the viscous
In

all;

the

vorticity
term

diffusion

term

transport

and

the

C.3.56),

C.3.59), the

that choice is consistent

mean flow

to occur

turbulent

with

the

kinetic

energy (see 3.2.28,3.2.31, 3.2.32).

The

order
through

C.3.59)

least a factor of

C.3.60) have been arranged in increasing

number is large, all of the terms C.3.54)
smaller than the turbulent
term C.3.60)
stretching
by at
which
is of order RJm. Therefore,
at sufficiently
high

C.3.54)

expressions

of magnitude.
are
\\lt,

If

the

through

Reynolds

3.3 Vorticity

91

dynamics

the

numbers

Reynolds
approximatedas

turbulent

may be

C.3.38)

budget

vorticity

\320\264\321\201\320\276\320\264\321\201\320\276\342\200\242

C-3-62)

r1*-1

The

of mean-square vorticity

budget

independent of

approxi-

1938)

(Taylor,

is thus

fluctuations

mean flow.

of the

structure

the

Turbulent

approximately
fluctua-

vorticity

presvelocity fluctuations, do not need the continued

term associated with the mean flow field. Of course,in the
will decay, too.
fluctuations
absence
of a source of energy,turbulent
vorticity
is small comas
of uyHj,
Also, the rate of change
represented by C.3.59),
the rate at which
8
turbulent
vortex
stretching occurs. In Chapter
compared to
it will be shown that these conclusions leadto the concept
of an equilibrium
turbulent

fluctuations, unlike
presence

a source

of

spectrum of turbulence
The

average, there js
vortex

large-scalefluctuations

turbulence

obtains

this

way

in

transfers

stretching

it) from

continually

it is always

so that

dojj/dxj,

on the
than
vortex
stretching
squeezing:
turbulent vorticity (and the energy
associated
with
In this way turbufluctuations.
to small-scale
implies

that,

vortex

turbulent

more

in

side is positive,too. This

the left-hand

Hence,

is quadratic

of C.3.62)

side

right-hand

positive.

scales.

at small

the broad energy spectrum that

is observed
and
experimentally,
the very smallest eddies (which
suffer
viscous
rapid
decay) are
with new energy. The approximate
being
supplied
vorticity

turbulence dynamics as
The
between
these two
approximate
relationship
energy
budget C.2.6).
is a close one: viscous dissipation of vorticity
budgets, incidentally,
prevents
without
while visfrom
limit,
vorticity
production
increasing
W/W,(ZJjcoJsJj)
viscous dissipation
of energy (which is proportional to Wyco,-)
the enerprevents
budget

is

C.3.62)

as

just

to understanding

essential

the

energyproduction

from

increasing

(\342\200\224UjUjSjj)

makes c^cj,- as large

as

viscosity

mean-square strain-rate fluctuations

to rapid dissipation.
Two points need to be emphasized.

uju~;

without

limit.

Vortex

stretching

numbers
will permit; at large
the
Reynolds
is
pace, so that the turbulent
energy
keep

subject

there is no vortex
in

that

case. This

here do not

apply

stretching,

implies that

First,

so that
the

the vorticity budget

spectral

to two-dimensional

in two-dimensional

energy-transfer

stochastic

flow

fields.

\"turbulence\"

C.3.62) is irrelevant
concepts developed

The

92

of turbulence

dynamics

of turbulence.
axes of the instantathe coordinate
instantaneousstrain
rate are aligned with
system, so that s/;- has only
and
Let
us
assume for simplicity
that
diagonal components {su, s22,
s33).
=
so that,
The term
of continuity, Si i
S22 =s33,
by virtue
-2s22.
co,coyS;y
if we also assume that
becomes,
co2 ~ \321\201\320\2762,
vorticity amplification is a result
take a situation in which
example,

Second,
an

As

kinematics

the

of

the

principal

\320\273-i
/\320\276
\320\276

\302\246
2
2
2 \342\200\224
2 \\
= Si 1 i CO1
St 1 \321\202
CO 7 So i ' CO3SQ \321\207
\\
CO2 / \342\200\242

COi

If $i

because s22

and

s33

Si 1 is positive.

that

(see Figure

is amplified
\321\201\320\2762

>0,

are

Again,

<
\321\201\320\276?
-col

if

3.4),

(JawiQj)

but

\321\201\320\2762
and
\321\201\320\2762
are attenuated

tends to become positive if

-col
negative. Thus, \321\201\320\276?
but col and \321\201\320\276?,
so
decreases,
increase,
1 < 0, \321\201\320\276?

si

0. making the

term

stretching

positive

again.

in C.3.62)
were
scales
If the vorticity gradients
Multiple length
\320\255\321\201\320\276/\320\255\321\205\321\203
estimated as <//X2, the dissipation
term would be smaller
than
the stretching
a is
of \321\201\320\276,and
scale
for estimates
term. However, X is not the proper length
all we know is that
the ratio al\\ is the order of
not the proper velocity
scale;
it 5, using
of \321\201\320\276,-.
scale.
we need a new length
Calling
magnitude
Clearly,
the same order of
and requiring that the two sides of C.3.62)have
C.3.60),
magnitude, we obtain

C.3.64)

The ratio
8A=

6A

becomes
=

Comparing

with

this

C.2.18),

The
\321\202?.

microscale

gorov

C.3.65)

0(|>/\302\253\320\220I\320\257
GiRim).

we see

Kolmogorov

that

5 is

microscale

which is comparable to

to the Kolmoproportional
thus has a role in the turbu-

role of the Taylor microscale

is the only known
budget. Since vortex stretching
is
the
smallest
scale
the
mechanism,
t]
length
possible:
spectral energy-transfer
not
lead
a
of
would
to
scale
smaller
than
length
\321\202?.
dynamics
(\320\255\321\201\320\276\321\203/\320\255\321\205J
Since
the vorticity
budget is approximately independent of the structure
can be studied more easily in the
of the mean flow, vorticity
dynamics
than
in
the spatial domain. This subject,
domain
wave-number
(spectral)
turbulent vorticity
in

the

budget

turbulent

therefore,is taken

energy

up

again

in Chapter

8.

the

3.3Vorticity

93

dynamics

of magnetic field lines

The

fluctuating vorticity
of other axial vector fields in turbulent
is representative of the dynamics
fluid are stretched by
flow. For example, magnetic field lines in a conducting
fluids with
rates much like vortex lines. In incompressible
strain
fluctuating
and
currents
constant properties, chargeequilibrium,
negligible
displacement
for
the equation
for the magnetic field is the same as the equation
radiation,
the
If the
energy is small compared to the kinetic
energy,
vorticity.
magnetic
which
does not change the velocity
magnetic field is a passive contaminant
field appreciably.In that case magnetic-field fluctuations are intensified
only
strain rates, and an approximate
equation for the fluctuations
by fluctuating
with C.3.62)
of the magnetic field reads, in analogy
(Saffman, 1963),
hj
Stretching

\\

of

dynamics

the

fluctuations
states that the amplification of h;h;
by strain-rate
equation
kept in balance by ohmic dissipation of h,h; (the right-hand side of C.3.66)
is proportional to j2la, where;is the current density and a is the electrical

This

; is

conductivity).

the

If

magnetic
diffusivity
the magnetic-field

of

scale

microscaletj. If
value of hj

the

is called

ym
fluctuations

dissipative

A, we may

length

from

differs
is

different

scale for

ht

v, the dissipative length

from the Kolmogorov

is called

T?m

and

if the

rms

estimate C.3.66) by

\320\2332-\302\253/\\~\321\203\321\202\320\2332/\320\263)?.

C.3.67)

the

Because

are generated
by fluctuating strain
magnetic-field fluctuations
and
should
be of order one.
coefficient
between
rates,
\320\233/\320\233\321\203
sfBecause
we are interested
for scales, we ignore
all numerical
only in estimates
factors that are of order one. Using
the scale relation
a/\\~ (e/vI/2 and the
and absorbing numerical
coefficients
in the
of \321\202?
definition
A7= (i>3/eI/4),
definition of r?m, we obtain

the

Vmh

correlation

(yji>)m-

C.3.68)

so that ym/v\302\253
is a very good conductor of electricity
1, this
The
than
extends
to
much
smaller
of
scales
the
that
17.
spectrum
implies
\320\233,\320\233,is
a
smaller
than
scales
even
of
though
passive
achieving
17,
possibility
hj
If

the

fluid

94

The dynamics

arises because the

contaminant,

if the

filaments

thin

rate

strain

the

of turbulence

magnetic

proceeds

Figure

colors. The
of

viscosity

paint;

to

so close

and

thin

diffusivity of pigment can homogenizethe

In interstellar
gas clouds consisting mainly

be as

as

small

other

(see

of different

paint

to the

kinematic

the filaments of dif-

together

molecular

the

that

mixture.
of

ionized

ym/v may

hydrogen,

smallest magnetic
eddies
are quite small
and electrolytes, on the other hand,
\302\273
ym/v
eddies
are large compared to t]. If this is the
has to be revised, because the strain
rate
at

so that the

10~s,

metals
In liquid
compared to \321\202?.
1, so that the smallest magnetic
case, the estimate s/y-~(e/v)il2
scales comparable to the magnetic
\302\273\321\202?.
In
\321\202?\321\202

into

effect of

magnetic diffusivity
mixing

before

stirring

patient

long,

so

by the
observed in

that

is quite small relative

pigment

it takes
become

have

color

different

of

diffusivity

The scale-reducing

is small.

is checked

it

until

3.6). This effect is similar

the magnetic field

stretches

rate

strain

diffusivity

r?m is

microscale

smaller

be usedas a

words, the viscosity cannot

than

if

(e/uI12

parameter

scaling

The only alternative

is to constructa strain rate
at scales large compared to \321\202?.
from e and r?m; this yields s;y ~ elj3 \321\202?\321\202~2/3
(see also Section 8.6). If we use
in C.3.67),
we obtain
this instead of \302\253A

=ly3/e)
of

A note

\\3/4

is in

warning

is large

if ym/v

number

Reynolds

1, the generation
much

diffusivity,

order,

enough.
=
Rm

In

because there
mercury,

*?/ym

C.3.69)

7m/f

is less than

may

= 7x
one

be

no magnetic

106, so that

eddies at
the

all

magnetic

if R = ed/v

< 7 x 106. If Rm <

prevented
by the magnetic

of magnetic-field fluctuations
is
as turbulent
motion cannot exist if

/?<

1. In that

case.

(a)
Figure

(b).

steep

(the

If

dashed

eddy (a)of scaletj

is stretched
by the strain rate into a thin
in magnetic field
can become quite
intensity
lines represent surfaces of constant
h).

A magnetic

3.6.

filament

7m

\302\253v,

the

gradients

3.4 The dynamics

95

be only

there can
if it

turbulence

mean

is strong

fluctuations

of temperature

field,

magnetic

the

affects

which

velocity

turbu-

enough.

3.4
The

of temperature

dynamics

The equationsgoverning
are

ways. However,

of vectors

fluctuations

turbulent

because

complicated

fluctuations
interact

vectors

scalar contaminants

with

have

\320\2622
is

thus

a variety

in

are governed

as temperature)

(such

as we

(such asvorticity)

field

a flow

of
by

2. We shall discuss
the
turbulent flow as
in an incompressible
dynamics of temperature fluctuations
an example of the dynamics of all other
passive scalar contaminants.
of \320\2622
in a steady flow is obtained in
the
The equation governing
dynamics
and
for
the same way as the equations
exactly
cojuj. The result is
U/U/
equations,

simple

fairly

The rate of
of

transport

kinetic
a steady

'

first

controlled

two terms on the

(which

production

gradient

by

of

change
\320\2622
(the

in Chapter

seen

energy), and by molecular

homogeneous shear flow,

by turbulent
side

right-hand

and

of the

is like the production term

G is the thermal
dissipation

of

dxj

\"smearing\"

of

turbulent
In

diffusivity).

C.4.2)

QXj

that

states

which

equation),

C.4.1) reducesto

\320\2550
\320\252\320\262
\320\2550
\342\200\224
\321\210\321\203\342\200\224\342\200\224,

dxj

molecular

gradient production

temperature

of

is
\320\2622

balanced

by the

molecular

fluctuations.

one temperature scale and one length scale, 0uy- is of order

\320\262'\320\270
and
\320\255\320\262/\320\255\321\205.is of order Q'It {\320\262'
is the rms temperature
fluctuation). The
with the
is consistent
side
is then of order 02\302\253/\320\233
which
left-hand
of C.4.2)
If

there

is only

idea that spectral

transfer
toward
of temperature fluctuations
of
sizes
at
a
should
rate
dictated
the
eddy
range
proceed
by
time of large eddies {t/u) and the amount of \320\2622
that
is involved.
Microscales
the introduction

in

the

characteristic

The right-hand
side
of C.4.2)
requires
Taylor microscale for the temperature fluctuations. Let

temperature
of

the dissipative

field

us define
<\320\267.4.\320\267>

96

of turbulence

The dynamics

coefficient

The

into agreement

in

is a normalization

C.4.3)
the

with

used

expressions

in

the

factor,

which

C.4.3)

brings

(see also Chapter 6).

literature

of the temperature field is isotropic,(90/8xiJ

so that
the right-hand side of C.4.2)becomes
(\320\2550/\320\255\321\2052J
(\320\2550/\320\255\321\2053J,
If

structure

small-scale

the

30

30

\320\2622

\342\200\224
7\342\200\224
=67vT

C.4.4)

is obtained
An estimate for \320\245<?
by requiring that both
that -dUjd\302\256/dxj
same order of magnitude.
Recalling

previously)

we

(<f/XJ ~ul/v,

that

and

sides
~

of C.4.2) have the

discussed

02*r//(as

find

C.4.5)

Xe/\\=C(y/u)ln.

The constant
The

like

\320\241
is of

Taylor

want to

If we

X.

field, we
analogy

to

have

with

Xe, is an

for temperature,

determine the

consult

C.3.62)

be approximated

(Corrsin, 1951).

order one

microscale

and

by (Corrsin,

governing

the

C.3.66),

eddy

dissipative

the equation

equation

artificial

size

length

of the

temperature

for

scale, just

temperature
gradients.

In

may
(\320\2550/\320\255\321\205\321\203)(\320\2550/\320\255\321\205

1953)

30

\320\2550
\320\25520 \320\2642\320\262
=
-\342\200\224\342\200\224
-\342\200\224\342\200\224
.
\320\263\342\200\224
\320\263\342\200\224
\321\203
su

C.4.6)

''

\320\255\321\205,bxj

bXjbXj

bXjbXj

of the dissipation of temperature-gradient fluctuations

occurs
at scales smaller than
so that the temperature field is exposed to the
\321\202?,
entire
of strain-rate fluctuations. Consequently, the proper estimate
spectrum
for
is (e/vI/2
this
case.
In analogy with C.3.68), the temperature
in
S/j
If

most

< v,
\321\203

microscaler\\e

is then

given by (Batchelor,

1959; seealsoSection8.6)

If the

thermal

C.4.7)
and
\321\203

the

kinematic

are approximately
viscosity \320\270
extend to scalesas small as 77. In
the microscales may be different. For water,
the Prandtl number v/y
liquids,
is about
fluctuations
extend to scales almost 3 times
as
7, so that temperature
small as 77. The creation
of very small temperature eddies in a fluid with a
in Figure 3.6.
number
is due to the straining
effect
illustrated
large Prandtl
If y>v,
so that the Prandtl
number
is smaller than one, \321\202?\320\265
is larger than
eddies are not exposed to
17. In this case, even the very smallest
temperature
the
entire
of strain-rate fluctuations. If y\302\273v, the effective value
spectrum

equal

(as

in

diffusivity

gases),

temperature

fluctuations

3.4The

97

of

analogy

=
\320\251

fluctuations

rate must be independentof v. This leads to s,y ~ e1'3 \321\202?\320\265~2/3;

in
with C.3.69), the temperature microscalebecomes (Oboukhov,
1951; see also Section8.6)
Corrsin,
strain

the

1949;

of temperature

dynamics

<73/eI/4,

T?e/T?

\320\2503'4\302\246

estimate applies to liquid

number is small (for mercury,

This

Buoyant convection

metals

C.4.8)

and

v/y

= 0.028).

One interesting

group

electrolytes,

in

which

the

Prandtl

arises when temperatemperature

is not a passive but an active
contaminant
which can contribute to the
The
case
have in mind is thermal
of
we
fluctuations.
velocity
generation
field.
fluctuations
cause
convection in gases exposed to a gravity
Temperature
in a gas at essentially constant pressure (that
fluctuations
is, very low
density
cause a fluctuating
fluctuations
Mach number). The density
body force gjp'/p
and p is
is the vector acceleration of gravity,
p' is the density fluctuation,
{g/
In
the
the mean density).
the
approximation,
fluctuating
Boussinesq
body
is written as -g.&/\302\2560, where
force
@0 is the mean temperature of an
and # is the difference betweenthe actual
adiabatic
atmosphere
temperature
The
adiabatic
the gravity
and 0O \302\246
in
the
direction
of
@0 changes
temperature
the length
in
to
but
vector
the gravity-induced
response
pressure
gradient,
is large, so that
scale
involved
0O
may be treated as a constant in many
problems
(Lumley and Panofsky, 1964).
a mean
value # and
d is decomposed into
The
difference
temperature
=
=
If
U-.
the
force
fluctuations
0@
0).
0,
fluctuating
performs work at a
body
mean rate -fly 0Uy/@o. This work, called buoyant production, must be added
as a source term in the budget
of turbulent kinetic energy. The heat
flux
then
assumes
a dual role, because it occurs
in production
terms
for
\320\241\321\200\321\200\320\262\320\270.both

of problems

|u^and02.

is steady
that
and homogeneous in the*i
,x2 plane and in which
=
are
of
nonzero
(it is
\\J\\
U\\
(x3) andg3 = \342\200\224g
components
only
Uf andfly
consistent
with geophysical practice to take the
direction
x3
vertically
are constant
if
Qu3 and \321\200\320\277\320\242\320\277\320\267
upwards), the heat and momentum
fluxespcp
molecular transport of & and Ux in thex3 direction can be neglected.The
for \\ujUj and 0^ reduceto
equations

In a flow

the

g~
dUi
\342\200\224
--?
9x3

u3e---Uuiuiu3

\302\251o

ox3Y

11
+-pu3)
P

\\
\\

\320\254\320\270-.\320\252\320\270;

-V-J--J-,
I

oxd
oxjdxj

nv

C.4.9)

98

The dynamics

\320\252&

of turbulence

\320\2550
\320\2550

\320\255\320\273-\321\202-

C.4.10)

\320\263
8\342\200\224-\342\200\224(le2u3)-y1\342\200\2241\342\200\224.
ax
dx
*
\320\254\321\205

these

In

the terms representing

equations

temperature variance by
are

very small.

ordinarily

The

the actual temperature

=

\320\264&0/\320\264\321\2053

gradient

-g/cp

set

(the

mean

A/p0)
=-g/cp,
in which
the

b\302\2560/dx3

perfect-gasatmosphere
The two equations
C.4.9,
The
turbulence.
outstanding
need not

turbulence

maintained

forces is not

as

nearly

for example,

no

well

of atmospheric

energy.

equations, of course, is the

these

by

as turbulence

understood
of

because

driven

turbulence

atmospheric

by body

shear

by

in

be

can

it

driven

Turbulence

forces.

theory

stresses

shear

situations

exist

there

Apparently,

maintained

buoyancy

satisfactory

Some of the

numbers

Richardson

introduced. The most

production of turbulent

stress

be

defines a

stresses;
unstable

in

< \320\236)
exists.
(\320\255#/\320\255\321\2053

conditions

to be

entropy is constant).
are used in the study
of

is equal to
temperature
heat transfer

P0/p0=R@0

dP0/dx3=-g,

feature

fluctuating

by

3d/9x3

gravity-induced
a flow without

in

and

energy

neglected becausethey

3.4.10)

of kinetic

production

buoyant
which

the

would exist

which

kinetic

gradient

temperature
minus

gradient

of

transport

have been

motion

molecular

Richardson

number,

parametersgoverning

kinetic

it is defined

is the ratio

one

obvious

energy.

of

need

C.4.9,3.4.10)

to

production

buoyant

This parameter is called the

flux

as

\342\200\236

If

heat

the

<

U\\U3

kinetic
corresponds

transfer
if

bU\\lbx3

energy
to

is

> \320\236),
the
(\320\2703\320\262

upward

>0.

As C.4.9)

is increased in this
this is called

<0;
\320\252&/\320\254\321\205\321\212

of #f is negative

indicates, the production of

case.
an

value

Upward

unstable

heat

flux

atmosphere.

because

turbulent

corres-

generally
If

the

heat

trans-

the buoyant-production
term
Rf>0,
is
becomesnegative,
that
kinetic
lost.
values
of
indicating
energy
Negative
this
is called stable
values
of \320\255#/\320\255\321\2053;
6u3 generally correspond to positive
stratification. If a positive /?f becomes large enough,
it leads to complete

transfer

is

downward

suppressionof

0),
(\320\262\320\2771<

all turbulence.

and

3.4 The dynamics

99

an eddy viscosity

define

we

If

fluctuations

of temperature

an

and

conductivity

eddy

by

C.4.12)

VjbUi/dx3,

C.4.13)

-\320\262\320\270\320\267
=\320\243\321\202\320\234/\320\264\321\2053,

flux Richardson number may

the

be written

as

\320\264\320\252/\320\264\321\2053
\321\203\321\202\320\264
(\320\227\320\22014)
\320\257'-^\320\251/\320\265\321\202-

from

Apart

variables that
different

Richardson number,

the gradient

parameter,

useful:

be

should

\321\212\320\252/\320\254\321\2053

<3-4-15>

/a V

in,

8u~k

If

the \"exchange\" coefficients Vj and yr, this expression contains

can
be measured
with relative ease. This suggests that
a dif-

\320\255(\320\252\320\270/\320\254\321\205\320\223

are

and 7T

Vj

same

the

approximately

may be a

(which

very

unreliable

absolute value of Rf is not small), the parameters fif and /?g

that turbulence
have
shown
are approximately the same, too. Observations
if
>
cannot be maintained
0.2
approximately.
fif
if the

assumption

If

sec\022.

scale

time

Buoyancy

The group

> \320\236
(stable
\320\255#/\320\255\321\2053

in

(g/\302\251o)9#/8x3

conditions),

has dimensions

C.4.15)

we define

C.4.16)

=Nl;
if

< \320\236
(unstable
\320\254\320\264/\320\254\321\2053

conditions),

we define

= 7?2.
The

/Vb is called
in a stable

parameter

gravity

C.4.17)

waves

waves are unstable

and

break

the

Brunt-Vaisala

frequency;

unstable

atmosphere.
up into turbulence.
In

an

it is

the frequency of

atmosphere,

Therefore,if

gravity
0 we

<

b&/dx3

use the

time
of the
scale Tb. In sunny weather, Tb is typically
buoyancy
to
of a few minutes; more strongly
correspond
unstable_conditions
the time scale
smaller values of Tb. In a neutral atmosphere
=0),
(\320\255#/\320\255\321\2053

order

\"*

and the
7\"\321\214\302\260\302\260,
The

mean

dUjbx3=T;\\

wind

Nb 0.
gradient dUi/dx3

frequency

has the dimensions sec\021.If

we

define

C.4.18)

Thedynamics

100

of turbulence

we obtain
=

>
(\320\252\320\252/\320\252\321\2053
(\320\233/\320\254\320\2238J,
\320\257\320\264

C.4.19)

=
/?9 -G-s /TbJ,

C.4.20)

0),

We conclude

\342\204\226/dx3<

the

that

0).

number is the square of a ratio

Richardson

gradient

of

scales.

time

In the surface
Monin-Oboukhov length
layer of the atmosphere (which
may
several
tens
of
the
different
to
meters
above
surface),
up
parameters
are important,
so that the Richardson
number is arranged
in a different
way.
We assume that the wind profile is logarithmic: d(JJdx3 = uJkx3 (see

extend

Section

The

2.3).

pu\\ (u, is the

Rf

stress

Reynolds

friction

velocity).

it is

is constant;

\342\200\224p
U\\U3

Richardson

The flux

to

equal

put

reads

then

number

\320\272\320\264\321\2053\320\262\320\2703

The heat

'

~eou

H =

flux

C.4.21)
pco

define a length L

if we
\320\250\320\223\320\252;

by

C.4.22)

we obtain

C.4.23)

Rf=x3/L.

L is known
as the Monin-Oboukhov length
The length
scale.
and
Monin
Oboukhov have successfully used x3/L as the basic independent
variable for
the description of the surface
and unstable conditions.
layer, both in stable
The absolutevalue of L is seldom less than 10 m, so that the conditions in the
lowest
meter of the atmosphere are approximately
when the
neutral,
except
low.
wind
is
very
speed

Convection
complexity

consider
In

but

the

at

of

in

the

the

atmospheric
surface

layer of

caused

heights

above

by

boundary

layers

50 m,

afternoon

unstable

the

layers

say, we

compared

in

may

As

an

expect

of turbulence,

absolute

value of

production
if

comlet

us

< 0).
(\320\255#/\320\255\321\2053

conditions

to buoyant production
weather).

of the

illustration

production

buoyant

these boundary

stresses to be very small

flux is appreciable (sunny

layer

boundary

atmospheric

problems

the

Rf

is small,

by Reynolds
heat
upward

Also, the turbulence

outside

101

3.4The

surface

the

transport

of temperature

dynamics

layer is thoroughly
terms in the energy

mixed

convection, so
be small. An approximate

the thermal

by

should

C.4.9)

budget

above the surfacelayer

budget for the turbulence

energy

fluctuations

reads

then

C.4.24)

i-0^3^.
\302\251o

bxj

bXj

assume that
and
values of \320\262
i/3
Let us

scale w and
the height
~

u3

the

boundary layer).

atmospheric

and e~ ws/h

into

the rms

tw if
\320\262\320\270\321\212
with

turbulence

In

scale h, the dissipation rate is of

length
of

so that

are well correlated,

are represented by f and w.

\320\262
and

tw
\320\262\320\270\321\212

order w3/h

Substituting

(h

velocity
scales with

the

estimates

we obtain

C.4.24),

C.4.25)

w2~gth/&0.

This estimate states that

h, produces kinetic

order as the

Monin-Oboukhov

surface

wt
\320\262\320\277~3

basisof

boundary

in

C.4.22)

the

surface

(note

is of the same
terms

in

the

that

of the
Monin-

heat flux). This yields

C.4.26)

\302\251o
u^lgL.

for

Substituting

layer
can be written
layer, \320\262\320\270\320\263

defined

length

over

gth/@o.

the

throughout

length is defined on

Oboukhov

of order

energy

flux pc 0u3
heat
flux in the

heat

the

of order gt/\302\2560, acting

acceleration

a buoyant

distance
If

that

\320\223
with

in C.4.25), we

C.4.26)

obtain

C.4.27)

(w/u,J~{-h/LJ/3.

if 6u3 >0) decreases. A

(L<0
convection is -L = 10 m; the height/? is
of the order of 1,000m. We conclude
that the kinetic energy
from C.4.27)
of the turbulence above the surfacelayer
becomes
large compared to ul
|w2
w ~ u,). This
if the
heat flux is large (in the absence of heat transfer,
upward
between ux and u3 is small under these condiimplies that the correlation

As the heat
value

conditions,

of

flux

u^

buoyancy forces
undermines
expressions

the

w,

u3

that

u~JF3

they

Turbulent
u\302\273.

cannot

eddies

little momentum

relatively
which

on

foundation

so

w, but
cause

apparently

are based,

\342\200\224
L

of strong

\342\200\224L
representative

because

value of

the

increases,

eddy-viscosity
be used in

and

created

by

transfer. This

mixing-length

a complicated

ex-

problem

like this.
In

a flow

with temperature

fluctuations

of

order

f and with a

length scale

102

The

of turbulence

dynamics

h, the mean temperature gradient

is at most
of order
\320\264\320\264/\320\264\321\2052
thermal convection keeps the temperature field mixed. Thus,
the
time scale 7\"b defined
in C.4.17)
as
be
estimated
may

if

t/h

buoyancy

C.4.28)

Tb~{gt/@0h)'1'2.
\320\223
with

for

Substituting

we obtain

C.4.26,3.4.27),

C.4.29)

\320\242\321\214~\321\204/\320\270\302\273\320\235-\320\2501/3.

The

h of the

height

layer

boundary

(Blackadarand

Coriolis parameter

the

is of

often

order ujf,
1968).

Tennekes,

where

is the

this

If

is the

case,

C.4.29) becomes

C.4.30)

Tbf~(-L/h)y\\
the

Clearly,

turbulence

are

the presentstate

may

so complicated
of the art.

the

they

are

quite

that

effective

(Section

analogy

Reynolds'

in

dynamically

little

momentum

and momentum is much

2.4) does not

most problems in

significant time or
solution is possible at

In other

heat.

scales, that
h differ

if \342\200\224
L and

comprehensive

transporting

for heat

diffusivities

turbulent

no

that

one

time

two

seen before,

have

eddies cause relatively

Buoyancy-generated
but

differ

of magnitude. As we
that involve more than

theory
scale

length

which

orders

a few

by

convection is one with

by an order of magnitude

of buoyant

problem

is, Tb and f'1,

transport,

words, the ratio of

than one, so
larger

apply.

Problems

3.1

the characteristic

Estimate

Taylor microscaleX
of this size contribute

3.2

Experimental

distributed

over

(see

Problem

very little

evidence

the volume

velocity of
1.3). Use

eddieswhose
this

estimate

size

to the
that eddies

is equal

to show

to the total dissipation rate.

suggests

occupied

that
by

the dissipation rate is not evenly

flow. The distribution
of
with
rates
large dissipation
a model
of this phenomenon by

a turbulent

rate appears to be intermittent,

a
small
volume fraction. Make
occupying
the dissipation occurs in thin vortex tubes (diameter
that
all
of
assuming
=
\320\270 [
What is the volume fraction
characteristic
velocity
occupied
\\ujuj\\ l^2).
the

dissipation

\321\202?,

Problems

103

tubes? Verify
these vortex

by these
holds for

eddiesdoes

not

of the

the effect
it

to design

fluctuations

fully

being

the

decrease

rate

such

the contraction
turbulent

developed

equal to one is
cooler fluid over
level. How many

flow

cooled

by

Let the

mean velocity

behind

be equal to \321\201
Show
with

aligned
that

those

intensity

that

the mean

conthe

the
flow

with an

associated

by a factor

on the relative turbulence

a contraction

during

\"eddy\"

cxl2 and

factor

of the contraction on

feasible

3.4

contraction

an

with

associated

3.5) increase by a
(as
eddy perpendicular to the mean

velocity

the

(Figure

the angular

that

the contraction.

to that
fluctuations

contraction

assuming

by

through

change

in Figure

effect

indeed

C.3.62)

budget

of a wind-tunnel

effect

be obtained

can

motion

which is equal to the ratio

of
of the contraction,
in front

contraction ratio,
contraction

velocity

vorticity

approximate

estimate of the

A qualitative

3.3

3.5) on turbulent
momentum of

the

if
tubes.

c. Computethe
Estimate

u/U.

of velocity fluctuations. Is
evolution
of turbulent velo-

of decay
that

the

can be ignored?

pipe flow of
the addition

fluid

with

of a small

a Prandtl
volume

number

of slightly

section. Estimate the initial

fluctuation
temperature
downstream
are
the
before
temperapipe
required
temperature
fluctuations
have decayed to 1% of the initial
level?
For the purpose of
this
it may be assumed that
the
mean velocity
in
the
calculation,
pipe is
of
an
for
the
estimate
dissipation
approximately independent
position.Also,
rate e is needed; it can be obtained from momentum and energy integrals for
in the pipe, should
pipe flow. For a prescribeddecreasein mean temperature
differone increase
the volume
flow of coolant and reduce
the temperature
difference or vice versa in order
to reduce the temperature fluctuations?
a cross

diameters

4
FLOWS

SHEAR

BOUNDARY-FREE

Turbulent

shear flows

evolving

that

and

in nature

occur

that

is, in the

flow direction the

in

are usually
flow is changing.

engineering

the

of

structure

is sometimes due to external

such as pressure or
influences,
change
due only to evolutionary
influences
temperature gradients, and sometimes
few
within the turbulence. At the present
inherent
flows
time, very
evolving
are well understood; those evolving
because
of external influences are particu-

This

to

particularlydifficult

happens to

unless the

understand,
in

match

of

variation

flow's

way the

some

own

influence

external

the

tendencies.

evolutionary

In

5.5 we encounter an example

of such a flow. Here we shall
limit
ourselves
own
to flows evolving
the influence
of their
under
evolutionary
tendencies.
Even this class of flows is not generally
we shall
understood;
further restrict the discussion to two-dimensional
flows
whose
evolution is
slow and whose dynamics
is not affected
by the presence of a solid surface.
Section

4.1

Almost parallel, two-dimensional

flows
the so-called plane flows
are two types of two-dimensional
and
flows,
the axisymmetric
flows. In both, the mean velocity field is entirely
confined
to planes. In the plane flows, mean flow
in planes
is
parallel to a given
plane
in planes
identical; in the axisymmetric
flows, mean flow
through the axis of
is identical.
the plane flows (for algebraic
We analyze in detail
symmetry
and give the results for the axisymmetric flows.
simplicity)
There

component

evolve

is in

slowly

the x

are
direction, which
direction. Thus,

by

in

falling

what
parallel.

it is

Slightly

medium, are not

as
the
in Figure
flows
4.1.
way
into

a moving

possible to

the terms
more

D.1.1)

class are

that are small.

terms
order

this

within

For these flows

many

discarding

plane, and which

everywhere.
nearly
\320\254/\320\254\321\205\302\253\320\254/\320\254\321\203

The classical flows

determine
more nearly

to the x,y

confined

com-

mean-velocity

principal

in the*

Ui={U,V,0},
(Figure 4.1).

flows whose

us consider

Let

flows

Plane

vanish

wakes, jets, and

the

simplify

To identify
as

these

complicated

treated here; they

layers

of motion

equations
terms,

we must

flows become

more and

these

flows, such as
can

shear

be analyzed

jets flowing
in

the

same

105

Figure

4.1

4.1.

Almost

parallel,

Plane turbulent

two-dimensional

flows

wakes,jets, and

shear

layers (mixing

layers).

106

Examining

one

the

in

scale Us for
x

direction.

US<^.UOfar
in

wakes

far

layers U =
convenience
shear

and

at

line

layers.

we

If

scales in the wake and

two
Figure 4.1, we can identify
velocity
and the shear layer. In the wake, there is a scale Uo for the
the mean flow in the x direction; in all of these flows there is a
the cross-stream
variation of the mean velocity componentin the
Let us define
of \\U0-U\\. In wakes
Us as the maximum value
from
the obstacle, while in jets and shear layers Uo = 0. Hence,
in jets and shear
U = Uo + (U-Uo)= Ci{U0 + Us) = G(U0), while
0 stands
for \"order of magnitude\.")
0 (Us) (as before,
For
we use U = & @), where 0 = Uo for wakes and 0 = Us for jets

jet

of

velocity

flows

shear

Boundary-free

cross-stream scalei as the distance

from
about
^Us (a more preciseselectionis made

to define a

agree

which

U\342\200\224
Uo is

the center
later),

we

can write

D.1.2)

s.
We

scale of

the

designate

change in

by A, so that

x direction

the

D.1.3)

dU/\320\264\321\205
<S(UJL).
In

to the

addition

scalefor

velocity

and

Let us

turbulence.

the

v*

^=0(\302\2532),

just defined, we
u, so that

scales

length

use the

symbol

need a velocity

= &U*2).

D.1.4)

we need a scale
The magnitude
of a relative to Us is determined later. Finally,
for the cross-stream component V of the mean velocity. This scale can be

the

from

determined

BecausebLllbx
On

other

the

\302\256(Ust/L).

The

cross-stream

we need

Let us
in

bVlby

estimates,

in order

U</L

scales

length

are

to balance D.1.5).
to /, so that

proportional
we obtain

D.1.6)

the equationsof
momentum

U%/L,

cross-stream
Equating these two

l/=

parallel.

D.1.5)

hand,

VII.
dV/\320\264\321\203

of continuity:

= 0.

+ bV/by

bU/bx

mean equation

the

momentum equation
in the limit

motion
first

look

cross-stieam

We are
as (/L

now

->\342\200\242
that

0,

in a

is, as the

equation for V, which

direction. This equation is

at the

position
flow

governs

to examine
becomes

the mean

4.1 Almost

107

9
\320\252\321\205

\320\254\321\205by

orders

their

identify

term of

each

Expressing

\320\252\321\205'
L

flows

two-dimensional

parallel,

by
by

\\\320\252\321\205*
byi
by
\321\200\320\264\321\203

D.1.7)

in

earlier, we may

'

[l ) J (

introduced

scales

the

as follows:

of magnitude

[a

9V\\

1\320\255\320\257/9V

,-,

\342\200\224 \302\2532 I
\302\2532
\342\200\224
\342\200\224 :
.\342\200\224
_=

(uv)

bx

u2

\320\255

u2

\321\200\320\252\321\203'

92V

vUc

\320\2522
V

Unless

D.1.7)

vU\302\273

u2l@u^i

are

negligible

-*Q as fast

as

(\320\2502,

to 8v2/3/.

relative

the
If

first,
the

second,

Reynolds

and

third

number^fy

terms

of

uffv

is

are also negligible compared to 9v2/9y.There

large enough, the viscous terms
in order to balance the
must
of the same order as bv1 /by
be at least one term
of D.1.8)
shows that only the pressure term can do this.
equation; inspection

Thus we obtain the following

approximate

form

of D.1.7):

D.1.9)
This approximation

is valid

\302\260-\320\250\320\2700.

in

the

limit

as f/L

only

if

D.1.101

U'f'Uo
-\302\273\302\246
the

0;

conditions

D.1.10) need

to be imposed

to

assure

Boundary-free shear flows

108

the

of the

negligibility

show

the last

and

two

first

is

that

Integration

D.1.10)
always
satisfied,
of D.1.9) is straightforward;

We shall
is
Re sufficiently

of D.1.7).

terms

two

that

provided

pressure outside the turbulent

holds for all narrow,
D.1.11)
slowly

is the

Equation

vary

derivatives

in

of

derivative

evolving flows. We will

hesitation

since

L,

that

momentum

with respect

D.1.11)

The

equation
mean

\320\254\321\205

\320\252\321\203

been usedto substitute

introduced, we estimatethe orders of

~2\\ :
-v2

*2
I

\342\200\224
\320\255
a2

(uv):

_=1._

2',

V(/I

,92^ ~

'

L2

governs

bi

I
scales already

the
\320\264\320\240/\320\264\321\205.
Using

magnitude

of the terms

of D.1.13)as

u2

D.1.14)

\\u

'
p
'\321\215\320\2722:

which

reads

\\\320\2522

for

for U,

\\\\u

=
\342\200\224

of Po

=
to*. Because\320\264\320\2400/\320\264\321\205
0,

equation

momentum,

Here, D.1.12) has

by

to

all deriv-

D.1.12)

component of

\320\254\321\205by

were

the variation

downstream

(u2

with

assume

= 0. If
Po
\320\264\320\2400/\320\264\321\205

0.
+ \320\254?/\320\264\321\205
\320\264\320\240/\320\264\321\205

The streamwise

/~2

D.1.11)
flow field (y -> \302\261\302\260\302\260).

scale.

another

We need the
we obtain

A/p)

direction scale

downstream

the

introduce

might

the

of the

part

the imposed downstream pressure gradient

in the x direction we could not state without

that

large.

it yields

P/p + v*=P0/p.

Here,Po

later

=[\302\253'/?J

/\342\200\242

4.1 Almost parallel,

109

as

we can make the viscous terms

large,
as ?/L -*0, the third term of D.1.13) is also
of the
balance the equation, at leastone other
term
is needed.
Of the remaining
the first is the
terms,

R{ is

that

assume

we

If

as small

flows

two-dimensional

sufficiently

In the limit

desired.

negligible. In order to
same order as 9(uv)/9y
largest because 0 > Us.

we must

Thus,

require

that

D.1.15)

0A);
\320\260
L
\320\270

is, this nondimensional

that

Turbulent
as one

group

There are two

we take&IU%
choice,
possible
wakes

in which

ways

D.1.15)

D.1.15)

0A),

as t/L

bounded

remain

must

-*\302\246
0.

can be

requires

satisfied.If,

that

alO=GWL).

D.1.16)

occurs in far wakes. Far wakes have turbulence intensities

of the velocity defect; both of these are small relative to the
As a wake evolves downstream and as l/L becomessmaller,
pace with it.

This situation
order

the

velocity.

keeps
With

u =

negligible

relative

<9{US) and D.1.16), the second term

the
momentum
to the first, so that

for

equation

turbulent

= 0.
U bUlbx + \320\255\320\253)/\320\254\321\203

We can make
that we may

by

Uo

Uo.

+ bjfjv)lbv

bUlbx

This

equation

velocity
in

=
<P(US/UO)

implies that the

Thus, D.1.17)

This

the

fluctuations

streamwise

simplification.
virtue of D.1.16),

by

write,

(U-UoWUo =

D.1.17)

further

one

states

may be

0 = U0

and

\302\253~
U%l

U occurring

in D.1.17) may

be replaced

by

= 0.
that

so

D.1.18)

approximated

D.1.19)
the net momentum flux
by x momentum

replaced

due

to

the cross-stream

carriedby

the

flow

mean

direction.

Returning to the provisions

satisfied if t/L -*0 and if D.1.16)
long as t/KRtL)

For wakes,

&\320\250\320\246.

undifferentiated

v is

is neg-

4.1.14)

D.1.13,

WU

reduces to

an obstacle

far from

wakes

in

of
mean

\302\246*
0. This

expressed

condition

holds.

in D.1.10),

The second

can be met

we see
provision

easily.If

we

the

that

first

is satisfied

examine

D.1.14),

is
as

110

shear

Boundary-free

flows

viscous terms in D.1.13)

is that
is more stringent
than the second provision
in D.1.10).
If the
1/fy-*0, which
terms are to be of the same order as the other terms that
viscous
have
been
= 6
we
must
the
even
condition
(ffL).
Hence,
neglected,
require
stronger
MR(
of motion for
roughly speaking, D.1.19) is a valid approximate
equation
far wakes provided \\/Ri~t/L
we see

Turbulent

mixing layers
0 =
so that

and

jets

satisfied is by

for neglecting the

condition

the

that

The second way

Us,

putting

in

which

may be

D.1.15)

becomes

D.1.15)

1/2
.

\302\256{<?/L)

*/Us=

D.1.20)

describes jets and mixing layers,

half an order of magnitude
about
(measured
difference
in
jet velocity or the velocity

The choice
are

the

choice

the

With

U bUlbx +

the

D.1.20)

same order, so that

the

appropriate

replaced

by mean-flow convection

cross-stream componentsof the

The provisions D.1.10) need

that

(\320\250I/2

-> 0

t/L

and

if

cross-stream velocity fluctuations

carried by

mean
to

the
R~(X

the

holds.

Wefind

of

is a

requirement.

0,

v is

and the

strong

fairly

that

the

first

of these

The second provision amounts to

condition.
From D.1.14) we
easy

appears to be an
condition
for the negligibility

-*\302\246which

downstream

velocity.

This

-+0.

both

be examined.

D.1.20)

of the

are

D.1.21)

by the

removed

than

smaller

(shear layer).

momentum

(t/LI/2 R}1
concludethat

tf/L)

+ \320\255(\320\2777)/\320\255/
0.
\320\252\320\251\320\252\321\203

if

of

intensities

equation is

momentum

Here, the

is satisfied

in terms

the mixing layer

terms in D.1.14)
second

and

first

in which turbulence

the

major viscous term is

To assure that the

is of the sameorderas the other terms which have been neglectthe even stronger condition Rc = <S(L/t)^2. We conclude
that
if [LitI/2
-*0and
\\U/L
D.1.21) is a correct approximation
Rt1 -*0.
We
decreases downstream, so
shall
find later that in wakes
t/L continually
that
a better approximation
the farther
one
becomes
downstream
D.1.19)
For
the
shall
that
and jets, on
other hand, we
find
t/L is
goes.
layers
mixing
viscous

term

we
neglected,

need

constant. The observed

6 x 10~2, so that
the
terms retained. In the
layers

we shall

study

values

neglected

terms

in

jets
in

and

D.1.21)

mixing layers are of the

to about 6%
amount

plane and axisymmetric wakes,jets, and

number R[ changes downstream
Reynolds

various
the

of t/L

order

of the
shear
in

dif-

4.1 Almost

111

ferent ways. Hence,

flows

two-dimensional

parallel,

are

there

flow

each

in

distinct

regions

in which

the

D.1.21),

all

conditions on R( aresatisfied.
momentum

The

Because

integral

based on D.1.21)
further
to D.1.21).
analysis
within the streamwise derivatives
relations

\342\200\224
(UUo) + V

of

\342\200\224
\320\250
-U0)

Uj1 dx

latter

the

appears

we obtain
D.1.22)

(uv)=O.

l/0 is

not

lUAU
i\342\200\224

dx

(the imposed

of position

a function

The continuity equation

first two terms of D.1.22) as

is zero).
the

when

we can confine

dy

is legitimate because

pressuregradient
be used to rewrite

D.1.19),

Uo from U

D.1.21),

case of

so that

\342\200\224
\320\260
\342\200\224

Uo) +

by

\320\255\321\205

for

subtract

we

\320\260

\321\215

U \342\200\224
(U-

This

If

is a special

D.1.19)

also hold

bU/bx + bV/by

= 0

- Uo)].

may

D.1.23)

Thus, D.1.22)becomes
\320\260

\321\215
\342\200\224

+\342\200\224[V(U-U0)]

lU(U-Uo)]

\320\255\321\205

\342\200\224
\320\260
+\342\200\224uv= O.

In jets^and wakes, U \342\200\224

at sufficiently
Uo vanishes
Uv. For those flows, we may
D.1.24)
integrate
entire flow.

The result

D.1.24)

by

by

values

large

of

and
\321\203

respect to

with

so does

over
\321\203

the

is

\320\223
U(U-Uo)dy

%i-o.
ax

= 0.

D.1.25)

M,

D.1.26)

Consequently,

U{U

- Uo)

dy

constant. This integral relation is clearly inapplicable to shear

is not integrable. For shear layers,
the leftdefect
layers becausetheir velocity
hand side of D.1.25) is equal
to VoUs,
which is unknown
because
Vo, the

where M is a

value of

-*\302\246
at \321\203
is unknown.
+\302\260\302\260,

The integral
across

planes

D.1.26)
normal

momentum defect per

may

be

to the x
unit

volume,

identified

axis. For
while

with
wakes,

the mean
p[Uo

U dy is the

flux

momentum
\342\200\224is

U)

volume flux

the
per

net
unit

Boundary-free shear flows

112

depth.

The

depth.

When

sense:

if

is the net flux of momentum defect per unit

integral D.1.26) then
we use the term momentum
we mean it in the following
defect,

be pUo- The
the flow

obstacle

the

by

Here, pU is

the

unit

per

that D.1.26)

momentum

mean

(depth

is the

total

per

a completely

momentumdefect

unit

The

into

is

the

volume

plane of the
the jet at the

flow).
origin

total

volume

then

per

unit

time

because
and depth
time

the

wake contains no

is U06,

and depth.

so that

pU%

\320\262

Thus,

D.1.28)
and

D.1.26)

length

pUo,

defect per unit

-pUld=M.
Equating

used to de-

the flow past an obstacle

of width \320\262.
The net momen-

that
region

stagnant

can be

D.1.26)

integral

wakes..Imagine

net momentum

the

represents

momentum

separated,
volume is

per

momentum.

produces

D.1.28),

we

obtain

is independent of x in a plane wake; it is called

of the wake.
thickness
is related to the drag
of the obstacle
coefficient
thickness
is
the wake. The drag
coefficient
defined
by
cd

\320\262
defined

the momentum
The momentum

D =

the

to
put

U dy

time.

produces

that

and

volume

unit

is the distance normal

amount of momentum

Momentum thickness The

define a length
scale for turbulent

The

to

simplifies

D.1.27)

depth

Therefore,M
unit

0, so

would

volume

unit

= M.

U2dy

flux per

per

\342\200\224
is

p(U0

D.1.26)

For jets, Uo

momentum

the momentum defect (or deficit).The

U)
is the total momentum removed per unit time from
that produces the wake.

difference

M in

constant

present, the

were not

wake

the

this way

D.1.30)

cu\\pU\\d,

where D is the

drag

per

unit

the
Clearly, D = -M because
and
D.1.30),
equate D.1.28)

of the obstacle.
depth and d is the frontal
height
M. If we
drag D produces the momentum flux
we find

D.1.31)

4.2Turbulent

113

wakes

obstacle is a circular cylinder, c^ ~

between 103 and 3 x 105, so that 0 is about
If the

1 for
\\d

numbers

Reynolds
in that

(Uod/v)

range.

4.2
wakes

Turbulent

we study

Here

self-preservation

and the kinetic

Self-preservation

jets, wakes,

In

and

mixing

length

and

velocity.

expect

that

in wakes

- u)/us =

f{y#.

However, we

have

(uQ

t/L

the

preceding
layers

Us/Uo^-O.
the

function

because no monotone function

become asymptotically independent of very
Therefore, we expect that only the length
eliminated,

nondimensionalized

properly

of
we may

scales

local

D.2.1)

these

Under

of

evolution

the

In general,

assumption.

limit

processes,

f on

tIL, lUJv,

and

Us/U0

finite

if

it does

remain

can

are

quantities

for
that are valid
the (presumably

equations

approximate

developed

monotone) dependence of

assumed that
solely by the

us/uQ).

e/t,eu%'v,

-+0, fUjv-^-^,

this

budget,

wakes.

plane

analysis, we
is determined

evaluate

Let us

in

momentum

mean

the

(invariance),

of turbulence

budget

energy

large

or very

scale

t is

not

small parameters.
of

all

that

and

relevant

functions

is

y/? only.

In

particular,

(UQ

U)lUt

= fiy/\320\233.
t

D.2.2)

Kl=(W\\. We expect that

D.2.2)
about velocity differences, which
are
to velocity gradients. Relations like D.2.2)
related
do not hold for the absoabsolute velocity
without
U, because the value of Uo clearly could be changed
\342\200\224
the form of Uo U.
changing
In wakes, the turbulence intensity
a is of order
Us, so that we expect that
the Reynolds stress may be described by
of course,

where,

because

is valid

-w

The

set D.2.2,

makes

change

downstream

a statement

D.2.3)

Wsg(yM.

velocitydefect

and

are expressed
In

it

may

order

4.2.3) constitutesthe

self-preservation

the Reynolds stress become invariant

of the local length
in terms
and velocity

to test the

feasibility

of

D.2.2,

4.2.3),

the veloc-

hypothesis:
with

respect

scales {and

we must

to x

if

they

U%.

substitute

these

Boundary-free shear flows

114

we

the equation

into

expressions

of motion

Let us

D.1.19).

define ? = y//,sothat

write

may

bw

U\\

dx

\320\255\321\205dx

D24)

-r\342\200\224=--r9.

by

where

with respect

differentation

denote

primes

to

%.

With

D.1.19)

D.2.4),

becomes

If

the

of f and

shapes

g areto be universal,

the velocity defect and

require

that l/0 is a

account

dUs

Us

The general

in

%f

constant, we need
dt

\342\200\224
\342\200\224
=

const,

Tfi-\320\2631^
dx
1\320\224

solution

const.

dx
to

the

D.2.6)

pair D.2.6)

is needed to make the result

D.1.26) provides the desiredconstraint;
the momentum integral
as
relation

-~f(%)d%-U\\(\\

is^~x\", Us~xn~1, so that

determinate.
using

\321\217
\321\202\320\276

an

the normalized profiles of

are the same at all x, we must
into
be constant. Thus, taking
D.2.5)
so that

stress

Reynolds

of/and

coefficients

the

that

the

The

momentum

\320\237\320\233

f2 (?)</? =

\342\200\224

--.

D.2.7)

is of order Us/Uq compared to the

term in D.2.7)
of D.1.16), Us/U0 is of order t/L, so that the second term
should be neglected. Substituting
for M with D.1.28), we obtain

virtue

U/

integral
rewrite

we may

D.2.2),

second

The

first.
in

of x.

conclude

constants

The
A

and

Us

If

?~x\"

A and

self-preserving

\320\222
still

solution

and

are given by

(=Bxm.

Us=Ax~m,

By

D.2.7)

D.2.8)

$\"__\342\204\226(%-+U0B.

be independent
that the product U/ must
=
Us ~x\"~1, we find that 2n\342\200\22410, so that n-\\- Thus, (

We

another

D.2.9)
have

to be

determined.

is possible

only

if the

velocity

and

length

scales

4.2 Turbulent wakes

115

as stated

behave

in

does not guarantee

solutions are not

turbulent
and

Us

such

that

In

nature.

in

is possible

a solution

problems, possible

many

they are not stable and change

We need experimental evidenceto

because

observed

disturbed.

the solution D.3.9)

not

or

whether

it occurs

that

when

form

different

the fact

Of course,

D.2.9).

wakes of circularcylinders
is well described by D.2.9)

indeed occurs.Experiments
have

shown

about

beyond

a diff-

to

determine

with

plane

development of \320\241
80 cylinder diameters. Also,
=
beyond x 80c/.However,
that the

measured mean-velocity profilesagree with D.2.2)

turbulence
intensities
and shear stresses do not exhibit
much
self-preservation
before x = 200c/. In most turbulent
flows the mean velocity profile reaches
long before the turbulence does. Generally,the more
complicated
equilibrium
the
it takes to reach self-preservation.
For
the statistical quantity,
longer
v3 and v4 take longer to reach self-preservation than
v2. However,
example,
all measured

The mean-velocity profile

If

we

substitute

D.2.9)

x/d = 500.

beyond

self-preserving

fully

into D.2.5),

we obtain

+ f)=g'.

lW
In

are

in wakes

quantities

we need a relation betweenfandg. If we define an eddy

bU/by, we can state, by virtue of D.2.2, 4.2.3),

to proceed,

order

viscosity vj

D.2.10)

=
\342\200\224uv
Vy

by

D.2.11)

j
we

Thus,

expect

function, so
from

Also,

Uj

so that

mixed,

the

of

functions

some function

is approximately

of y/t.

distance

Now,

<7/f'

is a

constant near the wake

we expect the turbulence in

and
the scales of length
velocity
from the center line. This again

intuition,

physical

thoroughly

to be

Vj/U/

that

the

symmetric

center line.
wake

should
suggests

to be
not be
that

Vj

may be constant.

It should be noted

that

D.2.11)

is a consequence

of the existenceof

the

and (. Therefore,
D.2.11) is
length scales \321\203
U%
a consequence of self-preservation;
for a
it should
not be construed as support
is
is
constant
model.
The
that
equivalent to
mixing-length
assumption
vT
that
one of the length
scales
y) is not relevant to Vj.
assuming
(namely
Becauseboth g and f' have a zero at the center line, there is some question

single

velocity

whether

Vj

rule,

which

scale

finite

remains

states

The latter is finite

and

that

the

= 0.
at \321\203

the two

as y-*0. This problem is resolvedwith

-*\302\246
0 is equal to the limit
limit of g/f as \321\203

I'Hopital's
of g'/f\".

Boundary-free shear flows

116

these

With

= 1/ffT

that

assumption

vT is

constant:
D.2.12)

-g/f'.

/?T= U//vT

The parameter
need

we proceed on the

provisions,

is called
the turbulent Reynolds number;
we
data to determine its value. We should
in
mind
that
keep
is likely to be valid
near the center line of the wake (because of
only
we should
expect errors near the edgesof the wake.
substitute
D.2.12) into D.2.10), we obtain

experimental

D.2.12)
symmetry);

we

If

+ f\" =

u($f'+f)

D.2.13)

0,

which

in

D.2.14)

\\j

The solution

of

is

D.2.13)

D.2.15)

/:=exp(-Ja|2).

exp

= max

Us

U),
(Uo\342\200\224

^precisely; a convenient definition

= 1
|
(y =i). The normalized

not defined

have
f =

the definition

with

accordance

In

= 0.6 at
(-|)

f@) = 1. We still
take a; =1 so that

we have
is to

momentum

\"

integral

then

becomes
=

ni)d%

D.2.16)

Btt)m.

The observed value

of

Substitution
then

with

gives,

of

D.2.16)

with

\320\257\321\202,

U%

into D.2.8)

and

and

of

previously defined, is 12.5.

D.2.14)
(with a = 1)jnto D.2.9)

/as

some algebra,

D.2.17)

D.2.18)

/f/0=O.252(x/0)i/2.
It

should

U/lv

be noted

that the Reynolds number

defined

and I is constant:
D.2.19)

QAUoeiv.

Thus, once

by Us

turbulent,

a plane

wake remains

turbulent.

are similar to those for plane

D.2.18)
D.2.17)
wakes.
is proportional
laminar
This is because the momentum deficit, which
the Reynolds number Us?/v and
to U%i', is independent of x, so that
both
are constant.
the turbulent
number
Reynolds
U//vj
The

decay

laws

and

4.2Turbulent

117

Figure

The

4.2.

wakes

of a plane

profile

velocity-defect

turbulent wake (after Townsend,

1956).

The velocity
velocity

is

D.2.15)

profile

in wakes

profiles

for

all

in

values

excellent

of ?

observed
of
off
values
larger

with the

agreement

less than

For

1.3.

larger values

correct shape, but it predicts somewhat

than
are observed
is never larger than 5% of
(see Figure 4.2). The deviation
U%.
Because
the predicted
velocity profile D.2.15) approachesthe free-stream
than
the observations
indicate, the value
Uo slightly more gradually
velocity
the
the
is
of vT appropriate
for
center of
flow
too large near the
evidently
the
edges. A glance at Figure 4.3 makes the main reason for this clear. Within
the
scales
of
and
do
not
turbulent
of
flow,
velocity
part
average
length
vary
with
cross-stream
from side to
position, because there is thorough
mixing
of i>T would
be appropriate.
value
Near the edges,
side. Here, a constant
however, a point at a fixed distance\321\203
spends
only a fraction of its time in the
turbulent flow. When the point is in the irrotational
flow, the Reynolds stress
%,

has the

D.2.15)

is zero so

the

that

relative fraction of

called the
an

of

time

intermittency

expression
the

net

wake)

computed on
well. For many

like

transport should
is in the turbulent
the
point
is sketched
the
variation
of \321\203
y;

i>T= yi>jc (where vJC is the

value

basis,

purposes,

it is

be

however,

D.2.15)

is sufficiently

multiplied

fluid.

This

by the
fraction is

in Figure 4.3. Thus,

to the center
appropriate

estimate. Indeed, if a
found to fit the experimental

be a better

would
this

momentum

profile is
data extremely

velocity

accurate.

Boundary-free shear flows

118

Intermittency near the edges of a wake.

4.3.

Figure

Axisymmetric wakes
results

wakes,

there

U% and

(\\n a similar

the

If

Us

as

way

axisymmetric wake is thus

the
plane wake, with
wakes

axisymmetric

not

unity,

however.

Let

UJUo
and

be

ceases to

disturbances

velocity

, so

we obtain

/?T

= 14.1.The

the Reynolds

that

When R( is reducedto
it develops

turbulent;

This is not a serious

decay.

of

number
a

value

differently

~ @Mm,

let us

of the

as the

Reynolds

order

residual

practicalrestriction,

how-

D.2.20)

(\321\205/\320\262I\320\237,

assume that the

plane wake.The

Reynolds

are of order unity,

R{ then varies as

involved

coefficients

number

R(

reaches

numbers

unity
this

as

they

D.2.21)

Rl~(Uoeiv){6lx)xn,
that

of

that

axisym-

us write

were for the

so

of the

structure

to be markedly different from

likely

exception

decreases.

steadily

wake

the

\321\210

t~

before,

the

analysis is applied to axisymmetric

that R,= U//v ~x~xri. Defining

foregoing

~x\022/3,

when
is a

x/6

is of

large distance.

order (U06/i>K.Even

for

moderate

4.2 Turbulent

119

relations

Scale

and

D.2.15)

(with

(-~^/U\\

)max

If

shear

most

(R2- e)

(O.OBUl /0.4)m

The

at which

rate

definedasdt/dt = Uo
dt/dt = Uo

dt/dx

In

a self-preserving

so

that

D.2.24)

the

coefficients

the

surrounding

turbulent eddies.

to examine quantiin a position

wakes.
With the help of D.2.3)

when

= 1,

as

of

differentiation

yields

~m =
0.05.

D.2.23)

between \320\270
and v is taken to be about
as it is
0.4,
as an estimate for the rms
(see Section 2.2), we obtain
=
s u2 = v2):
aW2
| \320\277\320\264

coefficient
flows

velocity fluctuation
a
\302\253

a maximum

attains

a = 1) shows.This

correlation

the

plane

D.2.22)

stress

Reynolds

in

in

IRj.

-^=-U\\f
The

scale relations
may write

we

D.2.12),

we are

With D.2.17,4.2.18),
of the

some

quantitatively

wakes

The

on the smallest

the wake
dt/dx,

s 0.08

D.2.24)

0.35t/s.
propagatesinto

which,

the

fluid can

surrounding

with D.2.18) and

be

D.2.19), becomes

D.2.25)

Us.

flow we expect that

all velocities
are proportional to U%,
and D.2.25) are not surprising
results.
However, the values of
are interesting.
The interface in Figure 4.3 propagates into
irrotational
medium
because it is contorted by the turbuof the interface is caused by eddies of all scales;
contortion

scales,viscosity

acts

to

propagate

vorticity

into

the

irrota-

fluid.
The net rate of propagation (or entrapment, as it is most often
called), however, is controlledby the speed at which the contortions with the
scales move into
the
fluid. Evidently, the largest eddies
largest
surrounding
have
a characteristic
of that
of the rms
velocity roughly 0.08/0.35 a 23%
u.
This
is supported
direct
the
measurements;
by
velocity fluctuation
most
to the entrainment are fairly
but have
weak,
large eddies contributing
than the
dimensions as large as the flow permits. They are substantially
larger
that
contain
most
of
the
eddies
energy.
at time scales is also instructive.
look
A
A time scale
fp characteristic of
the turbulence is given by the total energy | u^ij over the rate of production
= 3#2
latter roughly equals the dissipation rate e). With
-uvbU/\320\252\321\203(the
Uj<jj
irrotational

and

= 0\320\220\320\2702, becomes
\342\200\224\321\210
fp

Boundary-free shear flows

120

3.75

\\utu;

tp=
4

\342\200\224'.'
\342\200\224uv
oUloy

The minimum

| = 1. We
fp

D.2.26)

of f',

at the maximum

fp is reached

of

value

occurs

which

D.2.27)

other

downstream

of the

change)

D.2.25),

td

= Hidi/dt) as
the ratio
=

scale characteristic of the development

wake is fd = (/(dl/dt),
which becomes, on

a time

hand,

of

Hence,

12.5tlUv
of time

the

other

The turbulent
in

an

0 = -U0\342\200\224(\\q'*)-uv
\320\263

\342\200\224

\320\255\321\205

q2

by

by

of \\q2 by

between it
the third is transport
these terms by
designate
to distinguish

order

production,

the

few

approximations,

and

per

energy

mean

the

D.2.30)

\320\240/

f'/Rj,

which is known

first

term

of

flow. This term is called advection

thermal

by turbulent
the

letters

the

distributions

to

mass. The

unit

The second term is

and
the last is dissipamotion,
A, P, T, and D.
convection.

of

plane wake can be computed. We

= \342\200\224
\342\200\224uv
Us2

-e.

-\342\200\224v[\\q*+-\\

UJTj is twice the kinetic

is convection

D.2.30)

across

of the
The equation for the kinetic energy
which is consistent with
the
momentum

approximation

D.1.19), reads

equation

dissipation.We

of energy

budget

energy

turbulence,

With

2:

to small eddies apparently

is only about
the
turbulence
can never be
Clearly,
development.
it never has time to adjust
because
to its changing
environof turbulence in wakes
bestructure
can be self-preserving only
time scale of the turbulence and that
of the flow keep pace with
as the wake moves downstream.

equilibrium

Here,

is about

scales

D.2.29)

environment. The

each

down-

D.2.28)

The time scale of transfer

half the time scaleof flow

because

(the

substitution

2.

td/tp

in

at

obtain

= 6.2
0UV

On the

in

rr^Usf

be slightly

retain
in

error

the

terms
the
toward

in

D.2.30)

approximation
the edges

of

121

4.2Turbulent

wakes

measured distribution

Figure 4.4. Comparison between

plane wake (adapted from Townsend,

D.2.31)

the wake.

is also needed.We

let us
at

occurs

(which

for q2

expression

related;

closely

f'

An

assume

| = 1). Thus

and the

that

expect

0.4 q2 /3 outboard
1, we use

\342\200\224
uv =

that

? >

for

q2 and
from

the

between

region

because

q2 does not

for reasons of symmetry

For the transport
must

-uv are
peak

in

D.2.31)

TfZi-l.bUlf'/Rj.
The

in a

of q1

1956).

the center line and

(Figure
term

be self-preserving.

center

at the

vanish

= 1 has

to be

line while

dealt with

\342\200\224
uv =

0 and

separately,

f = 0 at

= 0

4.4).

we use a

mixing-length assumption because it

also

Hence, we put

is adequate for such a crude model.We assume

that vj is
that
is
to
be
in
error
this
somewhat
near
assumption
realizing
likely
we take
in
have
the edges of the wake. Further,
to
the
same
D.2.32)
u-y
value
as vj in D.2.11), because the transport
mechanism
is probably similar.
We should keep in mind that D.2.32) cannot be appliedto an off-axis
peak of
we
because
cannot
use
for
a
constant
even
to
(or
finite)
symmetry
argue
\\q2,
This

form

simple

constant,

of Vj.
With D.2.31)

value

in

terms

D.2.15)

of
and

f.

and

Thus

D.2.17,

D.2.32),

we can
4.2.18),

-?),

the transport
write

all

terms

term

in

except

D.2.30)

in

can be
terms

of

expressed
f. Using

we obtain

D.2.33)

122

Boundary-free

shear

flows

D.2.34)

^^f2,

<7?T T/U\\

- 0.3

f?C -

D.2.35)

f).

within this approximation, the advectionexactly

the
cancels
The exact equality
leaving the dissipation to cancelthe production.
seems hardly
accidental.
We leave it to the reader to demonstrate
if the
that,
for
coefficients
momentum
and
are
the
necessame (but not
exchange
energy
and if \342\200\224uV/q2
is constant,
the advection and the transport
necessarily constant)
The
on the variation of \320\224\321\202.
always cancel, except for a term
depending
as the edge of
difference
between advection and transport
becomes
smaller
the wake is approached.Also, production
must be relatively small near the
edge of the wake because it is quadratic in f.
see

We

that,

transport,

The

region
energy
other

overall picture suggested by D.2.33-4.2.35)

is this: in the outer
of the wake (beyond ?2 = 3) turbulent
kinetic
transport brings
from the center of the wake, where
it is removed
by advection. In
words,

undisturbed

fluid

the edge of the wake is propagating

and is blown back by the component

into

the

of the

surrounding

mean flow

un-

normal

wake boundary. Closer to the center,

becomes important,
production
is roughly
balanced by dissipation.
of ?2 = 3, advection deInboard
to the outer edges of the
kinetic
which is removed by transport
energy,
deposits
wake.The different
terms are sketched in Figure
4.5 with solid lines.
We
do not expect dissipation to decrease in the center
of the wake. On the
that
the
in the
turbuis
constant
we
contrary,
essentially
expect
dissipation
turbulent part
from one side of the
of the flow because of the thorough
mixing
a shape
wake
to the other. Hence, the curve representing D should
have
of the
similar to that
the
4.3);
intermittency
\321\203
(Figure
dissipation should
=
its
on
the
axis
to
from
value
decrease quite slowly
(| 0) the value D = \342\200\224P
near the production peak at % = 1. This is also sketched
by D.2.34)
predicted
in Figure
4.5 with a dashed line.
of course, is correct near the
The expressionD.2.34)for the production,
=
is bringing in
of the wake because P= 0 at ?
0. If advection,
center
which
to rise as the axis is approached,
continues
and if dissipaturbulent
energy,
falls off sharply,
removes
dissipation,which
energy, does the same, while
production
must
decrease
near
the
axis.
The
the removal of energy
turbulent
by
transport
=
because
the
of
at
1
is
than
decrease is somewhat delayed
A
slope
?
larger
that of D, so that
must increase for a while. As A and D level off,
transport
effect.
In Figure 4.5 a dashed curve representsthis
however, T must decrease.
to the
but

it

42 Turbulent wakes

123

\321\207

0.6

\\

\\

\\
0.4

0.2

\320\243

-0.2

\320\220

-0.4

-0.6
The turbulent

4.5.

Figure

the

D.2.33\342\200\2244.2.35);

In

central

the

of which

part of the

turbulent

(advection) deposits

energy budget of
lines are extrapolations

dashed

is transported

The solid lines

in the text.

a wake.

wake, therefore,the

energy, some of which

toward the outer part

are

based

on

described

(adveclocally and some

mean-flow

transport

is dissipated

of the

wake.

Figure

4.5

Most

of the

energy
of the
transported to the outer part of the wake comes from just inboard
production peak. As an aside, we note that near the center line, gradientare very poor: there is almost no energy
transport (mixing-length)
concepts
and
little
there
is has the wrong
what
The energy
gradient,
sign.
3(|qr2)/6y,
flux is locally uphill.
The

predicted

agreement
values of
factor

more

viscosity.
that

energy budget presented in

the available experimental

advection and transport

of about 2. As we saw

decreases

with

has

rapidly than
Hence, the gradient
been

used

in

these

near

the edge

data.

is

However,

in

good
the

qualitative
predicted

of the wake aretoo small

by

the measured velocity profile in wakes

the
on basis of a constant
f calculated
eddy
of the actual / is larger
than
the gradient of the
If the measured velocity
D.2.15).
predictions
before,

124

flows

shear

Boundary-free

is used to calculate the advection

profile

matches the experimental data. As

independent of

close

in

brings

D.2.33-4.2.35)

be

that the

fact

The

of the

agreement

should

to (fK/2/.

be proportional

to (fJ.

proportional

as (f'T1/2
near
the
the eddiesresponsible

for

effect,

A,

in-

measured falso
the predictions

effects of intermittency.

as production near the edge

would
expect that \320\236
decreases
as
which
is
dissipation
P,

D ~\320\260\321\212/{,
we would

Actually,

the

The explanation must be that

outer edge. This seemsrealistic;
contorting

are of larger

fluid

irrotational

If

use of the

pace with

as fast

decreases

surprising.

the

In

and

substantially

T keeps

data.

for the

increases

seen,

that

the

with

modified

dissipation

is a little

wake

for f, so

is used

curve

what

have

we

it

term,

the interface

the length scale increases

as we have noted before,

between the wake and the

scale.

4.3

The wake
In

a self-propelled

of

body
the behavior of the length
were forced to make use of

to find

order

wakes,
self-preserving

we

and
the

velocity
momentum

scales

in

self-preserv-

integral.

In a very

of a self-propelled
body, the momentum inits propulsor (propellor,jet engine)
a self-propelled
momentum
to cancel the
body traveling at constant speed adds just enough
momentum
loss due to its drag, so that the wake containsno net momentum
We assume that
of two
deficit.
the
body does not operate near an interface
4.6
illustrates
this situation.
media, so that no wave drag is involved. Figure
and the value of n in t~xn,
The integral
vanishes
D.2.8)
identically
remains
undetermined.
Us~xn~i
is not possible
to resolve this problem
It
without
making the assumption
is
constant
from
of the analysis.
In view of the more
the
that
beginning
uT
of
a
with
the
extrema of U
structure
wake,
secondary
complex
self-propelled
on either side of the center line, this assumption
is even more questionable
it was in the wake with
nonzero
momentum.
For example, at the center
than
=
line
we have \342\200\224
uv = 0 and \320\252\320\250\320\252\321\203
ratio
is constant
because of
0, so that their

important

integral

practical case, that

vanishes.

symmetry.

Through

the

At

applicable,so

there

All results
\320\236.
\320\252\320\270/\320\252\321\203

significance only.
of similarity

in

however, symmetry arguments are not

\342\200\224\320\250
is zero
reason to expect that
where
a qualitative
on
a
of
thus
have
based
constant value
vr
the existence
particularly
important to recognize that
with finite momentum defect does not
on the
depend

secondary

that

It

wakes

is

extrema,

is no

4.3 The

125

body

self-propelledbody. The station

The wake of a

4.6.

Figure
the

of a self-propelled

wake

shown

downstream of

is far

body.

assumption.

eddy-viscosity
be obtained

only

independent

that

assuming

by

self-propelled

vT

wake, however,

of/,

us consider a plane self-propelled wake. If

we may write the momentum
equation D.1.19) as

\342\200\224

[UoiU-Uo)]

\342\200\224

dx

f\"

If

has

been

subtracted

integrate

by

y\" U0{U-U0)dy

J\342\200\224

If we

j\"

UQ

by /\" and

D.3.1.)

= 2, the
put n

y2 Uo [U we

further

Uo)

vTn{n-'\\)

right-hand

dy

uT

is

D.3.1)

=vTzfj(U-

Here, the constant

multiply

can

similarity

is independent of /.

Let

wakes

Plane

the

In

= const.

assume that the

side

parts

from U for convenience.

twice, we obtain
~ 2

\320\223\321\203\"

J \342\200\224

of D.3.2)

(U

- Uo)dy.

vanishes, so that

we

If

we

D.3.2)

obtain

D.3.3)

velocity-defect profile is self-preserving,there

results
= const.

D.3.4)

126

Because

= Ax'314,

\320\222
are

faster

substantially

+ f\"

aCf+$f)

= \\.

0 or n

that

requires

?~x\",

Hence,

D.3.5)

in the

wake with finite

and D.2.12)

D.3.5)

The decay

coefficients.

undetermined

than

substitute

we

motion

+ n \342\200\224
\320\227\320\273
1 =

obtain

/= Bx m,

and

where

If

of the equations of

self-preservation

~
Us xn~l D.2.6), we
Us

flows

shear

Boundary-free

into

of

U%

is

thus

momentum.

D.2.5),

we obtain

D.3.6)

0,

where a = U0BRj/4A. The

to D.3.6)

solution

is

D.3.7)

Here, /has
is

D.3.7)

by
similar

qualitatively

the

information
on

defined

been

value of

R7

in

selecting a= 1, as before. The velocity

profile
to the one sketched in Figure
4.6. No informawakes

self-propelled

is available,

although

it is

not

different
from the value of RT in ordinary
wakes.
likely to be much
From an experimental point of view, it is of interest to ask what
would
the
if
and
the
finite-momentum
wakes
were
both
simulhappen
self-propelled

Imagine

present.

simultaneously

that

inaccuracy has been

(zero momentum
deficit).

a slight

of self-propulsion

condition

the
satisfying

made

in satisfy-

The wake

then

consists of

D.3.8)
These

any

the

are

wake

D.2.12)

in

first two

in,

This rather

terms of a

general

expansion

that could

profile (a Gram-Charlier expansion).Substitution

the equation
of motion D.2.5) gives, by equating
a*x-in,

6<x/\023'2.

of

be used for
and

D.3.8)

like powers

of

%,

D.3.9)

result claims that the presence of a nonzero

momentum
surprising
the
of
dominates
the
scale
and
forces
integral
growth
length
quite rapid decay
of the self-propelled component of the wake.
Consider
an attempt to produce
a self-propelled
in the laboratory. If we achieve self-propulsion
wake
to the
extent Thatb/a = 102atonebody diameter
mismatch then is
(the momentum
102
downstream before the self-propelled
1%), it takes only
body diameters
is overshadowed
by the momentum-deficit component.This may
component

4.4 Turbulent jets

127

explain

data

no

why

on self-preserving,

self-propelled wakes are available.

of the self-propelled

number

Reynolds

mixing layers

and

wake varies as x'1,

so that

this

component of

the

\"mixed\"

plane,

ceases to

quickly

component

The

be turbulent

as

downstream.

it progresses

Axisymmetric wakes
an

of the

case

the

In

similar to

analysis

axisymmetric wake of a self-pro-

just
presented
gives Us<xx~4/S,
case
of
a
wake
with self-pro\"mixed\"
{a.xl/s,
R(ax~3/S.
the development of the length
finite-momentum
self-propelled and
components,
scale is again forced by the momentum
1/3. The momendefect, so that l&x
x~2/3
momentum-defect
as
the
then
and
component
decays
self-propelled
the Reynolds
number of the self-propelled
decays as x~Vi. Again,
component
self-propelled

body,

so that

In the

componentvaries
The fact
aircraft
maneuvering

behind

~l.

as x

wake decays so much

faster
than the wake
has some interesting
A maneuverimplications.
or submarine,
which is accelerating or decelerating
at times,
leaves
momentum-defect
it is changing
jet or wake when
speed and a
more
wake when it is not. The latter decays much
rapidly.
the

that

self-propelled

defect

momentum

finite

with

it

self-propelled

that

After some time,

survive.

the

only

of wake

patches

of

changes

representing

speed

4.4
Turbulent
In

and

jets

and

jets

related

mixing layers
=

by

as
\320\250/\320\246
\302\253\320\263/U\\

be constant

in

being
scale,

we

is that

that

expect

?/L
in

indicate

Because
velocity.

Let

that f/L =

\320\270
is proportional

us use

U%,

so that

constantly

constant.
layers

mixing

approximations obtained in

is clear

that\302\253/t/s

4.1

Section

retain

relative magnitudes of
the flow cannot
changing,

if the

a consequence
o\\tt/U%
Since L is a downstream length

and jets/<*x. If t/L is constant,

do not improve as x increases.

6 x 10~2,as
to

to

needs

must

(9(tfL),
\320\2732/\320\2462

be

must

develops;
=

self-preserving.Because

constant

Experiments

jet

flow are

mean

the

It

are

which

U%l

self-preservation. The turbulence

importance as the

the turbulence and

possibly be

a and

scales,

velocity

in D.1.20).

given

to achieve

order

same relative

the

are two

layers there

mixing

U%,

we can

either

was

one

remarked

can be

the
Ex-

earlier.

used as a

scaling

velo-

write

D.4.1)

Boundary-free shear flows

128

{ dx

f^??t#W
dx

,4.4.2,

D.4.3)
S

primes denote differentiation

as before,

Here,

center line.
If we

di .-\342\200\224
t dUs
, ft
- \342\200\224
\342\200\2241f
%ff

{ dUs
~f
Us dx

dx

can be obtainedonly

Self-preservation

A,

A and

- 0

at the

we

have

instead,
\320\255\321\202\320\260\321\205^!-'

we obtain

dx

f'\\

Jo

,
=
%f'd%

D.4.5)

g.

require
1\320\257\320\271\342\200\236

D.4.6)

L ~

x and
can be satisfied by
that

Mixing layers

TP

With the

in

in

the velocity
is constant,
Us

including

n =

difference Us is imposed
D.4.5) reduces to
D.4.7)

Let us
wakes.

becomes

this

D.2.12),

D.4.8)
is taken to

RT

D.4.8)

D.4.8)

0.

= f\".

course,

solution of
irrelevant.

If

eddy-viscosity assumption

T dx Jo fd%
\320\257-r-f'f1

Here, of

layer,

law Us<xxn,

d^3

Jo

dx

power

any

mixing

of these is not a surprise, because we

constant. The secondcondition

t/L must be

that

by the external flow.

4.1)

(Figure

In

The first

constants.

\320\222
are

knew

in D.4.6)

used

%;

Us dx

already

constants

if we

to

e dUs
- = B,

d{

\342\200\224
=

where

respect

df
\321\214
, fJ
+ \342\200\224

fdS
\\
\342\200\242>
\320\276

dx

Us

that

into D.1.21),

-4.4.3)

D.4.1

with

mind

in

bear

must

We

substitute

\342\200\224

dx

D.4.4)

in

form.

closed

define (

by

taking

are absorbed

The profile

be constant. It

by<f.

is

not

possible

to obtain a

is
However, for the scale relations this
=
1, so that all adjustable con/?T di/dx
This
to the normalization
corresponds

predicted by

D.4.8)

is in fair

agreement

with

4.4 Turbulent

129

data

experimental
/?T

At

17.3,

<f

the edges

of the

The

rapidly

(/?^\302\253x).

or

compared

= 5.7 x

Because

with the

becomes

Plane

jets

thickness)

viscous length

initial

stage

in

D.4.9)

are small

there

number U//p
is no
there

self-preserving

In its

\320\256'2\321\205.

layer

mixing

Reynolds

the momentum

layer

layers

mixing

if

= x/17.3

mittency.

height

jets and

of mixing
initial

discrepancies due to
layers

length

apparently

(such

as the

inter-

increases

jet orifice

layer, length scales must

indicate that the mixing
Experiments

the

v/U%.

when U^/v

mixing

be

> 4 x 10s.

of development,

a plane

jet consistsof

two

plane

4.7). Some
layers, separated by a core of irrotational flow
(Figure
distance after the two mixing
have merged, the jet becomesa fully
layers
turbulent flow. The center-linevelocity
developed,
self-preserving
Us then

mixing

Figure 4.7. A
two mixing

the

plane
layers

turbulent jet. The

the orifice have

near

jet

becomes
merged.

self-preserving

some distance after

Boundary-free shear flows

130

as x\"

varies

/?.

power

the

integral is needed to determine

is self-preserving, the momentum

momentum

and
a
(\320\277\320\244\320\236),

If

profile

velocity

the
integral

becomes

D.1.27)

dy = U\\^\"
where

is the

Uj

D.4.10)

fiQdt'Uld.

initial

conclude that 2n+1=0or/?

jet constant. Thus we obtain, for

orifice height
4.7).
(Figure
momentum flux in

and d is the

velocity

jet

^in

values

enough

large

Ax, as

(-

D.4.11)

use of

the

by

given

so that the

asx1/7',
With

the

of x/d,

U%/U^C(x/dyxn,
while

We

to make the

\342\200\224order

The Reynolds number Rt= U/A>

and smaller asx
become
smaller

D.4.6).

viscous terms

the eddy-viscosity assumption,

D.4.5)

increases

increases.

becomes

|4\320\2201\320\260

If we

define

corresponds

to/

by

again

dt/dx

taking

2//?T (as in

at?= 1), we can solve

=e~m

the

other

cases, this

to obtain

D.4.12)

f = sech2(?2/2I/2.
This

the

fits

corres-

D.4.13)

experimental

data

very

except

well,

near the

edges of the

jet,

if

we take

t= 0.078x,
Compared
value of
jet and

Rjj25Jj_

the wake, the

with

/?-|-

in

Us/Uj =

the

the wake,

mixing

value

of

/?T

layer D.4.9) is

becausethe

D.4.14)

2J(d/x)m.

layer

mixing

in jets is

large.

surprisingly

The

intermediate betweenthose of the

is jet I ike on one side and wakelike

on the other.
Not

much

experimental

mean-velocity profilesappear
heights

information
to

is available on plane jets. Measured

beyond about five orifice

be self-preserving

(x/d>5).

The ajosyjTimetncjet can be approached

/?T
The

Reynolds

measurementshave

samewav.

U/A> is constant in axisymmetric

made beyond 40 orifice diameters.
The

number
been

in the

We obtain

= 32.

D.4.15)
jets.

No measure-

mean-velocity

pro-

4.4 Turbulent

131

file

to be

appears

The

energy

the

turbulent

and

layers

in a plane
budget

energy

jet
in

If

balances dissipation.This

and^/Z.

the

x/d

is too

to the

compared

jet, we
crude;

leading terms.

8, while the turbulence

4.1 is appliedto

of Section

analysis

plane

if

The full

to

that

find

into account, we have to include

transport

in

and mixing

self-preserving beyond about

evolving at 40 diameters.

budget

production
tion

still

are

quantities

jets

we

want

terms

that

equation

lowest

order

to take

advec-

are

of order

reads

\320\252\321\203

D.4.16)

-i-l(W+p/p)v]-e.

by

We designate the terms by A x, A2, Pi, P2, \320\242,

and D. With the same approxiapproximations as made
in Section 4.2, we can obtain
for Alr A2, Pi,
expressions
is a production
that
a
which
and
T. The
problem \\sP2,
only term
presents
we
term caused by normal-stress
differences.
On grounds of self-preservation

expectthat

K, defined

by

D.4.17)

^-V^KV+7),

is a function

| = ///only.

in the \320\270
The
differs from that
energy
component
because the major production term Pi feeds energy into
u2, so that the energy must leak into v2 by inertial interaction. The value of
the difference
rate
to the leakage rate; this
depends on the ratio of the supply
be
constant
because
rates are determined
ratio
be
to
the
two
may
expected
in

the

of

v component

is not a function
dynamics. Hence, we assume that \320\232
than unity. If we use D.2.31), D.4.17), and the
u2 + v2 = \\q2, we can also express
in terms
of f.
P2
approximate relation
Even
the edge of the jet (? > 3), we still have y/x \302\2531. Therefore,
near
the assumption
of a slow evolution, and D.1.16) remains
we do not violate
near the edge of the
valid.
Approximate
expressions for the terms in D.4.16)
if
we
use
the
mean
velocity profile D.4.13),
jet (?> 1)are,
by

the

same

of position.

turbulence

is less
Clearly,\320\232

RjtPi/Ul =2f2,

D.4.19)

RTSP2/Ul=0.28Kf2,

R T?A

i/Ul

D.4.18)

= -0.58?f2,

D.4.20)

132

shear

Boundary-free

flows

= ~0.41f,

RytA2/Ul

D.4.21)

RTn/U I =0.41f.
The

D again

dissipation

that

is clear

the jet
to f. As

can be found

and A t all
\320\240\\,\320\240\320\263,
become

they

D.4.22)

negligible

are

by

From

difference.

to f2,

proportional

long before A2

and

so that

T, which

D.4.18\342\200\2244.4.22)

it

near
the edge of
are proportional

we find that A 2 and \320\223

have
the same numerical coefficient;
that this is valid for any f if uv/q2
is constant
and if the
term can be represented by a gradient-transport
like
transport
expression
carried
from the center of the jet is
D.2.32). Thus, the energy
by transport
removed by the second advectionterm,
A2 \302\246
what is happening is this: near the outer edge of the jet, only
Physically,
one component of the mean velocity,
a constant
V, is nonzero; it approaches
value in the plane jet, thus entraining
the fluid
the
surrounding
jet. Because
is
of
the
the
turbulent
must
be transboundary
average
jet stationary,
energy
it

can

transported

in wakes,

be shown

the

into

\"entrainment

of the

average position

wind\"

at

just

that speed

interface stationary. This result

which

is essentially

keeps

of the assumptions embodiedin D.4.18\342\200\2244.4.22). Because/42

no dominant
role here,
dissipation
plays no role. Note that/It plays
to

the

situation

in

the

aver-

independent
and \320\223
balance,
contrary

wakes.

the center line of the jet, the energy

becomes
more
budget
Calculated
distributions
of
the
terms
in
based
on
the
D.4.16),
complicated.
that
were
used
for
in
are
4.8.
same approximations
wakes,
presented Figure
The mean velocity profile D.4.13) was used; the second production term
in
it is never larger
than
\342\200\2240.003
because
if \320\232
(Pi) has not been plotted
far
of
is
The
shows
that
and
T
balance
in
the
the
0.4.
D.4.17)
plot
A2
edge
earlier. Somewhat
closer to the center line, the sum of Ay
jet, as we discussed
P and D balance each other, as in
and
balances T while
A2 approximately
wakes.
Close to the center line, A2 becomes
and Ay reverses
sign.
negligible
=
=
must
decrease
to zero at ? 0 becausef' 0 there, and D levelsout
Also, P\\
near the center line. The energy budget in the center region
thus
may be
to that in the wake (Figure
4.5).
expected to be similar
there are almost no measurements with which this analysis
Unfortunately,
so that
can be compared.Near the edge of a jet, the mean velocity is small,
of the mean velocity, reachesvery
the turbulence level, measured as a fraction
a frequent
occurrence. The
becomes
and reversal of the flow
values,
high
to
instruments
used
measure
turbulence
anemometers)
(hot-wire
customarily
Closer

to

133

4.5Comparative

0.2

of wakes,

structure

jets, and

mixing

layers

\\

\\
\\

0.1

\\

V'

7\"

\\

-A.

\320\243^

A,

-0.1

/d

-0.2
3

Calculated

4.8.

Figure

cannot tolerate

data and
so that

predicted
we

assumptions,

this

energy budget in

situation.

values

the

plane jet.

However,

is

fairly

good

the agreement

between experimental

in the

of a plane wake,
energy budget
which
is based on the same set of

expect that Figure

4.8,
least
at
presents a qualitatively

may

correct

picture.

4.5

Comparative structure of wakes,jets,and mixing layers

the
of the power laws
In Table 4.1 are collected the exponents
describing
=
variation of Us, C, and R( U//i> in the various flows we have
downstream
of the temperature
those
examined. Also listed are the exponents, including
values
of
The
for
(Section
4.6).
scale,
buoyant
plumes
Rr of the various
flows are

also listed.

variation
in the values of
definition /?T = U//Pj uses the velocity
characteristic of the turbulence. For jets
The

large

that the

use of a suitably

Rj.

us define

Let

defined

a velocity

Rj

should
\320\270

some

requires

scale
and

substantially

scale u\302\273
characteristic

explanation.

Us rather than
mixing layers,
for

a velocity
~f/L,
\302\2532/\320\2462

The
scale
so

the value of
the turbulence by
reduce

134

shear

Boundary-free

4.1. Powers of x

Table

ows

the

describing

variation of Us, I, R{, and the temdownstream

of Rr and ut(Jvj;
listed are the values
these

shear flows. Also

are independent of position.

scale

temperature

fI

parameters

7\"

of free

Powersof x

wake

Plane

Self-propelled

plane

Axisymmetric

wake

wake

Self-propelled
wake

axisymmetric

Us

*t

-1/2

1/2

jet

plume

Plane

12.5

2.75

1/4

-1/2

-2/3

1/3

-1/3

\342\200\224

14.1

?
2.92

-4/5

1/5

-3/5
1

17.3 4.00

\342\200\224

25.7

4.18

32

4.78

-1

-5/3

14

2.9

-1/2

1/2
0
1

2/3

-1/3

plume

Axisymmetric

\342\200\224

-3/4

-1
0

jet

Axisymmetric

u1
D.5.1)

=max(-uv)=-^max{f').

u\\

of f is, of course,
different
definition of /varies somewhat

The maximum value

discussed.

be

the

ujjvy

7\"

Mixing layer
Plane

for

the

Also,

to use a

preferable

of

maximum

inverse of the

max(^
which

such that

a convenient
dU/\320\264\321\203;

number

scale

length

maximum slopefor

^-s max(f')

plane

in each
case

from

is the

U%/?*

is em ,

and axisymmetric

case we

It would
same fraction of

because that

is the

wakes. Thus,

D.5.2)

e-v*,

yields

D.5.3)

f/S.*eU2wax{f').

A more
compare

dis-

have

to case.

all

meaningful

of the

definedas

turbulent

boundary-free

Reynolds

number,

shear flows on

an

which allows
equal

footing,

us

to

com-

can now

be

4.6Thermal

135

The

value of

max(f) can be computed

The values

of

hand, jets and

in

uJ*lv-^

mixing

consistenttendency

into

substituted

clearly separate
layers on the other

not

are probably

u*t*lv-y

mean-velocity
profile of each
the values of U*&/vj
D.5.4),

the

from

obtained.

4.1 are

in Table

variations

are

numbers

these

If

flow.
given

plumes

for

two

into

hand.

flows to have

axisymmetric

each

the varia-

group

seems to

there

although

significant,

one

wakes on the

groups,

Within

than

values

higher

be a
plane

flows.

The difference between

The only

in

quantity

way to the

uniform

of

two groups
which is open

the

u*f*/vj

slope of the

explanation.

requires

related in
we do not know
it is

is L:

profile,

mean-velocity

scale
related to the length
scales of eddies which

flows

to question

but

turbulent eddies. Supposethat the

cross-stream
contribute
to the momentum transport
in
and
are
smaller
than
are
in
wakes.
We
jets
they
mixing layers
expect
that
the
where /t is a turbulence length
scale.
The
eddy viscosity Vj ~udv
to
In
then
be effectively
order
to
value of u+?*lvj would
equal
explain
?*ltx.
the observed difference,the value of t,lt\\ in jets and mixing layers needs to
be about 1.5 times the value in wakes. How can we explain this?
The one important
in which jets and mixing
way
layers differ from wakes
is that the cross-stream
advection
term VbU/\320\254\321\203
is of the same order as
how

it is

U \320\2531/\320\252\321\205
in jets and mixing layers,
the

flow

transverse

the

rate

a strain

has

eddiesin

the

(Townsend,1956)indicates
1.5. This is in agreement
axisymmetric

jets. The

narrower
are responsible for
is much

with

that

contorting

in

wakes.

these

why

In fact, a

eddies

tend

crude calculation

compression factor is about

with observations on the intermittency
in
\321\203
which \321\203
over
decreases
from one to zero in jets
in wakes, implying that the large
which
eddies,
the interface,
are indeed relatively
small.
the

that

region

than

those

than

flow. The transverse

which
tends to compress
it,

downstream

the

This may explain

direction.
scales

length

layers,
by

associated
(BV/\320\264\321\203)

cross-stream

to have smaller

is negligible compared to
as much momentum
therefore,

former

the

while

In jets and mixing

flow as

in wakes.

latter

is carried by

of the

expected

4.6

Thermal
In

plumes

a medium

surroundings
produces

that expands on
an

upward

difference. The most

familiar

heating,

jet of

a body

heated fluid

example

that is hotter
which

than

is driven

is the plume from a

its surround-

by the density

cigarette

in

a quiet

Boundary-free shear flows

136

of high temperature
room.
thermals rising over a surfacefeature
Atmospheric
if liquid
and plumes from smokestacks
are other common examples. Also,
of
a certain density is poured into a liquid of lower density, it forms an upsideThese flows can be analyzed in the same way as
down density-driven
plume.
wakes and jets by employing the concept of self-preservation
(Zel'dovitch,
In the atmospheric exampleswe will study,
we have to assume that
1937).
is neutrally stable. The stability
the role of a streamthe
environment
plays
no
wise pressure gradient;
solutions can be expected if the
self-preserving

is an arbitrary

stability

We restrict the

sinesq approximation to the

Section
3.4. We recall that
term

replaced

-gp'/p\\s

thermal

to

are created

differences

density

of height.

function

analysis

by

plumes

by gd/@0, where 0O is
the difference between

atmosphere

difference i? is decomposed

temperaturefluctuations

\320\262
{\320\262
=0).

increases

the

upward,

If d =

Mach number of these plumes

continuity equation retains its customary
The

the negative
difference
temperature
toward

mean

the

the actual temperature

a mean

into

bU: - \320\255
+
UiJ:=

(/,\302\246-!
1

dxj

>

bXj

is

to be

presumed
form.

x3 direction,the

If

the

equations

low,

acceleration
of mean

1 \320\252\320\240
\320\252\320\263\320\270.
g '
\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224
+\320\243.
&S:,,
p \320\255\321\205,
\302\251\320\276

oxj

axj

'

0,

gravity

motion

and

D.6.1)

D.6.3)

oXjOXj

Let us consider two-dimensional

plumes
plumes
of heat (Figure
We take the z axisto be vertically
4.9).
to the \321\203
source is assumed to be parallel
so that
axis,

a line source
line

the

that

of

D.6.2)

Two-dimensional

The

so

\320\255\321\205\321\203\320\255\321\205\321\203

\342\200\224
\320\2642\320\264
\320\255# \320\255
=
\342\200\224\342\200\224
\342\200\242
+ \342\200\224
U.\342\200\224
\320\264\320\260,
\321\203

'

If d

stable.

are

= 0,

0O.

temper-

upward, the atmo-

it decreases

if

and

value i? and

is unstable.

atmosphere

points

which was introduced in

the buoyancy
the adiabatic
of
temperature

0, the atmosphere is neutrally

is stable;

atmosphere

Bous-

the

use

approximation,

Boussinesq

The

temperature

in which

atmosphere,

of motion,

equations
in the

& is

and

the

in

temperature differences. We

\320\255/\320\255\321\203=0.

driven
upward.

D.6.4)

by

4.6 Thermal plumes

137

the

that

assume

We

we develop

jets;

to

Referring

in the

plume

is

approximate equations

nearly
of

as

just

parallel,

in

on this

based

motion

ordinary

premise.

4.9, we have

Figure

U. /if.
\320\255/\320\255\321\205
11t,
bW/\320\252\321\205

11L,

\320\252/bz

flow

these estimates

Substituting

into

D.62),

D.6.5)

we obtain

for the

horizontal

velocity

component

D.6.6)

U~MJL.

We

the

take

further

turbulent

turbulent
fluctuations

temperature

velocity fluctuations
to be of order f,

The relations betweenthese scalesmust

be

determined

to
and

be

of order

to
\320\254

in the

a, the

be of order

T.

course of the

analysis.
in the
equation is exactly the same as D.1.7)expressed
coordinate system because the buoyancy
term
occurs only in the
for the z momentum.
the orders of magnitude
are the same
Hence,

x-momentum

The

proper
equation

as those
D.1.9)

given

in

D.1.8).

holds for plane

Thus,

pu2+P = P0.

Figure

4.9.

Plane thermal

with

the provisions expressed

in

D.1.10),

plumes:

D.6.7)

plume.

138

of D.6.7)

Substitution

flows

shear

Boundary-free

\320\253\320\220/bW

the

into

\320\255

\320\252\320\263

gives

\320\255

\320\255\321\205\320\252\320\263
\320\255\321\205

dP0

of D.6.1)

z component

fiW

\\

<4-6-8)

V++)
Far

is no

there

where

plume,

flow

or

turbulence,

reduces to

D.6.8)

0=

of the

the center

from

away

D.6.9,

-1^+^0.
oz
0O
p

the sum of the

Hence,

-JLZJi + I\342\200\224
1?=-^In

plane

pressureterm

the

and

( i?

\320\236
v

the

\320\236

to assumethat
difference
in

written

&0

/\320\270v

of

too,

we

but

constant, the

mean

in the

difference everywhere

t?0 = 0, which

means

The ordersof

magnitude

'

\320\252\321\205

would

do not

\\

of

if the

expect those

temperature

\\

\320\263.
In the momentum
equation
temperature equation D.6.11) is
is generated,
which makes self\\\320\220/\320\252#01\320\252\320\263
terms on the right-hand
have additional
side

but

a term
t>\342\200\224#0,

\320\236
v

\320\255\321\2052\320\252\320\2632
)'

is independent

t?\342\200\2241?0
appears,

terms

of D.6.11),

put

may

equation reads

\320\236

preservation impossible.We
#o is

D.6.8,

D.6.10,

\320\255\321\205\320\252\320\263
\320\255\321\205 \320\252\320\263

only

in

- t?0,-

the temperature

plumes,

Ov
We have

term

buoyancy

as

be written

can

to be dynamically

be written

If

important.

as a temperature differ-

equations, so that we lose no generality

a neutral atmosphere.
are
of the terms in D.6.8)

if

we

simply

4.6 Thermal

139

plumes

bz

buw

a2

U2

L\\

~h~x~' T'
a

d(w2-U2)

dz

J. ?L
\302\2510

\302\2510

L \302\2510\302\253

to have

In order

a/Us

any

T\\I)

vU=r<

\"IT2

D-6-12\302\273

at all, we must

terms

mean-flow

T'
again

that

assume

D.6.13)

\320\244
WL)U2.

The scaling

is the

thus

same as

in

the

jet, so

\"mechanical\"

we

that

have,

to

first order,
\342\200\224a
\342\200\224
\320\255
bW
bW
U\342\200\224+W\342\200\224
+ \342\200\224uw=\342\200\224
\320\264.
ax
\320\252\321\205 0\320\236

D.6.14)

ox

that

Note

the pressure

and i?o = 0.
not

its

know

the

Reynolds

flf770o

The

The

term has been removed

term

temperature

magnitude

yet.

If

we

has been
want

from

kept

thermal

in

D.6.11)
D.6.11),

effects to

with
although

be as important

as

stress, we need

<9{\302\2532/fl-

orders

D.6.10)
we do

of

D.6.11) become

magnitude

D.6.15)

of

the

various terms

in

the

temperature

equation

140

flows

shear

Boundary-free

\320\270\321\21211\320\270\320\265-\320\233^\321\202-\320\270\320\2331'
\320\270 e
\320\253 t
\\

sl

[l

t u\\

'

\342\200\224
t/\320\263

D.6.16)

T 1

tu

\"I

\\

2\320\242

= \320\223\321\202_\321\202;_1_
\321\202_
/A2]

JU~

fcr:
In

to

order

require

[if

ulW(

have a term

which

is

ta_

J 7\"
of the

same order

as the

third,

we must

that

D.6.17)

lTUs=@(Lt\302\253).

If

molecular

the

order as the

terms

diffusion

neglected turbulent

in

D.6.12)

and
terms,

transport

are to

D.6.16)

be of

the

we need

\342\200\224

Rf^eWL),

With

the aid

D.6.18)

\342\200\224Rf^dUffL).

of D.6.13) and

D.6.17),

these

conditions

reduce to

.
In

y/v=

gases,

course,
are even
With

if

Re

1, so
is larger

smaller than
these

D.6.19)

the
D.6.19) are equally
provisions
than (L$)m , the molecular terms in
the neglected
transport terms.

provisions,

that

the temperature

\342\200\224
\321\212\320\252 \321\212\320\252
\321\215

same

equation reduces to

stringent.
D.6.12,

Of
4.6.16)

4.6 Thermal

141

plumes

The combination of D.6.13)and

= <!)(flL)m.

tlT=<B(^IUs)

Self-preservationIn
in the

relative

role

u,w

should

at

z.

all

D.6.21)
to have

order

because the temperature

constant,

We conclude

the

only

possible

Because

t/T and

\320\262
should

fluctuations

developed

for L, thermal
are

u/U%

so

these

temperature and velocity. The

play

rela-

velocity fluctuations
mean-velocity field U,W
are consistent
requirements
is a constant. Becausez is the

we can
of

assumption

(f^z),

linearly

grow

plumes

constant,

the same

in the

if t/L

far

to be

need

u/U%

z, and the

all

same relative
importance
from D.6.21) that

approximations

choice

self-preservation, f/Tand

field i? at

mean-temperature

have the

with

gives

D.6.17)

use T

and

U%

self-preservation

just

like

jets.

as scales

of

then can

be

expressedas

=
\320\252

t=t(z), Us = Us(z), T
and D.6.20), there
D.6.14)

where

T(z),

and

=x/l

is substituted

If D.6.22)

results

D-6.23)

& 75^

Jo

dz

dz

into

Jo

dz

dz
\321\202

D.6.24)

Here the primes denote differentiation

self-preservation, the coefficientsin

77
U%

dz

=Cl1

~7=c*dz

with

respect

D.6.23,4.6.24)

\321\202^\320\223=\320\241\320\263<
<=T77i=c4\302\251o
ill

T dz

to
must

%.

If we

are to obtain

be constant:

D.6.25)

Boundary-free shear flows

142

We

relations

third

and

Us<xn\"

Us

obviously

The

the

only

D.6.25)

the

fourth

the

plume;

by

If

that

D.6.26)

added per

heat-flux

Let

integral

D.6.20) and

rewrite

to

the

the help

it, with

of

D.6.27)

+^~(\320\262\320\264)

dx

bz

This may be

us take

integral related

is constant.

= 0.

$W)

^(\302\273U)+^
\320\264\321\205

time

as

equation,

continuity

unit

an

Instead,

increasing.

continually

of heat

with

integrated

respect

to x,

which

yields

dx = const = \342\200\224

and

z.

similar to a momentum
need a constraint
However,
integral.
is not conserved in a plume because the potential energy repreis being converted into kinetic
the buoyancy
so that the
energy,

momentum is
amount

that is, { = c2z. The first

state that Us and T must be powers of
in D.6.25) gives m + 1 = 2/7, so
relation

of

growth

T=Bz2n~'1.

momentum
represented

in

T<*zm,

= Azn,

We

linear

need

clearly

D.6.28)

as
where H is the total heat flux in the
may be identified
H/pcp,
is
i?
the
of
heat
because
amount
is the
plume,
per unit volume and Wdx
pcp
volume flux per unit depth. Substituting the first and last of D.6.22) into

constant

The

we obtain

D.6.28),

ITU.

If

= const,

?<xz,

results
=

dUs/dz
zero.With

t=c2z,

we find

D.6.30)

reasoning is applied to

Us*z-in,

Further

and

T=Bz~l.

the same

exactly

D.6.29)

\342\200\224.

with D.6.26)

Therefore,

Us

\320\223fFd?

plumes,

we obtain
D.6.31)

\320\223<\321\205\320\263\025/3.

to the equations
Let us return
of D.6.30), several terms

by virtue
a little

axisymmetric

manipulation,

for the plane plume. Because

in D.6.23)
and D.6.24) are

the equation of motion

reducesto

4.6Thermal

143

D.6.32)

\342\200\242
-,
\302\273\320\273
.....

dz-

plumes

The simplified temperature equation

dt

f\\ Jo

dz

The

presence
g is not

a2g:

D.6.33)

is due
of dlldz ~\302\253\320\263IU\\
of order one, but of order

D.6.32, 4.6.33)can
momentum and heat is represented
viscosity

Vj

The

to yield

once,

fd% = h.

The set

constant.

can be integrated

turbulent

one, because the

only

horizontal

g rather

turbulent

the

if

than

7T
may

be taken

to be equal to

depends

mainly

transport

temperature

of

transport

The eddy
expressions.
to be
be
assumed
may

mixing-length

by

eddy thermal diffusivity

Prandtl number \"tjlv-y

the

and

solved

be

=
of \342\200\224Uw
Uj

to the use
d(/dz.

the

on

fluctuations produced by the horizontal

temperature
gradient, so
that
is
the
as
same
mechanism
momentum
temperature
governed by
transport
df/dz = 1/Rj.
transport. As in \"mechanical\"
jets, /may be definedby putting
No experimental data on RT in plane plumes are available, but in axisymmetric plumes the value of /?T is about
14, with dt/dz = 1//?T if f is taken as
temperature

the value of

where

mechanical

jets

reduce the size of

gradient
them

eddies

in plumes.

We

effect quantitatively
the entrainment

If mixing-length

and D.6.33),

during

This is due

compresses

to balance

reader to
the

the life of a

to

eddies

horizontal

rising

eddy.

expressions for mv and

8w are

than

smaller

wind

entrainment

leave it to the

tends
wind

which

it is substantially

but

wakes,

4.1). The

near the plume,

horizontally.

in

(Table

1952). This

and Humphreys,

Yin,

(Rouse,

f=exp(\342\200\224|)

to that

is comparable

value
in

the

stable

vertically

convince

temperature

and expands

himself

that

this

caused

compression

substituted

that

does not

apparently

into

by

D.6.32)

there results
D.6.\320\2674)

U\\
D.6.35)

equations incorporate the assumptions dt/dz = 1/Rj and 7T = Vj. At

F = 1 and f = 1 by definition.
the center line of the plume,
If the shape off
= \342\200\224
= 0. At the center
be
f\"
1
at
line, the
may
approximated
by exp(\342\200\224
%
| ?2),

These

144

first term of

The

flows

shear

Boundary-free

D.6.34)

we obtain

so that

vanishes,

is about one
in D.6.29)
the approximate relation

integral

obtain

if

we

Therefore,

Fsf^exp

(\342\200\224\\%2)-

D.6.37)

?TU%^H!(>cp.
From

= z/Rr,

and ?

D.6.37),

D.6.36),

obtain

we

D.6.38)

D.6.39)

With

/?T

14, Tand Us can

be determined

flux is

heat

the

if

known.

Problems

Consider

4.1

a velocity

with

Uq. The

direction as the jet, with

of developmentof this jet.
A

4.2

electrically;the

input

power

10 m/sec. The

is 100 watts

per

rms temperature fluctuation

1\302\260C?
that the distribution
Assume

downstream

to

whose velocity is

airstream

steady

1 mm) is

(diameter

cylinder

long

very

jet that issues from an orifice of diameterd

ambient fluid is not at rest but moves in the same
a velocity 0.1 LV Describethe early and late stages

an axisymmetric

the

is the

wake

is similar

room temperature
4.3

A Boeing

and

= 1.25

pressure.p

747 taxies away

from

through mixing with

initial jet velocity may

ambient

the
be

taken

down-

in

reduced

mean velocity

the

kg/m3, cp =

is

initially

one that

differencein

defect. For air at

103joule/kg\302\260C.

gate. The pilot appliesa

the engines

air. For the

as the

electric-

distance
span. At what
the wake of the cylinder

the airport

Ib E x

is heated

cylinder

meter

of the mean temperature

of

distribution

104 newton)
per engine;
above the ground. The jet exhaust

of 10,000

4 m

to the

placed perpendicularto

are at a height

hot, but

purposes of this
produces

it

of

rapidly
problem,

the correct

thrust

about
cools
the

amount

145

of

Problems

at ambient

thrust
the

behind

not

will
10

m/sec?

encountering

engine

the

through

density

must a 2-m-tall

engine exhaust. How far

1-m-diam
stand

man

to

be reasonably sure

that

he

encounter gusts
(mean
velocities) greater than
plus fluctuating
As a rule of thumb,
assume
that
the probability
of
may
you
a velocity fluctuation greater than
three
times the rms value is

negligible.

4.4 Fresh cooling water

pumped out to sea in a

from

a nuclear

power

station

at

a river

mouth is

released at the bottom to avoid thermal

that
the
water
risesas an axisymmetric
densitypollution.
Assuming
cooling
be
releasedto
driven plume, at what
must
the
water
avoid
cooling
depth
the temperature
in the
first 30 m below the surface by more than 1\302\260C?
raising
The
volume
flow of cooling water is 10 m3/sec;
the
and density
temperature
at the
density

point

of

of fresh

release
water

large

pipe and

are

100\302\260Cand

is 1 kg/m3,

0.96kg/m3,

and the

density

of

At 5\302\260C,the
respectively.
sea water is 1.03 kg/m3.

5
FLOWS

SHEAR

WALL-BOUNDED

more complicated

flows are

shear layers
absent in
presence
imposes
wakes
and jets. The most obviousconstraint
is that the viscosity of the fluid,
no matter
how small it is, enforces
the no-slip condition: the velocity of the
at a solid surface must
fluid
be equal
to the velocity of the surface.
This
viscous constraint gives rise to a viscosity-dominated
characteristic
length,
which is of order v/w if w is characteristic of the level of turbulent
velocity
Boundary-layer

because the

fluctuations.
much larger

At

one

length

atmosphere

v/w, so that
This problem

and pipes.
scale are fully
turbulent

and

to

be

will

the

turbulent
in

for

discussed
of the

gradients

scales

length

flow

turbulent

presence of more than

boundary

pressure

5 is

thickness

boundary-layer

consequences

layers

that are

with two different

deal

thoroughly

understood,

boundary

in free

flows

constraints

we have
the

After

than

wall

numbers,

Reynolds

large

than

simultaneously.
in channels

a solid

of

layers in the atmoswill be studied.

5.1
The
It

of multiple

problem

to take

is instructive

so

We do

in

scales

The solidwall

at the

problem of

scales.

multiple

details
for Section 5.2.
way, leaving the analytical
so that we have a small viscous length
be smooth or rough,

may

or a characteristic

height
boundary-layer thickness 5.
and/or k, we expectthat the
v/w

look

preliminary

a qualitative

we expect that

these

small

\320\272
of

the

latter

length

elements

roughness

Because5 is

in

much

generally

to the

addition

than

larger

do not influence the entire flow.

scales control the

dynamics

of

v/w

Instead,
the

flow

of the surface. This

behavior in
the
limit as 8w/v-*\302\260\302\260
or 8/k-*\302\260\302\260,
which
is quite distinct from the overall
we must treat boundary
Therefore,
development of the boundary
layer.
in a piecemeal fashion by first dealing
with the surface layer and the
layers
and then reconcilrest of the flow (which is called the outer layer) separately
only

some

in

called

region,

these
reconciling
As

immediate

narrow

in

the

or surface layer,

region
wall layer

the

vicinity

has

an asymptotic

descriptions with appropriate asymptotic methods.

shear flows, a comprehensive analysis
of boundaryboundary-free

partial
in

layer flows can be performed

a streamwise length
scale,

sure that
analysis.

only

the

downstream evolution is slow. If L is

to require that \320\254/L
\302\2531 in order to make
and
w
relevant
in the
local scales 5, v/w,
are
dimensional
only

we need

if the

5.1 The

147

Inertial

of

boundary

scales

exists

a close

layers

and the

There

sublayer

turbulent

of multiple

problem

sufficiently large Reynolds

numbers,

the

spectral
overall

of viscosity, just
is. In the wall
layer

the

between

analogy

the

structure
At

turbulence.

of

dynamics

is independent

spatial
of

structure

boun-

turbulent

spectral dyboundary layer,

viscosity generatesa \"sink\" for momentum, much like the dissipative sink for
kinetic
In particenergy at the small-scale end of the turbulence
spectrum.
the
rules
the
link
between
the
particular,
asymptotic
governing
large-scale descripdescription
the small-scale description lead to the closely
and
related
concepts of an
in the turbulence energy
inertial
(see Chapter 8) and an
subrange
spectrum
in wall-bounded shear flows. In the literature,
inertial
the inertial
sublayer
is
called
the
because
its
sublayer
region
logarithmic
mean-velocity profile is
as we shall see later.
logarithmic,
A preview
of the concept of an inertial
is in order. If the lengthsublayer
is large
it
scale ratio \320\252\321\203\321\217/v
should
be
enough,
possibleto find a range of
from
the
such
distances \321\203
surface
that
yw/v\302\273 1 and y/8 \302\2531 simultanescale
In this region, the length
to control
v/w is presumably too small
simultaneously.
boundary

layers

dynamics

of

turbulence

the dynamics

of the flow, and the length scale

is
itself
occurs, the distance \321\203

If this

effective.

graphical

representative
in

velocities occur

w and

only
\321\203

as

of

large-scale

a turbulent

too large

is presumably
\320\261

the only relevant

length.

of the situation
is given in Figure 5.1. If w is
of the turbulence intensity
and
if no other characteristic velocthe problem, the mean-velocity gradient
can depend
on
bU/\320\254\321\203
representation

in the

following way:

E.1.1)

bUlby=cw/y.
This

integrates

U/w =

to be

to

+ d.
In \321\203
\321\201

E.1.2)

Under the assumptions already stated, E.1.1) is a dimensional

necessity, so
that
a logarithmic
we may expect to find
\302\2731
velocity profile wherever yw/v
and y/8 \302\2531 (see also Section 2.5).
In most
flows, the velocity scalew is not known a priori. It
boundary-layer
turns
out that E.1.2) is a crucial link in the determination
of the dependence
of w on the independent variables of the problem.
law

Velocity-defect
boundary

layer

(with

in wake flow, the scaling length

exclusion of the surface layer) is the

As

for

most

of the

thickness6. This

is

Wall-bounded shear flows

148

\302\246

\\

10--

/w/v

outer

= 100

layer

y/b

= 0.01

\\

\321\203/\321\214

10\"

inertial

\\

sublayer

\\
-

io-3

inner

layer

103

102

106

10s

10\"

Figure 5.1. An inertial sublayer can exist only if the Reynolds number is large enough.
For illustrative purposes, yw/v \302\2731 and y/S \302\2531 have been interpreted as yw/v > 100,
the limits do not need to be as strict as this.
applications,
practical
y/b < 0.01. For many

the appropriate
5.

comparable
to

If

the

length

the large eddies in the flow have sizes comparin a boundary layer is driven
by Reynolds
stresses,
is the reciprocal of a \"transverse\"
which
dU/\320\264\321\203,

because

turbulence

the mean-velocity gradient

time
scale for the mean flow, has

to be of

velocity for the Reynolds stress. This

near

the

surface,

because the

length

order

argument
scale

does

is different

w/8

if w

is the scaling

not apply

to the

there. The

differential

law

similarity

= (w/8)f(y/8)
thus

order

U-Uo

flow

E.1.3)

integrated from outside the boundary

law for U. The result
is
to obtain a similarity

has

to be

f(y/8)

dy

wF(ylb),

layer

toward

the

wall

in

E.1.4)

where Uo is the velocity outside the boundary

layer. We find later in this
that self-preservation can be obtained
if w/U0 \302\2531. However,
a
chapter
only
of
order
defect
w
can
never
meet
the
U)
condition
(Uo
velocity
no-slip
U = Uo at the surface if w/U0
\302\2531. This
indicates that a dynamically
Uo \342\200\224

5.2 Turbulent flows

149

in

pipes

distinct surface layer with very

condition.
satisfy the boundary

and channels

steep

gradients must exist in order to

in the surface
scales
velocity and length
the velocity gradients must
be of order
velocity

If the

layer are w and v/w, respectively,

are very
w2/v; hence, they
large compared to the velocity gradients
if wd/v is large enough.
outer layer (which are of order w/8)

the

in

5.2

The equations

of

parallel

walls

continuing

growth

a result,

are relatively simple,

of their thickness. If

problem

layer

Channel flow
two
infinitely

long

used. A
be

in

to

that

assumed

the

We

inertia

consider

pipe

terms

in

pipes

and

wide;

geometry

the

prohibits
long

downstream

are suppressed.

UjdUj/dXj

with

the conthe

enough,

distance x.

As

This simplifies

shear flows.
turbulent

flow of

at a

an

incompressible

2\320\233.
The

respect

fluid

between

plates

are assumed

to the

coordinate system

infin-

is given in Figure
5.2. The mean flow
is assumed
to
and
all
and
derivatives
of
mean
normal
steady,
quantities
x,y plane
with respect tox are also
are assumed to be zero. All derivatives
plane
to be zero, except for the pressure gradient
which drives the
dP/dx,
sketch

definition

= 2\320\233
\321\203

=0

UBh)

//////////////////////////\321\203/

Uty)

7777777777777777777777777777/

U@) =
Figure

in channels

and

or channel is

of

distance
they are at rest with

separated

plates

parallel

the

becomeindependent

wall-bounded

other

developmentin

flows

becausethe

analysis considerably and separates the surface layer\342\200\224outer

from the problems associatedwith
the downstream
develop-

theoretical

the

motion

profile has to
the nonlinear

velocity

and channels
for turbulent

in pipes

flows

Turbulent

5.2.

Definition

sketch for flow

between

plane parallel walls.

ISO

against the
that the
requires
zero at both walls.
flow

1 bP
p bx

1
0=--\342\200\224

mean flow

the

for

motion

equation
if it

\342\200\224d2U

dy2
P.

E.2.2,

of E.2.2) yields
E.2.3)

=P0/p,

a function

of x

only. Because

x to

be integrated

from

\321\2030

upward,

of x (by

is independent

v2

these gradients
avoid streamwise accelerationof the flow.

to dP0/dx.
is equal
assumption), \320\264\320\240/\320\264\321\205

Both of

E.2.1) can

Therefore,

to yield

E.2.4)

dy
p d-^-^+v^--u\\.

2.5, the stress at

in Section

velocity

is called
u\302\273

have to

satisfy

surface.The

the friction

the

no-slip

surface

stress

must

center of the channel

zero for reasons of symmetry.

be

h dP0
u\\=

the

velocity. The turbulent

[y =h),

defined as pu\\; the

has been

surface

so
condition,
is thus purely

At the

assump-

be indepen-

should

dx

As

is

are

dy

where Po is

0=-~

two walls. The continuity

mean velocity is zero everywhere

\320\252\320\240
d -,
- \342\200\224

Integration

of
independent

the

of the

\321\203
component

dy

by

P/p + v2

shear stressesat

equations of

relevant

The

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

the

that

Reynolds

fluctuations

stress is zero

at the

stress.

viscous

the shear

Hence,

velocity

if

stress (-puv

h,
\321\203

E.2.4)

\302\246

+ y.

dil/dy)

reads
E.2.5)

-^

problem the shear stressat the wall is determined by the pressure

of the channel only, which
is one reason why this flow
gradient and the width
is less complicated
than others.
to substitute
If we use E.2.5)
for dPQ/dx
in E.2.4), we obtain
In this

. (
u\\u

\342\200\224dU
\342\200\224
=

-uv

+v

y\\

1.

Contemplating possible nondimensional

is the proper scaling factor for
u\\

E.2.6)
forms
\342\200\224uv
because

of

E.2.6),

we expect

we conclude

that

the viscous stress

5.2Turbulent

151

to be

small

study

of wakes suggests

at

Reynolds

large

that

of velocity

scales

turbulent

in pipes and channels

flows

in the
numbers. Also, the experiencegained
be
scaled
with
because
the
should
bil/by
ujh,
are u, and h. Thus, we
and length
presumably

write

should

\302\2535.2.7,

^-1-f

If the Reynolds number ff, =ujh/v is large,

form suppresses the viscousstress.Because
the
cannot be valid
near
the wall
E.2.7)
viscous,

immediate

must be found;

E.2.6)

that

conclude

uv

cHU/uJ

~2+

~7,

It is

clear

For
=

it

wall, therefore,

the

another

be selected

should

in

such

in

nondimensional

particular

stress

surface is purely

at the
as

limit

-*\302\260\302\260.
In the
ff\302\273

a way

small at large Reynolds numbers.

be done by absorbing /?* in the

that the viscous

From

scale

we

E.2.7)

for

The
\321\203.

is
v

this

yu*

convenience,

E.2.8)

tends

nondimensionalization
if R*

direction
\321\203

let us

=ujhlv

to suppress the

Equations E.2.7) and

changeof

-*\302\246
\302\260\302\260.

define

n = y/h.

yujv,

of

form

nondimensional

_
\342\200\224
' ~
\302\246
\320\223\302\273 Z\342\200\224
v
\320\254\320\270*

that

in the

stress

y^

dtyujv)

can

this

equation

resulting

u\\

become

not

does

term

the

of

vicinity

this

E.2.9,
can be

then

E.2.8)

written

as

E.2.10)

uv

U\\
\342\200\224
=
\342\200\224+\342\200\224

dy+

u\\

_.

1-ff*

E.2.11)

Y+-

\\u\302\273/

in the limit as
for asymptotic solutions of these equations
these
solutions
5.2.11) it is evident that
depend on
our point of view: for all but very small values of r? we expect the viscous
to
and at finite values of y+ (which
stress to be negligibly
correspond
small,
and that
very small values of tj) we expect that viscous stresses are important
We

are

looking

-><\302\273.From
\320\257\302\273

the total

E.2.10,

stress is approximately

constant.

The

region of

viscous effectsmust

shear flows

Wall-bounded

152

to

be confined

immediate

the

expect the local Reynolds

as

limit

the

In

Uy/v

since

wall,

and

y+

can we

there

only

be so

to

small

turbu-

that

itself.

sustain

turbulence cannot

of the

vicinity
numbers

but
with
fl\302\273->\302\260\302\260,

one, E.2.10)

of order

\321\202?
remaining

re-

to

reduces

= 1-ri.

-UvAil

This equation

cannot

region (the name

In the limit

\"outer
as

is not

appropriate

with

but

r?

-\302\273\342\200\242
which

0,

flow governed

the

of

part

layer\"

fl\302\273-*00,

as

conditions

represent

We call the

of y+.

values

finite

E.2.12)

in

channel

the core

flow).

of order one,

y+ remaining

to

corresponds

E.2.12)

by

E.2.11)

becomes

E.\320\23313)

d(yujv)

u;

cannot represent reality

This equation

values of

The

r?.

of the

part

flow

if y+ ->\302\260\302\260,
which

is called the

E.2.13)

by

governed

to finite

corresponds

surface

layer.
surface

The

flow

over

as

an

additional

smooth

smooth, no
so

E.2.13),

we

flow

in

surface

the

may

expect

the

of

solution

If the

to be

E.2.13)

E.2.14)

E.2.15)

-uf/ul=g[y+).

These relations are called the law of the wall. The

to
that the system E.2.13, 5.2.14,5.2.15)needs

f{0)= 0,0@)=

0. The

unless
if y+->\302\246
\302\260\302\260,
g

have

that

only

boundary

conditions

at this point

satisfy

are

similarity expressions E.2.14, 5.2.15) may not be valid

The shapes of / and
limit is approached rather
carefully.

determined

experimentally,

experimental evidencebefore
coin.

on

conditions

boundary

* = \320\237\321\203.),

been

occur

is governed by
surface is

layer

parameters.

in the

not

\320\272
does

height

roughness

occur

parameters

ourselves momentarily

restrict

of explicitdependenceon

additional

that

the

that

The

parameter.

now

We

wall

so

surfaces,

is free

which

E.2.13),

on a smooth

layer

to

we

have

but

taken

we

prefer

not to

a look at the

discuss the

other sideof

the

5.2 Turbulent

153

The core region

In

core

the

the Reynolds stress.The

information
on

an

Such

U itself.
equation

in pipes and channels

flows

region,

all

momentum

we

E.2.12), on
thus gives no explicit informawhich (/does occur explicitly.
is a statement,

have

equation

in
Let us look at an equation
is the turbulent energy budget,

which

in

this channel-flow

geometry is

-Uv \342\200\224
=e + \342\200\224
[-vp
dy \\p
dy

+ lcTv]-

E.2.16)
)

kinetic
e stands for the viscous dissipation of the turbulent
has been neglected (see Chapter
of
3).
lq2
energy
-q2; viscous transport
\342\200\224
the
uv
back to E.2.12), we seethat
stress
is
of
order
Referring
Reynolds
all finite values of x\\. Since
the turbulent
for
u\\
energy is generated by this
we expect q2 and p/p to be of order u\\, too. We have seen before
stress,
that
the large eddies in turbulent
flows scale with the cross-stream dimensions
for the flow. Hence,the terms on the right-hand side of E.2.16)must be of
order ul/h. Since the Reynolds stress is of order
u\\, we conclude that
is of order ujh.
If we
no
dU/dy
stay well above the surface layer, so that
other characteristic
we can state without
lengths can complicatethe picture,

In E.2.16),

any

loss of

dy

generality

dr\\

with the

understanding

function

F, is

the surface,
= 1) toward
(tj
(U-U0)/u*

that

that

of order

E.2.17)
the

wall.

which is the derivative

dF/dr),

one. Becauseh is not

has

to

be

similarity
not

of

the

channel

E.2.18)

F(r)),

course,E.2.18)is

length scale near

in

where Uo is the mean velocity at the

appropriate

appropriate

from the center

integrated

This results

an

of someunknown

law

for

applicable

the

as

center of

core
77

We see that the

channel.
a
is
region
velocity-defect law. Of
the

-*\302\246
0.

A two-layer description as developed

here
Inertial
requires
special
sublayer
attention in the region where the two descriptions merge into each other. The
of overlap
or matched layer is possibleonly
existence of a region
if the limits
-\302\273\342\200\242
->\302\260\302\260
0
and
be
taken
In
it
was
can
Section
5.1
demony+
77
simultaneously.

154

strated
5.1).

that this is possible

More specifically,

r?-*0
it

corresponds

\342\200\224
1 in

the plot

The process
wall and the

given

of

that

equal for

any

in the

such elegance is

of

gradient

velocity

dU

= ul

df_

dyt

dy

In the

the

is called

0<

interval

we can

matched. It

of

now

assume

most

the
in

demonstrated

the

matching.

asymptotic
limits

a < 1. However,
have

is

behavior of

limiting

proper

law

needed. Sincewe

can be

layer

gradients

the

the intermediate

is possible,

process

(see

Figure
and

limit

pro-

with

slope

5.3.

in Figure

obtaining

requires

limit

if the

velocity-defect

matching

wall

flows

Reynolds number is large enough

if
then i7 = cff?~1, so that
cR\",
if Q<a<
1. This is called an intermediate
to travel toward
the
line
right on a straight

simultaneously

process;

shear

Wall-bounded

law

Formally,

involved be
this particular case no
that an intermediate
and

to match the velocity

According to E.2.14), the

E.2.19)

core region,E.2.17)must

5.3.

An intermediate

the

convenient

wall layer and the core region.

in the surface layer is given
by

be

valid.

Equating

E.2.17) and E.2.19)

\320\272\320\2634

Figure

the

functions

the surface layer

that

of

limit

process

in which

tj-*O
y+-*\302\260\302\260and

simultaneously.

and

5.2 Turbulent

155

keeping
and

we are

that

mind

in

in pipes and channels

flows

rj

u*dF = u\\
~
Th T
v

df

On multiplication
dF

this becomes

y/u*,

\342\200\224
=
\320\237
Kt\342\200\224=-\342\200\242
\320\272
dr)
dy+

be a

can

side

function

Thus,

parameters.

(\320\2522.2\\)

E.2.21) can be a

side of

left-hand

The

only

in

inertial

the

function

of tj and the

only

same universal
constant.
to
integrated
yield

In tj + const,
F(r))= \342\200\224
\320\272

f (k+)

In k+
\320\272

right-hand

because neither F nor f dependson any

be equal
sublayer both sides of E.2.21)must
can
If the constant is denoted by 1/\320\272,E.2.21)

of y+,

to the
be

E.2.20)

by

df

in which y

process

\302\246

T~
dy*

dr\\

considering some limit

we obtain

-*\302\246
0 simultaneously,

E.2.22)
\342\200\236

+ const.

E.2.23)

are valid only if r?\302\253 1 and y+ \302\2731.

to E.2.22,
The chain of arguments leading
5.2.23) was developed by Clark
6. Millikan, who presented it at the Fifth International Congress of Applied
Mechanics
the formal
1939). At that
(Millikan,
time,
theory of singularwas
not
the
decade
until
1950\342\200\2241960 was
unknown;
perturbation
problems
of these

Both

theory of multiple
Lagerstrom, Cole, and others
5.2.23) is called von Karman's
rational

the

first

to

derive

The logarithmic
nature

in

developed
problems
by Kaplun,
in E.2.22,
1968). The constant \320\272
was one of
because Th. von Karman

velocity profile from

turbulence

theory.
has

result

-Uv/ul -M

in the

profile

velocity

a very specific

E.2.12),

constant,

the logarithmic

motion cannot be solved

In this flow, matching
to

Cole,

(see

arguments

similarity

1930).

(von Karman,

landmarks

length-scale

With

been

inertial

tools

analytical

obtained,

is one

sublayer

even

of a

though

the

of the major

rather

general

equations

of

in general.
of

the

if

t?-\302\2730.

Reynolds
According

stress is straightforward.
to

E.2.13)

According

and E.2.21), for

156

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

E.2.24)

so that

-Uv/ul -y 1

-\302\273\342\200\242
if \320\272+
\302\260\302\260.

inertial

The

From

stress.

the

proportional

to

stress

if y

is a

sublayer

thus

E.2.24)

it is

second term

+ \302\2731.

absence of local

E.2.25)

in

viscous

the

is very

E.2.24))

matched

The

of approximately

region

also clear that

small compared to the

layer is called inertial

\320\270
0

sublayer

propor-

Reynolds

because

of this

effects.

viscous

If E.2.18)
and E.2.14)
Logarithmic friction law
and E.2.23), respectively, there results

u-

constant Reynolds

stress (which is

are substituted

into

E.2.22)

1
E.2.26)
\320\272

u*

U _ 1

In

E.2.27)

\320\243*+\320\260.

\320\270* \320\272

These expressions
must be finite;

f and F

because

are

valid

they

in the

only

cannot

inertial

sublayer. The constantsa and

on the Reynolds number /?* = uJiA>

of ff\302\273.It follows from E.2.26) and E.2.27)

depend

are independent

that

\342\200\224
=

E.2.28)

-lnff\302\273+a-6,

because E.2.26) and

This relation

sublayer.
if

the

pressure

be valid simultaneously

E.2.27)

must

is called

the logarithmic

gradient

and the

channel

friction

are

width

law;

in

the

inertial

it determines

Uo

known.

flow in a circular pipe of conparallel

Axisymmetric
greater practical importance than plane channel flow. The
geometry of pipe flow is sketched in Figure 5.4. We assume that the flow is
is
of the \321\203
coordinate
that is, independent of x. The
fully
developed,
origin
inconvenient
surface.
This would be very
for most purposes,
put at the inner

Turbulent

but
which

pipe flow

diameter

constant

it

is of

is convenient
in these

here, because we
becomes

coordinates

only

need

the

mean-flow

equation,

5.2Turbulent

157

Figure

-uv + v
The

sketch for

Definition

5.4.

in pipes and channels

flows

pipe

dU
\342\200\224
= , ,

dP0
\342\200\224

dy

pdx

(\320\243r)
2\320\276

of

derivation

E.2.29)

\302\246

as an
developed pipe flow
is left

E.2.29)

in fully

momentum
integral

flow.

exercise
is, if

for

the

The momen-

the reader.

wall

is again

stress

denoted

bypui,

2wul = \302\246

E.2.30)

pdx

The

momentum

equation

thus

becomes

E.2.31)

+ v
\342\200\224uv

dy
which

is

r I

\\

identical

to

E.2.6)

if

by h. All of
to
pipe flow. The
equally

is replaced

the

conclusions

of F(n),
obtained for channel
apply
of
in plane
F
from
the
shape
now
is defined as y/r, may be different
where \321\202?
the shape
However,
flow because of different geometricalconstraints.
channel
the curvbecause
in
channel
to
that
be
identical
flow,
should
plane
of f(y+)
to
the
surface
close
from
if seen
zero
enough
curvature of the wall is nearly
points
flow

thus

shape

to make \321\203
+ finite.
data on

Experimental

walls, the

velocity

logarithmic

represented
U/u*=

pipe flow
profile

For

turbulent

and the

flows
logarithmic

in

pipes
friction

with

smooth

law are well

by

2.5

\\ny+ +5,

E.2.32)

=2.5

In

77-I,

E.2.33)

Uolu* = 2.5

In

+ 6.
/?\302\273

E.2.34)

iU-U0)/u,

158

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

scatter in

is considerable

There

numerical

the

the values

constants;

over many experiments. I n Section

averages
no experiments have
of the \"scatter\"
arises
because

5.4, we

represent

find

given

some

that

been performedat

large

the logarithmic
numbers. In particular,
slope is probably
=
to the often-quoted \320\272
3 (instead of 2.5, which
0.4)
corresponds
very
nearly
=
is large enough.
if the Reynolds number R\302\273 rujv
A volume-flow
can be defined by
velocity
velocity)
Ub (\"bulk\"

Reynolds

enough

2n(r-y)Udy.

E.2.35)

\320\276

fairly

?/b/u*
?/b/u\302\273

crude, but
is
and ff\302\273
= 2.5

has an

Ub at some point
this occurs when
In r/y =

2.5

which

between

relation

+ 1.5.

In ff,

relation

This

to the

approximation

used,

frequently

E.2.36)

interesting application.
flow.

the

in

If

E.2.32)

The local

and

U{y)

velocity

are

E.2.36)

is equal to

at that

valid

E.2.37)

3.5,
=

y/r

yields

point,

\\.

followsE.2.32)closely

It

so
up

that in pipe flow

somewhat beyond tj

happens
to and

of the inertial
pipe can be determined

the velocity profile

even though this
?,

the volume flow

a smooth
through
simply
by putting a small totalhead probe at tj =| and drilling a static-pressure tap in the wall at the same
of x as that of the tip of the
total-head
tube. This is called a quartervalue
is

The

outside

well

radius

the reach

Thus,

sublayer.

probe.

viscous sublayer

5.2.15),

in

detail.

more

Reynolds stress

We now

want

The first

can contribute

to consider

the

law

issue to be considered
to

the

stress

of

the wall,

is whether

at small values

E.2.14,

or not the

of y+. At

the

if the surface is rough

viscous stress.However,
= 0 is taken at the mean
and
if \321\203
of the roughness
elements, the shear
height
=
from
stress at \321\203
as
distinct
the
shear
stress
at
the
can be borne
0,
surface,
stress if the roughness
elements are large enough. We
partly
by the Reynolds
to this issue later; for the moment,
we restrict
the discussion to flow
return

surface

over

itself,

smooth

It is
turbulence,

useful

rather

of

all

the

stress is

surfaces.
to

than

look

the

at the

problem

mean flow,

and

from

to

the

look

point

from

of view of the

the

inertial

turbu-

sublayer

5.2 Turbulent flows

159

downward

wall.

the

toward

in pipes

and channels

In the

inertial

sublayer,

the

stress is

Reynolds

is

by
mean-velocity
gradient
approximately equal to pu2,
to
is
\342\200\224uv
ul/ny.
equal
dil/dy
Hence, the turbulence production rate
u.Ay.
balanced
is mainly
If
by the viscous dissipation e
turbulence
production
the

and

(experimentshave
s

fairly

accurate

in the

statement

E.2.38)

ul/\320\272\321\203.

The

microscale

Kolmogorov

with

varies

thus

context)

inertial

we have

sublayer),

this is a

that

shown

given

according
\321\203

easily

(not

confused

with

tj

y/r

in this

con-

to

E.2.39)

The

integral

scale

the

inertial

sublayer,

r?t =

of

on the other hand, must be of order \321\203

with the distance from the wall. In the
scale
estimate. Nonis a suitable
so that (= \320\272\321\203

the turbulence,

largest eddies

because

dimensionally,

\\?\\

should

W/\320\264\321\203
=ujny,

we obtain
E.2.40)

r?w\302\273/i'S(K/+I/4(

E.2.41)

L=ujJv^K.y+.

103

10J

Figure

5.5.

The variation

of ^and

n near

the surface.

160

shear

Wall-bounded

flows

relations are plotted in Figure

becomes smaller than the Kolmogorov
we must conclude that
impossible, so that

These

5.5;

they
microscale
the

show

turbulence

if

y+

that

the

integral

scale

This is impossustain itself and

is small.

cannot

Reynolds stresses if y+ is small. Experimental evidence has

fraction
of u\\ up to about
Reynolds stress remains a small
= 5. This
y+
region is called the viscous sublayer. In the viscous sublayer, the
flow
is not steady,
but the velocity fluctuations
do not contribute
much to
the total stressbecauseof the overwhelming
effects of the viscosity. In some
of the literature, the viscous sublayer
is called
the laminar sublayer; this
cannot
shown

name,
are

generate

the

that

however,
In

present.

(U/u* = /+),

as

is misleading because it suggests

that no velocity fluctuations
the viscous sublayer, the velocity profile must
be
linear
indicated by the solution of E.2.13) when -uv is neglected.

inertial

sublayer

Figure 5.6.

The law

of the

wall.

5.2 Turbulent

161

in pipes and channels

flows

Experimental data on the law of the wall The velocity profilein the surface
f = y+ for small y+ and the logarithmic
law E.2.32) at large
satisfy
obtained
the
have
in Figure
shape
Experimentally
velocity
profiles
given
y+.
is
the
stresses.
5.6. Another useful
distribution
of
to
plot
E.2.13),
According
the sum of the (nondimensionalized) viscousand Reynolds
stresses
must be
the
surface
equal to one throughout
layer. The two curves are sketched in
can be neglected is
5.7. The region where neither one of the stresses
Figure
layer must

sometimescalled the

buffer

buffer layer
is disposed
of
sublayer to the logarithmic
an abrupt change from

y+= 11
maximum

of

stress

in the

profile

velocity

viscous

purely
buffer

inertial

stress to

This causes

sublayer.

purely

at

stress

turbulent

site of

is the

layer

calculations, the bufprofile in the viscous

turbulence

vigorous

reaches a
at
the
value
of y+ where the Reynolds stress is equal to the
|
=
as is
ig df/dy+=^). This occurs at y+=12
approximately,

because

shown

linking

by

approximately. The

dynamics,

viscous

In many engineering
the linear velocity

layer.

in Figure

the

turbulent

energy

rate g df/dy+

production

5.7.

A few approximate numbers

layer may be useful. If the rms

df

2.5

on
value

the

turbulence

intensity
is denoted

of a variable

in
by

the

surface

the

a prime,

\342\200\236

0.5

0.5

df

dy.

10

Figure 5.7.
the surface

Distribution

layer

(adapted

12

Reynolds stress g
from Hinze, 1959).
of

20

and

\342\200\224uv/uj

30

of viscous

stress df/dy+

in

162

relations

following
w

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

hold

inertial

the

in

-uv = ul

= 3.bul,
1.4u\302\273, \\\321\211\320\263

because the turbulence-production mechanism

the components
is performed by
energy among
on the velocity-defect

data

Experimental
law

in Figure

is presented

E.2.33) happens

to

5.8.

In

plot

of the

the logarithmic

quite convenient

is often

in

= 1

The

wake

velocity-defect
velocity profile

profile

all

well

fairly

applications.

engineering

the actual velocity profile in the

is called
the wake function
logarithmic law, normalized by u\302\273,

W(n)

of

interaction.

nonlinear

s 0.8a,,
is largest

distribution

it; the

favors

actual velocity

the

represent

through the pipe, which

The difference between

The \320\270
component

law

flow,

pipe

s 2u\302\273,v
\320\270

sublayer:

=QAu'v'.

region and the

core

W(r\\):

E.2.42)
function

bounded flows;

in

to be approximately
case, W(tj) is fairly

happens
this

particular

10-

1\320\241\320\223
\342\200\236\320\272\320\2635
1

in

sinusoidal

well

many

wall-

by

represented

10-

\320\232\320\223'

-1
inner
__

layer

y^wake

r
-10

function

F =

2.5

In

7?-

inertial

yf
-20

yS

.
oo

yf

-30
Figure

'

(outer

The velocity-defect
actual velocity profile

5.8.

sublayer increaseswith

fl,.

104^

core region

\\

represents the

(\320\257.

>r

^sublayer

law
in

the

layer)

in pipe

flow. The

wall layer

for

dashed

104.
/?\342\200\236

curve

The

on the

width

left

of the

repre-

inertial

5.2 Turbulent flows

163

W=\\ [sin

The

and channels

+ 1].

A7-5)
of

amplitude

the

E.2.43)

layers

pressure gradients
be represented by

W may

constant

a numerical

that

in

this

but

case,

in

boundary

quite large. The wake

function
universal
!F multiplied
shape
on the conditions of the flow. This
become

W can

depends

the law

is called

representation

to

sine wave is equal

with opposing

function
by

ff

in pipes

of the wake becauseSFis similar

the

to

shape

of the velocity-defect profilein wakes (Coles, 1956).

The turbulence intensity
drops
slowly if one goes from the surfacetoward
the
In the core region, a crude approximation
to the experimental
center.
= v = w = 0.8
v has
data is \320\270
u*. The fluctuating
component
velocity
nearly constant amplitude

acrossthe

pipe.

flow of energy The surface layer

is a \"sink\" for momentum, and therefor kinetic energy associated with
the mean flow. Mean-flow kinetic

The

therefore also

stresses is converted
and
into
heat
(viscous
energy (turbulence production)
If we
the transport term b(Uv U)lby betweenthe surdissipation).
integrate
we conclude
surface and
a value of \321\203
near the outer edge of the inertial
sublayer,
that the total loss of energy
in that
of
order
is
unit area
region
pU\302\247u\\ per
and time, becauseU is fairly
close
to Uo at the edge of the inertial
sublayer.
The direct loss to viscous
occurs primarily in the viscous sublayer,
dissipation
because \320\252\320\270/\320\254\321\203
has
a sharp peak at the surface. This lossis of order
pu\\:
energy transferred

surface

the

into

order pul/v

is of
\321\206[\320\264\320\270/\320\264\321\203)\320\263
concentrated

in

kinetic

the

In
and

dil/dy

turbulence

a region

energy

maintenance

layer by Reynolds

kinetic

turbulent

into

whose

in

height

transported

into

the

viscous

is only
the

but

sublayer,

of order

surface

v/u*. Most of the

layer is

used

thus

mean-flow

the main-

for

kinetic energy.

of turbulent

the
Reynolds
region, on the other hand,
is of order \320\270
Jr.
Integrating over the entire

stress is of

core

production

is concen-

loss

this

per

unit area

and

time

in the

core

core region,
region

is of

orderpuj
the

turbu-

order pu\\.

We conclude that most of the turbulence production occurs in the surface

layer. The surface layer is the source of most of the turbulent energy. This
conclusion
must
because
the rate of dissipabe viewed with caution, though,
dissipationof turbulent
also
in
is
the
surface
layer.
energy
high
The main function
of the core region is not turbulence production, but
of mean-flow
kinetic energy into the surface layer. In the core of
transport
the pipe, the

pressuregradient

performs

work

at a rate

of

roughly

pulifo/r

Wall-bounded shear flows

164

per

volume

unit

stress to the

Flow

over

arguments

and time.

This energy

surface layer, where

rough

surfaces

leading

If

the

off by the Reynolds

into turbulent kinetic energy.

is carried

is converted

it

surface

law of the

the

to

input

wall

pipe or channel

of a
require

some

the

is rough,

modification.

If

the

the
k/r (k is an rms roughness
roughness
height, say) is small enough,
does not affect the velocity-defect
law.
A definition
a rough surface is given
in Figure
5.9. If
sketch of flow
over
=
= 0 at the
the
at
at
the
vertical
surface,
\321\203\320\236
velocity
average
position
\321\203
be defined for a substantial
of the streamwise distance. As
cannot
fraction
at the surface,
but
the no-slip condition has to be satisfied
discussed
earlier,
= \320\236
the instantaneous
the mean velocity obtained by averaging
velocity at \321\203

ratio

over

time

and over

all

intervals

Ax

where the

surface is below/ = 0 need

not

be zero.
wall
has two characteristic lengths,
The surface layer over a rough
ratio
is
the
whose
v/u*,
roughness Reynolds number Rk =kujv.
a
wall
which can be written
as
expect law of the

\320\272
and

We thus

E.2.44)

or
U

E.2.45)

must
These expressions

latter

is

matching

independent
is performed

be

matched

with the

of roughness as
on

long

/ \302\246CTsTX/\\
?*\302\247>

Flow

over

a rough

as

k/r\302\253\\

and

because

the velocity derivative, the effects of roughness

-U(y)

Figure 5.9.

velocity-defect law. Becausethe

-^

surface.

the
on

5.2Turbulent

165

the

\\

\"*

of the

function

'

in the

profile

velocity

logarithmic

additive

in pipes and channels

flows

inertia)

can appear

sublayer

only as an

parameter:
E.2.46)

\"

\320\272

E.2.47)

\320\243-^-\\\320\277\320\243-+\320\270\320\257\320\272).
\320\232
\320\270* \320\272 \320\272

limit as

the

In

as

long

It turns out

the flow

in

of

This shows

the

that

generated,however

form of the equation of

E.2.48)

stress is very

viscous

be noted

of y/k of orderone if
small, or else a distinct

at values

small

remain

must

k/r

that

layer cannot exist. From

be independent of Rk

surface

stresses can be

Reynolds

in the

submerged

k r

It should
-*\302\260\302\260.

Rk

then

a suitable nondimensional

Rk,

d(y/k)

u%

elementsare

with

E.2.46) as

is

E.2.31)

4+vei=1_a
K

which

no effect on

has

roughness

is disturbed.

For large values

motion

no

to 5, as comparison

to become equal

that

5, because the roughness

Rk <

viscous sublayer
much

f3 has

-*0,

Rk

indicates.

E.2.32)

we conclude

E.2.48)

in

thatf4(fffr)

E.2.47)

large enough. This indeed occurs in

for values of Rk above
30. The physical concept here is that
practice
roughroughnesselements
with large Rk generate turbulent
which are responsible
wakes,
on the surface. For values
for essentially inviscid
of Rk between
5 and
drag
constant in the logarithmic
the additive
part of the velocity profile
30,
should

E.2.44, 5.2.45)dependson
The
U

rough-wall

if

it is

Rk.

velocity profile becomes, in

the

limit

as Rk

-\302\273\342\200\242
\302\260\302\260,

\321\203
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
= \342\200\224
+

const.

In

u*

\320\272

the position

Often,

E.2.49)

additive

constant;

logarithmic

profile

\321\2030

is not

instead,

it

known

accurately

is absorbed

in the

enough
definition

to bother
of

k.

with

the

Also, the

all the way down to y/k = 1

is often assumed to be valid
=
=
0 at \321\203/k 1 if the additive constant is ignored), even
U

(which

makes

though

its derivation

was based on the

limit

process

y/k

->\302\246
\302\260\302\260.
The friction

law

corresponding to E.2.49) is
1
Uo
\342\200\224
=

In
\"\302\246 \320\272

\342\200\224

+ const.

E.2.50)

Wall-bounded shear flows

166

5.3

boundary

Planetary

layers

The geostrophic wind

affected

the

by

with

rotating

approximately

Coriolis

and

the

of

In

these

geostrophic

may

Figure

coordinate
Under

in

In

the

system of

to the

is normal

condiIn that

planes.

balance between

to a simple

coordinate

that is

system
favorable

horizontal

in

is

earth

the

earth's surface is approx-

at the

layer

reduce

motion

forces.

5.10,

Figure

localvertical

pressure

latitude

at

is

which

\321\204,

E.3.1)

\320\255\321\205

by

E.3.2)

expressions
wind,

be taken

5.10.

any

frame of reference.

boundary

a Cartesian frame whosex, \321\203

plane
this geostrophic
balance is
9

over the surface of

and homogeneous

horizontal,

steady,

case, the equations

gradient

to an inertial

outside

flow

conditions, the

that arises

force

Coriolis

respect

of air

flow

The

whose

and

Ug
modulus

Vg

to be constant if

Coordinate

system for

are

the

is G = (Ug

the

flow

planetary

x and
+

The parameter

Vg)*.

covers only

boundary

of the

components
\321\203

a small

layers.

range

f,

geo-

which

of latitudes

5.3 Planetary

167

is
\321\204,
f =

This

boundary

to twice the

equal
\320\237
sin

layers

\320\263
component

of the

angular velocity fi

at

latitude

\321\204:

E.3.3)

\321\204.

Corio/is parameter. Its value

is called the

at

lO^sec\021

is approximately

=
\321\20440\302\260.

Ekman

The

at

the

boundary

surface,

for

motion

this

does

planetary

must
in

meet the no-slip

exist. If the flow in
not

horizontal

boundary layer, or Ekman

= \342\200\224
VJ\302\273
(-\320\250\320\231.

-f(V-

f(U

is

layer

The geostrophic wind

so that a boundary
layer
steady and homogeneous

layer

planes,
layer,

condition
the

boun-

the equations

of

become

E.3.4)

dz

-U.)=\342\200\224
\302\246dz

E.3.5)

(-\320\250).

for the pressure

5.3.2) have been used to substitute
gradient.
is
so
assumed
the
number
that
Also,
roughness Reynolds
large that
to assume that the stress at
can be neglected. It is convenient
viscous
stresses
has no \321\203
so that, forz -*\302\246
the surface (pu\302\253,by definition)
0,
component,

Here,

E.3.1,

it

-Uw

has

u\\,

been

-vw

= 0.

E.3.6)

of motion show quite clearly that

a
The velocity-defectlaw The equations
law is called for. We assume
that u* is the only
characteristic
velocity-defect
no appreciable
heat transfer
this restricts us to flows in which
velocity;
cause additional
occurs, becauseheat flux in a flow exposed to gravity
may
turbulence or may
on its direction
(see
turbulence,
suppress
depending
of order u\\,
but
the
3). The Reynolds stressesare presumably
Chapter
h
the
Ekman
of
is
unknown.
A
tentative
nondimensional
form
of
height
layer

E.3.4, 5.3.5)is

thus

E)

E-3'7)

E.3.8)

168

shear

Wall-bounded

Figure 5.11. The

increases toward the

We are at

Ekman

spiral.

velocity-defect
on the curve.

right

to

liberty

flows

convenience. If

for maximum

selectft

The nondimensional

we

zf/u

height

choose

E.3.9)

\320\233cujf,

where

constant of

c is some
of

independent

absorbedby
Ekman

careful

be (Blackadar

all possible

expect

and

become
of motion
dependence has been

the equations

unity,
because

Thus, we

scaling.

should

layers

order

parameters,

any

the

that

law for

velocity-defect

1968)

Tennekes,

E.3.10)

E.3.11)
5.11

Figure
law

E.3.10,

a polar velocity plot of the experimentally

for the velocity vector in the Northern
5.3.11)

pressure-gradient vector is
E.3.2)

show.

vector,

because

The Ekman

angle between the

surface stress,that
thus

less

than

near the

surface

the

is located

force
insufficient

in

the

boundary
to

that

The

wind, as

the pressure gradient. The

we shall see, parallel to the

(which is, as
positive x direction)and the
rotates
clockwise
the Ekman spiral

Ekman

defect
The

balance

wind

is not
surface, because\320\233

Hemisphere.

E.3.1) and
of the geostrophicwind
layer, where velocities are

geostrophic
to the left

in the

is,

so
90\302\260,

The surfacelayer

G, is

than

to

normal

spiral

the Coriolis

smaller

generally

observed

shows

spiral equations E.3.10,

the relevant length
scale

is rough, with
a roughness
height z0 such
nondimensional form of E.3.4, 5.3.5)is

that

gradient is
with increasing*.

pressure

5.3.11)are
there.

ZquJv\302\273

If

not
the

1, the

valid

surface

relevant

5.3 Planetary boundary

169

layers

E.3,2)

\320\251{\320\270\320\270).
9

(\320\261.\320\267.,3,

cHz/z0)

\"\302\246

can
left-hand sides of E.3.12, 5.3.13)
be at most of order fz0G/ul. If
we use E.3.9),
this can be written
asz0G/ftu\302\273. For typical conditions in the
=
=
=
h
so that
30,
1,000
m,
G/u,
z0 - 0.01m,
zQG/hu*
atmosphere,

The

3x

10~4. This is

process

wall

must
=

at

stress
in

neglect the

this is

that

The surface layer, to first

does not feel the turning

which

wind

the

see

shortly

is involved.

which

constant-stress layer
force. Becausethe
component,

shall

We shall

indeed.

small

very

5.3.13); we

E.3.12,

the

the
surface

the

under

of the

read

E.3.14)

U/u+ = fu(z/z0).

E.3.15)

direction, so that

The logarithmic

matched to
usual

= -A,

-Fv(Q)

u,

U-Ug -

-ln

wind

5.11

Figure

Also, because the

The
law

law of
E.3.10,

the

wall

spiral

to the

rotates

E.3.14,

5.3.11). This
and

positive x

in the

is

must depart

Tennekes,

right

clockwise.

must be

5.3.15)

yields,

where

the

1968),

E.3.16)

\\

+ B,

E.3.17)

\\z0/

'- '/zf\\

-\\n

\342\200\224
=

(z\\
\342\200\224

\320\272

spiral
= 0.

in

have been followed(Blackadar

\342\200\224
=

-ln

profile

velocity-defect

procedures

U = 0,

wind

the

\\
\342\200\224
=

Ekman

the

from

horizontally

near the surface the

that

show

relations

These

a
Coriolis

surface has been assumedto have

no \321\203
also has no \321\203
The law of the
component.

0,

V/u\302\273

limit

is thus

approximation,
effects

of

sides

left-hand

justified

\342\200\224'
\342\200\224

+C,

l^A+B-C.

E.3.18)

E.3.19)

Wall-bounded shear flows

170

zf/u*

\302\253 1

for

relations

large enough

friction

wind is given
a =

tan

by

is called

\302\2731

and

a Reynolds
the friction

approximations,

E.3.16) and
s {fzo/u*) \\n(ujfzo), so that
in obtaining the law
involved

numbers.

surface

layer

From

and

the

geostrophic

5.11)

(see Figure

In (ujfzo)

=AuJUg

-Vg/Ug

it

are asymptotic

Rossby

E.3.19) we concludethat fz0G/ul

^fz0Ug/ul
-*-0 as ujfzo
-+00. The approximation
fz0G/ul
of the wall is indeed valid
asymptotically.
The angle a between the wind
in the

like

functions

surfaces;

above

given

region where z/z0

u*/fz0

flow

turbulent

Rossby number. The

only

in the

only

The parameter
over smooth

simultaneously.

number for the

valid

are valid

and E.3.18)

E.3.17)

Here,

=\320\220/[[1/\320\272)

E.3.20)

+B-C].

is often
set at
Measurements suggest that A = 12, C = 4. The value of \320\222
=
are
minor change in z0. If \320\2220 and if z0 and 1/\320\272
zero, with a consequent
friction
the
can be used to determine
velocity u* from a
E.3.17)
known,
direct
measwind
near the surface. This is a common practicebecause
profile

stress

of

measurements

are quite

difficult.

layer near the surface of

to
the Ekman layer in the
a body of water exposed
to wind stresses is similar
If there is no current
at
conditions.
atmosphere,
except for the boundary
may be neglected, the water current at
great depth and if pressure
gradients
Ekman

layers

in the

the surfacemakes

an

ocean The turbulent

angle

a, given

by

boundary

the

equivalent

of E.3.20),

with

respect

of water currents in the Northern

stress at the surface. The polar
plot
is left
of the problem
5.12.
is
in
The
formal
analysis
given
Figure
Hemisphere
to the reader.

to the

^TlO)=oui

surface

current

0)

-V
Figure

5.12.

Ekman

layer near the

surface

of the

ocean (Northern Hemisphere).

5.4The

171

of a pressure gradient

effects

on the

flow

in surface

layers

5.4

of a pressure gradient

effects

The

So far,

we

on

the flow

surface

in

layers

surface

layers in which the characteristic

there exist conditions under
However,
velocity is the friction
i/*.
velocity
is
An
which
not
case
is the surface layer of a
i/*
interesting
appropriate.
in which the stress at the wall
is kept
boundary
layer
equal to zero for a
of an
considerabledownstream
distance
chosen distribution
by a carefully
In
such
a
terms,
opposing pressure gradient.
boundary layer is on
engineering
the verge of separation. Normally,
a rather large opposing presthis
requires
encountered

have

only

because
stresses can transfer
Reynolds
in moderate
to
excessive
deceleration
enough
prevent
The equations of motion,
for steady
two-dimensional
pressure

gradient,

momentum

pressure

rapidly

gradients.

flow, read
l6-4-\"

?\302\246?-\302\253\302\246

bx

by

_
\321\212
\321\214\321\200

\321\212\320\270
\321\212\320\270
1

-=
\320\267

\320\252\321\205
\320\252\321\203
\320\252\321\203
\320\252\321\203
\321\200

We

half-plane
positive.

If

the

\320\252

=
in the
\321\2030. The mean flow
is
the
\320\252\320\240/\320\252\321\205
direction;
pressure gradient
positive*
characteristic
velocity in the surface layer is w, the length scale
We assume
order to preserve the viscous-shearstress in E.4.2).

use a coordinate
>0
\321\203

\321\2122\320\270\321\2122\320\270

system

is

in

with

wall at

a solid

the

must be v/w in
if the
exist
can
that U, u, and v scale with w, because no self-preservation
The
downstream
mean flow and the turbulence
scale in different
length
ways.
is L; we assume that
\302\2731.
scale
Lw/v
~
With bil/bx~w/L
and dV/\320\252\321\203
the continuity equation E.4.1)
Vw/v,
~
V
The
side
of
the
v/L.
left-hand
E.4.3) is then
gives
y-momentum
equation
of order
of the turbulence
terms in E.4.3)
vw/L2. The orders of magnitude
are

0(w3/v),
the viscous

terms

in

E.4.3)

vtfVlby2 = 0(w2IL),
Because

LwA>\302\273

E.4.4)

\320\254\320\2501\320\252\321\205=
0(w2/L);

1, the

are of
vb2Vlbx2

order
=

E.4.5)

0(v2/L3).

major turbulence

term, 9(i/2)/5y,must

be

balanced

Wall-bounded shear flows

172

order.

to first
\320\254\320\240/\321\200\320\252\321\203

by

to \321\203
and

1 \320\252\320\240
1
bv2
-\342\200\224
=
+ \342\200\224

Integration of

with respect to

differentiation

this

with respect

equation

simplified

x yieldsthe

familiar

equation

dP0

--A

E.4.6)

\320\264\321\205
\320\264\321\205
dx
\321\200

pressure at the surface (/

Po is the

Here,
function

0),

is not a

of course,

which,

of/.

of E.4.2) now

various terms

The

(U bUlbx +

bUlby)

as follows:

<S(w2lL),
=

dP0/dx)

be estimated

may

0lw2/L),

(\320\243\321\200)(\320\264\320\240/\320\264\321\205

(K4.7)

vtfUlby2 =0(w3/v),

If

3 /

\342\200\224

oy\\

\\-uv

be
\320\254\320\240/\320\252\321\205
may

while

survive,

The approximateequation

by dP0/dx.

approximated

terms

shear-stress

the

only

wL/v\302\273\\,

vd2U/dx2

of

is thus

motion

1 dP0

dU\\

E.4.8)

p dx

v\342\200\224)=-\342\200\224-.

by!

BecausePo

of y,

is independent

this

to

integrates

EA9)

^_L?o.
dx
\320\252\321\203

\321\200

we have

Here,

special case

the

put

we want

to

stress

at the

consider.

wall

to

equal

The pressure

gradient

zero, because
now

plays

that

is the

the role of

like pui is treated as an independent

paraa surface
Because
we are considering
layers.
layer, the
5 and the downstream scale L are not
thickness
so
relevant,
boundary-layer
that a characteristic velocity has to be constructed
with
and v (the
dP0/dx
surface is smooth).The only possible choice is

an

in

much

parameter,

independent

parameter

other

surface

E.4.10,

4 p dx
ul-V-4?.
The

only

parameter-free

nondimensional

form of

E.4.9) is

upl
This

equation

has

only one

characteristic velocity (uo) and

one

characteristic

5.4 The effects

173

length,

and

its

are zero at

E.4.13)

of the corresponding velocity-defectlaw would

the flow
problem at hand. In first approximation,

the

law

that

The

his

that,

= a In

up
with

results

in Figure

Figure
right

(based

Uo,

amplitude

at large

yuplv

\"wake

in

in the

flow\"

sense
a

but with

E.2.43),

gives

yuplv,

+ 0.

E.4.14)

observation that
in the
scale
only velocity
problem

is supported

statement

Experiments

one defined

outer

the

numbers

to predict

if

W(y/b) like the

a pure

us too

carry
in

a good description of the first-order flow.

this
wake
flow
is modified
Reynolds
by a velocity-defect
law
matches
the
of the wall E.4.12).
mere existence of a velocity-defectlaw is all that needs to be assumed

peak-to-peak
finite

is probably

layers

boundary

function

wake

At

the stress

9tyuplv).

part of these

Up/y

are homogeneous (both

U and
be a law of the wall of the form

E.4.12)

from

This

layers

derivation

The

U/Up

in surface

that

Its solution must

flow

f(yuplv),

U/up

far

conditions

boundary

\321\2030).

pressure gradient on the

of a

is the

a flow with
suggest

that a

zero

by the

wall

= 5, C

stress
a= 8.

were

A sketch

be of order

must
bU/\320\254\321\203

and

performed

if \321\203
\302\273

v/up.

Experi-

by Stratford A959);

of the velocity profile is given

5.13.

The surface layer in a flow with zero wall stress. The dashed
curve at the
the velocity profile in the outer layer as it begins to deviate from the logarithm
on data by Stratford,
1959).
5.13.

gives

Wall-bounded shear flows

174

second-order

correction

that it should
flows in other

be possible

surface

to pipe flow The results

to estimate the effect of
of the

or deceleration

inseparable

from nonlinear

equation of

in the

terms

Let us recall
_
-uv

dU

1,

mean

However,

suggest

on

gradient

their effects

be

may

in pipe flows the

of downstream

because

vanish

so that

flow,

effects.

inertia

motion

and

E.2.29)

above

pressure

Generally, pressure gradients areassociatedwith

layers.

acceleration

obtained
the

inertia

homogeneity.

E.2.30):

dP0

+ v-^lV-r)\342\200\224.

E.4.15)

-\342\200\224\302\260
=

E.4.16)

-2ai.

p dx

If we substitute
\342\200\224dU
.
\342\200\224

-uv+u

r dP0/dx

for

=ul

The second term

the equation

of motion

becomes

\\ \321\203
dP0
--\342\200\224.

E.4.17)

dx

2 p

dy

with E.4.16),

side of E.4.17) is small

in
it is commonly
neglected (see Section 5.2). In this
layer, so that
case, there is no need to do so if we are willing to exploit the results
wall stress.
zero
for the surface layer with
We

will

valid procedure
asymptotic

order

of the

think

add without

which

flow

second-order

lydPo/dx.

the

on

right-hand

wall-layer

interacting

with

(Tennekes, 1968),

and

flow

each

stress

other.
formal

as consisting

It can

be shown

surface

the

particular
obtained

of
that

two

parts

this

is a

proof requires
are outside the scope of this book. The firstand
stress are associated with
the
constant
stress pui, and the
small stress correction
flow and stress are related
to
the
these
we obtain the following
With
of
assumptions,
system
but

the

multivariate

which

techniques,

equations:

E.4.18)

U^Ut+Ui,

-uv= -{uv)i ^

E.4.19)

{UvJ,

= ul,

E.4.20)

dy

p dx

\320\233^.
2

EA21)

175

5.4The

of a pressure gradient

effects

E.4.20) is the

The solution of

on the

the

law of

familiar

flow

in surface layers

wall

E-4.22)

UJu.~f{yu./v).

/+ = yujv,

which, at large
Ul

= \342\200\224
/\"\342\200\242 In /+
\320\272

of E.4.21) must be similar

be a law of the wall like E.4.12).

must

Ui isup2,which

velocity scale for

u3=p2

of E.4.9),
flow
The

the pressure
appropriate

as

is defined

E.4.24)

\320\270 >

way,

2+
is

0. Nondimensionalized

p2 =

with

up2

and

v, E.4.21)

ei.

to E.4.11), except for the sign reversal in the total

of E.4.25) is thus identical
to the solution of E.4.11),
of sign. This yieldsthe counterpart
of E.4.12):

identical

solution
a change

for

particular,
=

large yup2 Iv,

- 0.

\320\260
\320\250
L\320\243
\320\270'\320\2402
(yup2lv)

to

=
up2

ul-?-r

U2/u, = -aR~U3

scatter

up2

and

are
u\302\273

to each

related

= ulRZl.

Hence,E.4.27)can

The slopeof

E.4.27)

and E.4.24),

E.4.16)

where\320\233(/?;\321\210)

the

stress.

except

E.4.26)

According

becomes

E.4.25)

U2lup2=-f[yup2lv).
In

is, it

that

2p dx

The

solution

\342\200\224d-^.

this

This

the

to

However, in pipe
presumably also negative.

so that U2 is

is negative,

gradient

for

E.4.23)

\320\241

solution

The

In

as

behaves

be

In

contains

by

E.4.28)
written
y+ +

as

E.4.29)

h(R~V3),

constants.

all additive

logarithmic

in pipe-flow

other

data to

velocity
allow

for

profile

There is too much

a verification

of

all

aspects

experimental

of E.4.29).

176

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

dU
\321\203

u* dy

t
=
\320\272

0.4

2.5

= 3

_y_dU
u\302\273
dy

2
102

103

104

105

106

The slope of the velocity

in pipe flow. The experimental
profile
from Tennekes, 1968).
by the shaded area (adapted

5.14.

Figure

indicated

One

major

velocity

profile,

function

of E.4.29)
is that the slope
where up2y/v \302\2731, u*y/v
of the Reynolds number /?\302\273:
consequence

in a region

^-A

term is

correction

value

of 1/k must

show

that

trend

the

characteristic

The

be

thus

length

is

logarithmic velo-

but

y/r\302\253

R~1'3.

if

= 2.5

1/\320\272

about

predicted

by a factor

of the
\302\2731,

scatter

1,

is a

E.4.30)

\320\272

appreciable:

of the value

is 20%

which

dy 1

\\ dy

u*

- -

\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\200\224i
= \342\200\224
+
*/\302\273
dy

The

-5R1'3*

/?\302\273 1,000

that

equal to

3.

= 5, a/?71/3= 0.5,
used.The asymptotic

and a

is most often

data

Experimental

(Figure

by E.4.30) indeed exists.

for the second-order flow is v/up2,

/?i/3. Therefore,the

5.14)

which is larger

secondsublayer
of
much
than
the lower edge of the
begins
\321\203
larger
first-order
inertial
to look
at this problem graphsublayer. It is instructive
5.15 shows that the second-order inertial
is substangraphically. Figure
sublayer
than the first-order one. The limit
lines
in the figure are more
substantiallynarrower
or lessarbitrary,
but
the respective
flows are
Figures 5.6 and 5.13 suggest that
f
inviscid
or \321\203
nearly
Iv > 10, respectively.
+ > 30 and yup2
If the
value of 1/\320\272
is approximately
3 and if a = 5, it takes an
asymptotic
than

order

v/u*

at a value

flow

experiment

of the

inertial

at

fl\302\273s5x106

(which

corresponds

to

\320\246//1>

\321\205
108)

to

5.5 The downstream

177

103

E.4.30)

plant

a pipe

would do the

make sure that

\320\2567

108

layers

109

second-order
inertial sublayers
the crosshatched area.

be valid in

determine 1/\320\272
within

of turbulent boundary

and

First-order

should

with

106

10s

10\"

Figure 5.15.

development

in

pipe

flow.

Equation

An experiment set up near a hydraulic power

flowing at a velocity Ub = 50 m/sec
would have to be at least 1,000m long in order to
is achieved near the exit.
homogeneity

1% error.

of 4 m

job. The
downstream

radius

pipe

and water

5.5
of turbulent boundary
development
layers
of boundary
increases
layers
flowing over solid surfaces generally
in the downstream direction, becausethe
loss
of momentum
at the wall is
either by viscosity (molecular mixing)
diffused
or by turbulent
mixing. The
of
turbulent
growth
boundary
layers, of course, is generally
quite
rapid
of laminar
compared to the growth
boundary layers.
A general
treatment
of boundary-layer
boundevelopment under arbitrary
is
out
of
the
conditions
because
of
the
motion
boundary
equations
question,
cannot be solvedin general.
who have to predict the development
Engineers
of a turbulent
boundary layer on a wing or a ship's hull, say, use semi empirempiricaltechniques,
such as described by Schlichting
A960).
Here, we concena family of turbulent
concentrateon
in which
boundary
layers in steady, plane flow
The

downstream

The

thickness

Wall-bounded shear flows

178

\302\246=>-

Figure 5.16.

Definition

downstream

the

are

law,

equivalent

if

boundary
Falkner-Skan

the

We consider
heat

without

equations of

an appropriate

with

of

and

layers are calledequilibrium

of

family

laminar

steady, incompressible,

or mass

in such a

is adjusted

distribution

of the Reynolds number

Such

to

flow.

boundary-layer

nondimensionalized

independent

x.

distance

pressure

profiles,

velocity

of plane

sketch

transfer.

plane

flows

sketch

definition

velocity-defect
downstream

the

they

layers;

boundary

their

that

way

dis-

are equiv-

layers.

surface

over a smooth

is given

in

Figure

5.16;

the

are

motion

\320\255\321\205
by

_
\321\215
/
\320\255
\342\200\224
\302\246
+\342\200\224
+ v
I \342\200\224uv
\320\255\321\205 \\
\320\255\321\205
\320\252\321\203)

dV

\320\252\320\240
\320\255
/

t/dV

by

\342\200\224

E.5.1)

\320\255\321\205/

-\321\203

,6.5.3,
\320\255\321\205
\320\252\321\203

The

flow

outside

the

boundary

layer

is assumed

to be irrotational:

= 0.
A

E.5.4)

\320\255\321\205

by

length

definedby

scale L,

associated

with

the

rate

of change of Uo

downstream, is

of turbulent

boundary layers

E.5.5)

Uo dx

L
If

downstream development

5.5 The

179

the

outside

flow

the

distance x

is uniform,

layer

boundary

used to obtain approximateequations

procedures
identical
to
those
used for turbulent
wakes.

of motion, so that
analysis to follow.

such

words,

that

limit

equations
\302\260\302\260
-*\302\246
in the

a velocity-

satisfy

E.5.6)

F(ylb)l

be

should

pressure

the

From

u\302\273/(/0 \302\2531

to be valid

shear stress at

We also assume

that

The

flow

+
\342\200\236\302\273.
\320\264\321\205

boundary

dVn
Uo2p+Vo?pL
dx

together
With

with

E.5.6),

by
the

slowly:

to be

continuity

to pil\\.
\302\2531

and

justified a posteriori.
layer

boundary

8/L

that

This

large.

compared

is governed

by

l6.6.7,

dP0

E.5.8)

---r;.
P by

appropriate

the

assume

safely

small

fairly

grows

have

the

dx

\320\252\321\203
p
dVn

layer

can

must

latter

is made sufficiently

pu\\, is very

flow outside the

v.!!2.._i2b

we

flow

law

velocity-defect

layer, so that

surface

wall,

these assumptions will

All of

The potential

the

the

The

parameter.

only

in the

with pipe
number
bujv
Reynolds

implies that the

\302\2531.

flows,

gained

experience
if the

of

family

gradient is the

E.5.6) is not expected

be treated separately.

of Reynolds number, so that

in which a suitably
nondimen-

independent

asymptotically

an entire

describe

can

sionalized

8/x

first-order

specialcaseL/x

motion

case are
the

that

a way that F is independentof the downstream

distance x. In other
we are looking for self-preserving
flows.
Of course,
the self-preserving

solutions
they

of

length

law,

(U-U0)lu1t
in

to the equations

out

the

scale;

in that

motion

turns
in the

ignore the

can conveniently

solutions

for

look

We

defect

we

of

It

or singularity

cause any change

not

does
L/x-*\302\260\302\260

case, the

In that
L-+\302\260\302\260.

origin is the appropriate

defined

a suitably

from

continuity
equation

equation
E.5.3)

and

E.5.4).

may be

written

as

E-5'9)
\320\254\321\203-\342\200\224^-\320\254(\320\270*\320\237-

Wall-bounded shear flows

180

the

Now,

that

scale associated with

length

as a
bUa/\320\254\321\205

VoE)

E.5.10)

of

value

and

8/L

if

from

\302\2531.

Treating

\321\2035:

to

\321\2030

E.5.10)

outside the

Vo just

If the

layer.

boundary

may be approximated

E.5.10)

if u\302\273
\302\253Uo,

E.5.11)

-8^-

This equation
pressure

valid

not

is

if

be

would

if the

case, the approximations de-

In that

of zero

condition

the

Differentiating

it

be used.

wakes should

turbulent

small, as

is very

dU0/dx

were
small.
\320\264\320\2400/\320\264\321\205

gradient

for

developed

integral
by

Vo(8)

so

is L,

flow

Fdr\\.

Jo

is finite

potential

E.5.9)

integrating

by

\342\200\224(M)

-5-^-

Here, Vo{8) is the

in

we obtain

constant,

in the

changes

over a distance

constant

is essentially
dUo/\320\264\321\205

with

E.5.4)

vorticity

to x, we

respect

estimate
3

@\\

m(
<5-5-12>

\320\253^\320\253
that

shows

This

(8/LJ, so that
boundary
From

the relative change of

can
dUo/\320\264\321\205

now

can

the

boundary

and

5/1

\302\2531,

the

estimate

layer. The

compared

as

the

second
to

of

terms

side

left-hand

= Q(8UO/L2).
E.5.7, 5.5.8) just outside
= 3U0/3x

dU0/dy

is

result

E-5\320\2334)
\"\302\260-9\320\223*\320\253-

terms

E.5.7). This implies

insignificant.The

that

find

because
both
\320\264\320\2400/\320\254\321\203\302\253\320\264\320\2400/\320\254\321\205.

and

order

we

E.5.11)

\320\253'
If

5 is of order

as a constant as far

layer is concerned.
E.5.4)

We

same

a distance

over
bUo/\320\252\321\205

be treated

indeed

the

a factor

are

both

that

entire

on the

term
first.

the

If

the boundary layer may

8/L
thus

side

the

of

Vo

is dynamically

E.5.7)

are of
term

dominant

is of

the

of

insignifi-

order 82/L2

for the inviscid

flow
the
by
single equation

equations

approximated

of E.5.8)

the

than

equation for

left-hand

\302\2531,

be

8/L smaller

above

5.5The

181

are essentially

The pressure

are needed to

independent

insidethe

boundary

stressesare

small

in

this

because

approximation,

as the

as far
\321\203

of

all terms

magnitude of

layers

who

derivatives

partial

of turbulent boundary

development

p dx

\302\253.^-i?.
dx
No

downstream

layer

boundary

Uo and

We now estimate the order of magniReynolds number is large enough, viscous

to Reynolds stresses, so that we may write
layer

If the

E.5.2).

compared

E516)

\320\270\342\204\242+\321\203\342\204\242\321\210-1*-&-&\321\210

dx

by

Po

is concerned.

dx

by

by

V is

velocity defectis small, U is of order Uo. The order of magnitude

is equal
to 8U0/L. Thus, UbV/dx = O(8UZ/L2).The
Vo(8), which

gradient

9W5y

Since the

terms are

bv2lby

based on

the

boundary

layer, so

The second

to

first.

the

The

.6/
1

first

integral
magnitude

the stress is

is not

relevant
if the

valid

in

integral of

may be

E.5.16) then

neglected compared

reads

yy\\

E-5-17)

r)dv-

by)

side

right-hand

of

defined

is of

E.5.17)
terms

are

order ul

of the

relation

used

of order

p dx

and

the

same order of

by

E.5.18)

j=u,L/U08,

is finite.

the

throughout

velocity scale for the turbulent

pressure gradient causes separa-

E.5.16)

order (8UO/LJ. These two

if y,

of order pul

dV

dx

term on the
is of

grad-

The Reynolds stress

The last two estimates are

5.4.

Section

Reynolds-stress term

in

dUv/\320\252\321\205
=O(ul/L).

is the
u\302\273

An approximate

and

that

seen

VbV/\320\252\321\203
O(8Ul/L2).

that

assumption

we have

that

=0(ul/8)

assumption

This

motion.
separation,as

so

0(Vo/5),

of

This

in wakes.

one.

p dx

to

amounts

uJU^

=0

(8/L),

We assume, subject to

Differentiating

E.5.17),

which

later

we obtain

is similar

verification,

to the
that

scale relaindeed
\321\203

is

182

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

The boundary-layer
approximation
rather

to

carefully,

are of

which

of

equation With these results,

obtained. The approximation
because
E.5.1) is dominated by

velocity-defect

dU

order Ul/L.

law

are

We

the

so that

E.5.6),

for flows

which

the

satisfy

is useful:

decomposition

dU0

+ U0 \342\200\224
(U-Uo)

dx

and \320\254\320\240/\321\200\320\254\321\205,
both
U bU/\320\252\321\205

looking
following

dU0

^7-=t/o\342\200\224\320\255\321\205

the boundary-layer approxhas to be performed

can be

E.5.1)

i-(U-U0)\342\200\224^+{U-U0)\342\200\224(U-U0).
dx

\320\255\321\205

\320\255\321\205

E.5.20)

first term on the

of E.5.20)
cancels the pressure gradient
the next two terms are of order UqU*IL; it
is clear that these should be retained. However, terms of order ul/L can be
and dP0/pdx
The difference between \320\252\320\240/\321\200\320\252\321\205
is of order (ul/L), as
neglected.

The
by

E.5.19) shows,
=

bu2/dx

can
be
\320\252\320\240/\320\252\321\205

it

neglected

the

for

\320\255

\342\200\224(t/

Uo) + (U

so far, E.5.1)

obtained

results

the

dUn
Uo)

+ (U -

-?

Uo)

may

Q(L/6)
be

E.5.18),

- Uo) +

so

by

approximated

\320\255
\342\200\224

(U

The stress term

The viscous term

reason.

same

if
<S(ul/L)(vlu*b)
U0tu,is not small.
also can be neglected if u*blv

On basisof
Uo

by dP0/dx.

replaced

can be

vb2U/bx2=0(vU0IL2)
that

is finite,

If

that

so

@(ul/L)

side

right-hand

of E.5.15).

virtue

\320\255
\342\200\224

(U

- Uo

E.5.21)

(U?+v^). by]

\320\255/\\

The

last term on the

defect because Uo

left-hand

side

could

be written

in

The assumption
defect {Uo - U) is of order u. has not yet been applied
of this equation.
Because
the velocity defect is not small
is

independent

of the

terms

of /.

that
to

the

velocity

the

velocity
left-hand side

in the surface layer

of
stress is purely
further
viscous,
simplification
be delayed
until a momentum integral
has been obtained.
E.5.21) should
of the various
Before we do this, let us look at the orders of magnitude
term in E.5.21)
is of order ul/5. The
The Reynolds-stress
terms in E.5.21).
first
and
side of E.5.21)
second
terms on the left-hand
are of order UoujL.
The
is of order u+L/8U0
to
therefore,
term,
Reynolds-stress
compared
=7
the major inertia
Three
as
terms.
limit processes are possible. If 7~>-0
and

because

surface

the

bu*lv-\302\273\302\260\302\260,
Reynolds

with
limit

extremely
process

negligible. This correspondsto situations

or decelerationof the flow; the particular
sometimes used to compute
the
initial reaction of

stresses

are

rapid acceleration
involved

is

5.5The

183

downstream

of turbulent boundary

development

layers

in pressure. If y^\302\260\302\260,
the
layers to very
rapid
changes
are small compared to the Reynolds
stresses.
Physically speakis an impossible situation;
it corresponds
to a Reynolds stress which
speaking,this
is independent
of y, and therefore equal to zero (becausethe stress must be
zero outside the boundary
layer).
The distinguished
limit is clearly the case in which
7 remains finite, no
matter how large the Reynolds number is. This is a significant
conclusion,
flows can be obtained only
because it implies that
if the ratio of
equilibrium
the turbulence time scale 5/u\302\273 to the flow time scale L/Uo is finite
and
In
the
remains
constant as the boundary
other
bounwords,
layer
develops.
turbulent

inertia

boundary

terms

Let us

the

momentum

the

to

return

keep pace with

integral.
we obtain
E.5.3),

has to

turbulence

boundary-layer

equation

continuity

\320\252\321\205

flow.

the

dx

\320\264\321\203

with

E.5.21)

Rearranging

help of

\320\255\320\272,

\320\264\321\203\\

E.5.22)

dx

layer, the

limit of the

Uo

\342\200\224
U is

the same
E.5.23)

the

surface

integrals

in

is defined

as pu\\.

are zero.

defect

velocity

the

Outside

boundary

The exact location

is immaterial; the

E.5.23)

of

the

symbol

infinity

is

A may be definedby

thickness

boundary-layer

- U) dy.
of order

order of

E.5.24)
most

u\302\273
through

magnitude.

Using

of the

E.5.24),

and
\320\224

layer,

boundary

we can write

the

first

5 are

integral

of
in

as

U(U -

Jf \320\276

Uo)

dy

(U

- U0J dy.

E.5.25)

\320\270\320\276\320\270*\320\220
Jf
\320\276

velocity defect is small, the last integral

~
surface layer, however, U \342\200\224
Uo, so
Uo

If the

the

E.5.23)

for convenience.

normalized

[Uo

If

= ul.

(U-U0)dy

*J0

the stressat
stress and the

merely used
A

\320\223
U(U-UQ)dy~d\342\200\224
\342\200\242\"\320\276

As before,
upper

yields

of E.5.22)

Integration

in E.5.25)
that

the

is of

contribution

order ul A.

In

to the last

184

shear

Wall-bounded

flows

thickness
(the
integral made in the surface
layer is of order U\\v/u*
it is of order (Uq/u*J
surface layer is of order v/u*).
Therefore,
relative
to the contribution made by the rest of the boundary
layer.

we expect

that

neglected.

Finally,

of

side

\302\260\302\260
-*\302\246
much
slower

U0/u*

because

E.5.23) may be approximated

dx

We can

first

in

Because
can

right-hand

by

E.5.26)

dx

is large.

8u*/v

if

Outside the surface layer, the

to E,5.21).

return

now

be

Therefore,

approximation.

+ Au* \342\200\224-=ul.

be neglected

can

\302\2531,

u,/U0

needs to be retained

E.5.25)

\342\200\224(Au*U0)

than Au+lv, this contribution

only the first term on the

of the
(v/u*A)

The

inertia

third

viscousterm

order ul/L

is of

term

if

is of order \320\270,,so that it is small compared to the leading

velocity
in E.2.21);
terms.
if the
The cross-stream velocity component V occurs
with an arbitrary upper
analysis
leading from E.5.9) to E.5.11) is repeated
with a correction
of integration,
limit
there results V = \342\200\224y
term that
dU0/dx
be neglected
motion
for
the
if uJUq
\302\2531. The
of
outer
can
equation
layer
defect

the

becomes

thus

Uo)
U0?-[U\320\255\321\205

This equation is

(U-U0)d-^-y^^-{U-U0)
dx
dx
by

linear

in the

velocity

defect

it
Uo\342\200\224U;

E.5.27)

-b-^-.
by

is called

the linearized

boundary-layer equation.
flow

Equilibrium

We want

to

solutions

find

to E.5.27)

which

satisfy

E.5.28)

F(v),

E.5.29)

=G(t?),

where
V

A.
\320\243I

The normalized
convenience.Substitution

E.5.30)
boundary-layer

of E.5.28)
1 d

\320\224
d

thickness

and E.5.29)
dF

\320\224
has
into

been

used here for

E.5.27)

yields

dG

E.5.3!)

--(Uou.)F---{AUo)n-=-.
If

the

coefficients

in this equation

conven-

can be made

independent

of x,

the equa-

185

5.5The

downstream

of motion

tion

E.5.31) cannot
examined.

The

allows self-preservingsolutions.However,
for the
proceed until the equations

of order

surface. We expect U to

of the

if uJU0

wall

\302\2531.

Hence,

layer.

order

is of

term

The

length

that

so

U\\IL,

scale

the

in

equation

be of

Also, bU/bx = <S(uJL),so that

ul/L.

scale for the

gradient

Let us considerthe

wall layer

in the

flow

immediate
vicinity

of turbulent boundary

development

order

V =

VbU/by
the inertia

layers

further
wall

for U
so
u\302\273,

of

analysis

been

have

layer

immed-

in

the

that

is
bU/\320\252\321\205

O(u/L) if v/u* is the length

= O(ul/L).
The pressure-

terms should

be

neglected

layer is v/u^ in order

same order of magnitude.

wall

Reynolds stress and viscousstressof the

terms
in the equation for U are buv/\320\252\321\203
and
leading stress
order ul/v. The pressure gradient is of order vU\\/Lu\\

v b2U/by2;
compared

to

keep

The leadthey are of

to the

other

stress terms. Now,

v

Uo

U08

vUl

E-5-32)

\"^T\"^<^6-

The first
not to
was

stated

the

pressure

E.5.32) is 1/7.Because

we

decided

As
very
rapidly
accelerating or decelerating flows, 7 is finite.
-\302\273\302\260\302\260
rather
before, Uq/u^
slowly
compared to 8u*/v- Therefore,
is small compared to the principal
and
gradient
Reynolds-stress

terms

viscous-stress
0 =

right-hand side of

on the

factor

deal with

in

\320\255 \342\200\224
/
dU\\
\342\200\224
\\-uv+v\342\200\224
\\
by)

the

inner

layer. The equation

of

motion

reduces

to

E.5.33)

by

that
this approximation
be seen intuitively
is correct. Throughout
the
the velocity
it has been assumed that
defect is of order o\302\273
and that
can be valid only if no
Reynolds stresses are of order pul. These
assumptions
other
characteristic
where
the pressure
velocity is relevant. In conditions

It can

analysis,

might

gradient

The law of the

stress

Section
Ulu*

velocity scale (like the one used in

it be small compared to the

requirement is that

Section
friction

u,.

velocity

wall

a new

generate

the obvious

5.4),

pul.

5.2; we
f(yujv),

wall

The

E.5.33)

Equation
nature

of

the

a constant-stress layer
of E.5.33) has been studied

defines

solutions

with

in

recall that
E.5.34)

186

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

E.5.35)

-uvlui=g(yujv).

To

first

gradient.

Ludwieg

and

exist.

the

If

is independent of
made

which

layer

case, the
law

logarithmic velocity
written as

law

E.5.28)

profile gives

friction

logarithmic

law,

which

may

A can

constant

additive

a pressure-gradient

is given.

of E.5.36)

dA

of

function

form

differentiated
/Uo\\

be a

dU0

We

now determine

The pressure-gradient

parameter

solutions to E.5.31) may

may be expanded as follows:

self-preserving
occurringin E.5.31)

Ad

u, dx

ul dx

The momentum

integral

U^.1.2^.
of the

indicates

the

that

be

last terms

a convenient

under

what

conditions

The coefficients

expected.

occur-

may

\\U0

be rearranged to

read

,5.5.40,
law

friction

differential

u*/UQ\302\2531.

is

E.5.37)

w. dx

dx

Substitution

dx

u?

E.5.26)

form

AUl

AdU0

parameter.

convenient

JKA'dx+KU^'dx''

showsthat
others if

be

E.5.36)

For later use, a

ul

by

that
solutions
to the equation of
do
the
satisfy
velocity-defect law E.5.28)
of the wall E.5.34)
must be matched to
The
profile.
through a logarithmic
velocity

^.=l,n^+A
The

the

in experiments

We assume

law

outer

velocity-defect

layer

discovered

first

A949).

friction

is the

this

wall

the

in

This result was

Tillmann

The logarithmic
motion for the

flow

the

approximation

pressure

of E.5.38)

and

E.5.37)

E.5.39)

are

into E.5.38, 5.5.39)

small compared to the

set E.5.38, 5.5.39,5.5.40)then

defined
by
pressure-gradient parameter is \320\237,

Inspection

of the

5.5 The downstream

187

of turbulent boundary layers

development

A dU0

=
\320\237

\342\200\2242.

E.5.41)

dx
\"\342\200\242

result is not surprising:

can be obtained only
if the ratio
self-preservation
of the time scales (dU0/dx)~land \320\224/i/, is a constant (see the discussion
This

and

E.5.21)

following

In terms

E.5.56)).

of \320\237,
E.5.31)

and

read

E.5.40)

=\342\200\224
,
?\342\200\224

dr\\

E.5.42)

dr\\

E.5.43)

^^
The

5.5.42,

E.5.36,

system

by the

imposed

5.5.43) is subject to a normalization

and E.5.28)
of \320\224
and

E.5.24)

definitions

condition

F, respectively.

The normalization condition is

E.5.44)
\320\276

The

imposed on E.5.42)

conditions

boundary

F-+0.G-+0
G-M
ndF/drj^-\320\234\320\272

fori7-*oof

E.5.45)

fon?-\302\273-0,

E.5.46)

fort?-*\342\200\242().

E.5.47)

system of equations
constant.
Therefore, we
The

is also

E.5.42-5.5.47)

solutions

layers;

their

their

are

Reynolds
only

These

profiles

valid

layers

boundary

asymptotically

performed a

series

carefully adjusted in
defect function
F[r)).

so that
of the Reynoldsnumber,
invariance
asymptotic
(Reynolds-number

as Aujv

the
simi-

of

these

statements

-><\302\273.

obtained

experiments
order
to obtain
His

in

is constant
\320\237
are equilibrium
layers in which
are self-preserving and the velocity
profiles of
at the same value of \320\237
are identical,
even if

were first
of

\320\237
is a

The problem definedby

are not the same. Of course, all

numbers

conclusions

of x.

\320\237
independent

if

flows

boundary-layer

self-preserving

expect

of x

independent

independent

boundary

velocity

two different

may

exhibit

G(tj)

F{t\\),

Therefore,

similarity).

E.5.36, 5.5.42-5.5.47)is

that make

distributions

pressure

are

in

by

which

F.

the

downstream
showed that
experiments

H. Clauser

pressure
invariance

the

A956). Clauser
distribution was
of

pressure

the

velocitydistribution

188

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

-y/S

10\021

-2.5

-10

-7.5

^^

n =
.\342\200\224'

--

n = 2

^^

-20.^^

-20
n = 7 ^^.

-30

\"
,.\342\200\224\302\246

\320\237
.0

3.6 6.3

:
\320\224/6

12

-40
at different
The scaling length for \321\203
is
values of \320\237.
Figure 5.17. Velocity-defectprofiles
the boundary-layer thickness 6, defined
as the value of \321\203
where F = \342\200\2240.1
(based on data
1956).
by Clauser,

was well represented by

discovered
from an ad

the

and

stress

wall

in the

deficit

the

of

logarithmic

the pressure

\320\237.
The

the

involving

argument

to

gradient

the

of

significance

relative

rate of

\320\237
was

contributions

of

increase of momentum

boundary layer.

Some of
different values

value of

a constant

hoc

velocity
shown

\320\237
are

part

of

and others for differprofiles obtained by Clauser

constant
in the
in Figure 5.17. The additive

F increases

rapidly

the
\320\237;

with

amplitude

of the

wake

is the difference betweenF and its logarithmic

which
part,
W(rt),
In the limit \320\237
the velocity
therefore also increaseswith \320\237.
->\302\260\302\260,
profile may
be a pure wake function.
function

distributions
Free-streamvelocity
o
f
layers
development equilibrium

\"_\320\270

_\320\237,

\320\270*
dx

No general

solutions,
with

The

governing the downstream

5.5.43, 5.5.36) are

equations

E.5.41,

\320\223|_(\320\224\320\270,)1+2\320\237,
\320\270*
dx

= -ln=^

\320\270*\320\272

set E.5.36,5.5.41,5.5.43)is known. Approximate

if the very slow change of UqIu^.
however, can easily be obtained

respect

solution to the
to x is

exploited.

If

the

range

of values of

x for

which

an

5.5 The downstream

189

is equal

is desired is

solution

approximate

to

value

its

of turbulent boundary

development

it may

small,

fairly

beginning of the

at the

interval

[x

layers

be assumed that
=

xt).

we

If

?-^
Uo

replace E.5.41)

=
dx

and

E.5.43)

by
E.5.49)

-0,\320\237.

E.5.50)

\321\2025-^-{\320\224\320\270\320\276\320\235A+2\320\2500,.

ox

l/o

In

JUO

E-5-48)

\321\200\"

we may

\320\270

put

this

the logarithmic

approximation,
of

solution

was

5.5.50)

E.5.49,

first

law

friction

has

by A. A.

given

to be ignored. The
Townsend A956); it

reads

\321\207\320\275\320\263-

where

and

7. =

A+\320\227\320\237)\320\224\321\205,/\320\224-,.

The

coefficient

ratio

7 defined

at x
\320\224;/|3;\320\237

J-, is of

order u*x/AU0,

in E.5.18).
Xj, so

that

E.5.54)

jt

The length

so
scale

may be written

that

it is similar

L, defined

in

to the time-scale

E.5.5)

has the

value

as

E.5.55)

-.

\320\277 \320\224,

The

time-scale

ratio

on
\320\243,

the

other hand, is given

by

= -\320\223\320\223'
\342\200\242\321\203
\320\261

E.5.56)

'

The

singularity

of E.5.56)

in

the

limit

as

-* 0
\320\237

is due

to the

particular

way

Wall-bounded shear flows

190

=
defined. If \320\237
0, E.5.50)
yields dA/dx = /3i# which corresponds
to finite values of &U0/xut, so that
the ratio of time scalesis finite.
It
again
should
be noted that
finite if 6 is defined as the value of \321\203
\320\224/6is always
F is some small number (say 0.1).
where
It is clear
that E.5.51) and E.5.52)
are singular if \320\237-\302\273\302\260\302\260.
This
singularity
has physical significance, because it represents
flows that are approaching
in

L is

which

In
this occurs if Uo <^x~113.
separation. According to E.5.52) and E.5.53),
no
stable
flows
at
\320\237>10
can
obtained.
be
experimental practice,
steady,
that
Equation E.5.51) also shows
equilibrium
layers become thicker more
at large
It should
be noticed that
all boundary
rapidly
positive values of \320\237.
is assumed to be constant.
in x if uJUu
For large values
layers grow linearly
of (x \342\200\224
\320\224
thus with x) takes effect;
(and
Xj), the slow decrease of uJU0 with
the

boundary-layer

layers in
case

Boundary
discussion

of the

pressure

gradient

-TJ

thickness

zero

then increases

as 6 <* x/ln

roughly

x.

A somewhat more detailed

to
constant Uo) is in order.
(corresponding
E.5.42),
E.5.43), and E.5.36) become
pressure

gradient

dis-

= 0
\320\237

is zero,

If the

=
\342\200\224

E.5.57)

dli

dt]

dr\\

E.5.58,

^UW=1,

E.5.59)
\320\272

w*

The

short-range

growth of \320\224
may

be approximated

by

dA

=
\342\200\224

dx

E.5.60)

/3|,

where

is the value of u*/U0 at X;. In the

F = \342\200\2240.1.
where
as
defined
the value of \321\203
to consider the entrainment
It is worthwhile
layer
by the turbulent motion at the edge of
continuity

/3j

equation

Since the

integral

may be integrated

in E.5.61)

case

of
the

=
\320\237
0,

fluid

s
\320\224/6

outside

boundary

3.6

the

if

is

boundary

layer. The

con-

to yield

is equal to

\342\200\2241
by virtue

of E.5.44),

we may

S.SThe

191

downstream

the slopei

write for

development

of the

of turbulent boundary layers

mean streamlines at the

edge of

the

boundary

layer

dS*

E.5.62)

dx

where5* is the
we find that
=

clo

The

of E.5.58)

By substitution

E.5.63)
ccs of

slope

average

is db/dx = 0.28
the edge of the boundary
layer
and E.5.37) we concludethat

From E.5.58)

as 3.6.
if \320\224/5

0.28

d8

E.5.64)

dx

If ujU0
Oo

E.5.66).

(uJUqJ.

dA/dx

thickness

displacement

\302\2531,

Figure

5.18

maintained

Figure

streamlines

as

so.57\302\260

few
. If

numbers
U0/u.=

If

may be helpful.

20, ao =

\320\227\320\236,
\320\270\320\276/\320\270\342\200\236

O.14\302\260 and

the situation. The entrainment

process
motions like those sketched in
large-eddy

illustrates
by

5.18.

\302\273a0.

as

and

?=0.064\302\260

Entrainment
in zero pressure
by a boundary layer
do not represent the actual flow pattern over the interface

a6 sO.92\302\260.
is believed to be

the

figure.

These

gradient. The
shown.

mean

Wall-bounded shear flows

192

eddies

the interface
on occasion engulf
is about 0.28u* if

betweenthe

integral E.5.58)

associated

distort

continually

turbulent

nonturbu-

and

fluid. The
is neglected
entrainment
1/\320\272
velocity
compared to U0/u*
and if a0 is neglected compared to as. The interface
between
the turbulent
is quite
and the potential flow
boundary
layer
sharp; its characteristic thickwhich
is comparable
thickness is believed
to be of order v/u*,
to the thickness of
the
viscous
and
(Corrsin
1954).
sublayer
Kistler,
lent

and

fluid

momentum

The

motion.

of

equations

may

Uld=

This implies

is

with

the linearized

thickness

momentum

the

that

nonturbulent

of the

parts

defined
\320\262,

equaby

E.5.65)

\320\223\320\270(\320\270\320\276-\320\270)\321\2011\321\203,

Jo

assumed to

has been

U08*=

be equal

the

to

thickness 8 *, defined by

displacement

E.5.66)

f(U0-U)dy.

This approximation,

of course, is consistent

with

the

that the

assumption

U is small compared to Uo. Experiments

velocity defect Uo\342\200\224
rather accurately even if
that the velocity-defect law is satisfied
of E.5.28)
into the definitions
defect is not small. Substitution
=
\320\235
factor
for the shape
8*/\320\262
yields

have

shown

the

velocity

of

5* and

\320\262

E.5.67)

H={1-CuJU0)-1,

where

C=

E.5.68)

[Vc/r?.

Jo

= 0. If
=
is 30%
of \320\241
is about
6 for \320\237
0.04, H= 1.3, which
uJU0
which
is
1.
In
calculations
than
the
larger
semiempirical
asymptotic value,
of turbulent boundary
H is often
of the downstream
layers,
development
is allowed to vary
to some
assumed to be constant,
but
u*/U0
according
cofriction
laws express the friction
law
empirical friction
(empirical

value

The

coefficient cf,
number

function

of some

power of the Reynolds

if F(tj)
of

7?,

F is

1/K

stress, G(tj), can be computed

(see Figure 5.17). For
experiments

of the Reynolds

distribution

E.5.57)

dG/dn

2ul/U%,as a

\320\262\320\270\320\276/\320\270).

The

values

defined as

is

known

logarithmic,
for

7?

-> 0.

from

so

that

E.5.57)

from
small

gives

E.5.69)

193

5.5The

downstream

development

of turbulent boundary

layers

= 0. The solid line is

for \320\237
The Reynolds-stress distribution
5.19.
computed
Figure
line is E.5.70), with
with E.5.57) and F given by Figure 5.17. The straight
dashed
= 3.6. The curved dashed line is E.5.72),
= 1/60.
with \320\232
1/k = 2.5, \320\224/8

Since G

-*\302\246
1 if

-\302\273\302\246
\321\202?0, E.5.69)

may be

to

integrated

yield

E.5.70)

GG?)=1-7?/K.

This expressionis valid

the

of

distribution

only

near

the surface.

5.19

Figure

gives

a sketch

of

G(t?).

relates the velocity profile to the stress profile. So far,

on the relation between stressand velocity
assumptions
With similarity arguments and asymptotic
rules, we have resolved all
gradient.
of the
flows
essential features of boundary-layer
without
ever solving the
If we want to solve equations like
we need a
equations of motion.
E.5.57),
to
link the stress to the velocity
A simple
constitutive relation
gradient.
E.5.57)

Equation

we have avoided any

constitutive relation is

G = KdF/dv,
where

\320\232
is

independent
The

result

is

E.5.71)

an

eddy viscosity,
of rj, E.5.57) and

nondimensionalized

E.5.71)

can

easily

with

u,

be solved

and

\320\224.
If

is
\320\232

for the stress G.

Wall-bounded shear flows

194

G(t?)

E.5.72)

\320\265\321\205\321\200(-\321\202?2/2\320\256.

value of

K, of

course,has

A curve
by curve fitting.
has
been
5.19.
drawn
in
The
,
Figure
^
can
distribution
be
obtained
from
once
E.5.72)
velocity
F(t?)
by
integrating
more. This introduces an arbitrary
which can be adconstant,
integration
in such a way
that
the resulting
curve is close to the logarithmic
adjusted
at
This
is
small
values
of
if
velocity
profile
\321\202?.
hardly worth the effort, though;
an analytical
is
for
a
of
wake
function
expression
F{t}) desired, sinusoidal
suitable amplitude doesjust as well.

The

according

to E.5.72),

Transport

of scalar contaminants

impossibleto

of heat or other
detail. Let us briefly

in any

layers

boundary

the

Within

the transport

discuss

released from

that are

be determined

to

K=

with

scope of
scalar

this

it is

book,

consider

passive

impos-

in turbulent

contaminants

contaminants

a
(for example, the heat flux
through
boundary
layer on a hot wall). If the ratio of the kinematic viscosity to the
of the contaminant is near unity,
the distribution
of the contamindiffusivity
contaminant
is similar
to the distribution
of the mean-velocity
defect; the rate of
in the \321\203
direction
is the same as the rate of growth
of
spread of contaminant
the boundary layer. The rate
of transfer
of contaminant away
from
the
surface is coupled to the stress at the surface. In the case of temperature, the
law

transfer

\"w

reads

\302\260
= \342\200\224
+
In \342\200\224

0.

surface

the

E.5.73)

const,

\320\272

where
E.5.74)

\302\253..

In these

to v.

expressions,

The rate of heat

temperatures

it

has

assumed

been

transfer

at the surface

and A, are known.

for the
the diffusivities

from
@W)

and

that the thermal

the surface,
outside

diffusivity

H, can be computed

the boundary

is equal
if the

layer @O), as

as t/,

well

scalar and for

are not the same, the

and
of
the
moleculardiffusion
sublayer
same.
of scalar
The transfer
of the scalar near the surfaceare not the
layer
then becomes a very complicated
contaminants
layer
through the boundary
is
in
flow of liquid mercury.
A
transfer
turbulent
case
in
heat
point
problem.
the
thermal
at room temperature,
In
diffusivity
(y) is 35 times as
mercury
If

thickness of the

viscous

(momentum)

momentum

195

Problems

kinematic viscosity.

as the

large

is represented

an

by

7e/y becomesequal
numbers

like

much

this,

though

nearly

motion.

Effectively,

the

of heat

transport

turbulent

motion

u^A/60,

the ratio

by

is about
moderate

At

num-

Reynolds

of the heat transfer is causedby molecular

even
motion,
the momentum transfer
is caused
by the turbulent
the molecular diffusion
extends
through the entire
layer

of

all

momentum

If

eddy diffusivity
ye, which
to one for utA/p~
2,000.

layer.

boundary

Problems

Consider

5.1

flow

turbulent

developed

fully

plane walls. Estimate the opening angle

is equal to zero.
downstream pressuregradient
with

5.2 Describethe

in

a two-dimensional

of

the

diffuser

for which

diffuser

the

of the circulation and of the mean tanline vortex. The circulation

outside
the turbuit has a value \320\223\320\276.
is constant;
This
is an inner-outer layer problem.
turbulent vortex
The inner core of the vortex is in solid-body
it has negligible
rotation;
ReyFor the equations of motion
Reynolds
in cylindrical
stresses.
see
coordinates,
radial

distribution

in a turbulent

velocity

tangential

Batchelor A967) or other

5.3

Estimate

flow

in

the volume
Ekman

the

Ekman layer is
The

latitudes.

layer

driven

wind

volume flux

texts.

in the

by

flow

in

of the

of

this

pipe

doubles

of

and boundary-layer flow

has been found,

this
the

effect
viscosity

can be

5.5 is helpful.

What

of
but

experienced

by

Assume
at

Atlantic

is the

high

to the
that the

is due

flow

middle

direction

molecular

lati-

of the

weight,

drag reduction in
water.
No satisfactory explanation
an appreciation
for the order of

cause

obtained by

the viscosity experiencedby the mean

reduction on basis of this assumption.
on Figure

m/sec.

small amounts of
can

This

Ocean.

Atlantic

speeds are of order 10

Ekman layer?

phenomenon

magnitude
solution

Gulf Stream.

winds across the

westerly

5.4 Experiments have shown that

linear polymers added to water
turbulent

the
North

a substantial

assuming
the

that

turbulence

estimate for the drag

of the effectsof polymers

flow. Obtain an
An analysis

the polymer soluwithout changing

196

5.5

flows

shear

Wall-bounded

Write an equation for the kinetic

| U2 of the

energy

mean

velocity

in

in a plane channel. Sketch the distributions

of
flow
fully developed turbulent
all terms across the channel. Use the data
in Figures 5.6, 5.7, and 5.8 whenwhenever needed
to obtain reasonable accuracy. The energy
between
the
exchange

core

region

and

wall layers is

the

of particular

interest.

Interpret

your results

carefully.

5.6
plane
5.7

Repeat
wall

the

analysis

without

From the

= a Rjj&

of Problem

pressure

data

type cf
for turbulent

boundary

momentumintegral

equation

(cf

Section

in

2{uJU0J,

drag formula for a plate

layers

(cf

of

5.5 for a turbulent

layer

boundary

over a

gradient.
5.5, obtain

Re
in zero

= 2d6/dx
length

L.

approximate

friction

law of the

= 6U0/v, \320\262
is the

momentum

thickness)

an

pressure gradient. Integrate the momenif

dP/dx

= 0)

to

obtain

an

approximate

6
THE

Up to now, we
such as U and

have

of

considered

only average values

as important

is just

\342\200\224
Uv. It

to examinehow
adjacent fluctuations
study

OF TURBULENCE

DESCRIPTION

STATISTICAL

each other

to

(next

in

a mean value

around

of

transform,
probability
density and its Fourier
of the relation between neighboring
study

quantities,

fluctuating

of turbulence
value and how
average
space) are related. The

understanding

around

are distributed

fluctuations

distributions

to our

an

or

time

requires the

of

introduction

the characteristic

the
The

function.

calls for the introducfluctuations

the energy spectrum.
and its Fourier
transform,
in
This chapter
is devoted
to the development of these mathematical
tools;
of turbulent
the following two chapters, they
are used in the study
transport
One other
tool needed in the study of
(\"diffusion\") and of spectraldynamics.
is the
turbulent transport
central limit
which
makes predictions
theorem,
of
the
of
about the shape
certain quantities. The central
probability
density
limit
theorem
is introduced
and discussed at the end of this chapter.

autocorrelation

the

introduction
of

6.1

The probability
restrict
the
We

steady, so that
function
Figure

discussion to
their

does

condition

density

the idea

of a

is called stationary;
6.1. The fluctuating
a wind

in

measured

amount of

relative

tunnel

time
an

u{t)

to the

proportional

time

signal

D(t) is

fairly

close

u{t)

of an

axis
\321\203

would

at each value

of y.
circuit,

gating
In

Figure

oscilloscope, with a
have a variable density,
more

6.1 the

of the

terms

successively to different
to the right of u(t)
shown

heights,
in

Figure

we

6.1.

obtain

measure-

accurate

which turns on

width of D(t). The

below
u{t). If this is averaged, we obtain
between
the two levels. Adjusting
the
in

in

given

streamwise velocity component

the
interested in measuring
at various levels. We could get a

exposure

between two adjacent levels.

together

circuit is shown
time spent by

spent

steady

statistically

function is

We are

spends
u{t) on the

by the use of a

be obtained

this

be the

a grid.

time

sense. A

of a stationary

u(t)

crude idea of this by displaying

rapid sweep on the x axis. A
measurement
can

might

behind

that

time

average
example

Only under

time.

of

functions

make

are statistically

that

quantities

fluctuating

values are not

mean

a function

the

when

levelsare placed

output
the

electronic

of the

gating

percentage

of

\"window\"

similar to the

one

The statistical

198

6.1.
Measurement
of the
{t) is the discriminator output.

Figure
function/

We

the

description

that the

expect

Au =
\320\222(\320\271)

lim

probability

density

of a stationary function.

of the gating circuit is proportional to

averaged output
it is convenient to define
a quantity
B(u) by

F.1.1)

-S(At).

The

function

B(u)

u(t)

between

\320\270
and

is called a probability density; the probability

0 + \320\220\320\270
is equal
to the proportion of time

it is always positive,
B(u) represents a fraction of time,
must
be equal to one:
the values of B{u) for all \320\270

Because
of

The

density

of

because

finding

while

there.
the

sum

sketched in Figure 6.1 is typical of probability

densities
other
in turbulence. Many
denshapes are possible; the probability
a sine wave is sketched in Figure
6.2. This curve is zero beyond \302\2611,
the sine wave has unit
Near \302\2611,
the slope goes to zero, so
amplitude.

shape

measured

of
spent

F.1.2)

J B(u)du=1.

B(u)>0,

The func-

so that
\320\220\320\270,

width

window

of turbulence

that

the

very

large.

sine

of B(u)

wave spends

most time

there,

making

the values

of B(u) near \302\2611

6.1 The probability

199

The probability

Figure 6.2.
We

density

density

averages we are familiar

some function
The
f(u).

express the
wish to average

may

Suppose

we

f=

Mm

0(t)

u +

\320\270
and

is

moment

U=[
In

AD,

multiplying

time

spent

t0 and f0

between
this

between

f(u), and

by
\320\270
and

of

As

\320\270
are

is defined

the mean value is always

in

Chapter

U = 0. We then

\342\200\224
\320\270\320\270
U and

summing

to

called

moments.

The

first

by

F.1.5)

work,
u(t).

Tduring

F.1.4)

DB(u)du.

function
fluctuating

+ \320\220\320\270
\320\270
is equal

J\342\200\224

of the various powers

the familiar mean value, which

experimental

Sup-

time average

intervals

values

mean

The

of B(u).

f{u)B(u)du.

f(O)dt=\\

T h0

7V-

time

all of the

adding

by

is between

The proportion of
so that we can write
B(u) \320\220\320\270,
7=lim-f0

in terms

with

F.1.3)

all levels.

over

wave.

f(u)dt

can be formed
which

of a sine

distribution

subtracted

2, we denote the fluctuations

have B(u) = B(U + u), so that

from

the fluctuat-

that
to
B(u) over a
and B{u) are
by

it is

u, so

convenient

use a probability
which is obtained by shifting
B(u),
density
distance U along the \320\270
axis.
The moments
un
formed with
called centralmoments.
The first central moment, of course, iszero.
The
a2 from the mean value
U is called the variance,
mean-square
departure

or second(central)
u2B(u)

It is

moment.

du =

defined

u2B(u)

du.

by

F.1.6)

The statistical

200

A function

6.3.

Figure

with

root of the
amplitude). The standard
The square

positive

skewness.

is the

a,

variance,

is the

deviation

familiar

deviation

standard

most convenient

(rms

measure of

the

of B(u).

width

The

'=

if

not

the

on

only

u3 -

origin,

0.

It

lack of symmetry in B(u). If B(u) is symmetric about the

to nondimensionalize u3 by aJ, which gives \320\260

is customary

measure

dimensionless

F.1.7)

du,

f\302\260
u3B(u)

depends

affected by any lack of symmetry in B{u) about

as the sum of symmetric
and antisymmetric parts,
contribute
to a2. The third moment,
defined by
however,
is not

is written

B(u)

does

latter

a2

of

value

the origin;

the

of turbulence

description

of the

(S):
asymmetry. This is calledtheskewness

F.1.8)

S=uVo3.

is
a function
with a positive value of S. The
skewness
pictures
because large negative values of u3 are not as frequent as large posi-

6.3

Figure

positive

of u3.

positive values

The

fourth

factor; it

by a4, is calledkurtosis

nondimensionalized

moment,

by the

is represented

or i'latness

symbol K:
F.1.9)

\320\232=\342\200\224=\342\200\224\320\223
u*B(u)du.
a4
J-<\302\273

a4

Two

functions,

one

large kurtosis, are

the values B(u) in

with

a relatively

sketched in
the

tails

Figure

of the

small and the other

6.4.

probability

The value
density

of the

with
kurtosis

are relatively

relatively
is large

if

large. The

201 6.2 Fourier

peaky

in

function

axis, so that
alized

Although

it

and

is easy

we

that

have

to

Fourier-transform

s \320\223
e*uB[u)
\320\2441/\320\241)

We have

used the

integration

to

pair

significance

physical
work

another

probability

straightforward

B(u).

the density

with

of the

probability density,
quantity, the characteristic

as the

defined

is defined

B(u) =

from the

away

is nondimensionof

width

Fourier
discuss Fourier transforms.
is

du,

far

functions

characteristic

conditions on the existence

are

on the

no information

as examples;
\321\204(\320\272)

characteristic
function

large kurtosis.

takes on values
moment
is large. Because the fourth

to see the

function

functions

6.4 frequently

more convenient

is often

function. This

and

small

contains
\320\232
\320\2604,

with

means

Figure

kurtosis

its

6.2
Fourier transforms
it

with

Functions

6.4.

Figure

and characteristic

transforms

of

transform

This

B(u).

by

\342\200\224

density

we use

dk.
\320\265\321\207\320\272\320\270\321\204(\320\272)

B(u)

other

on
and
of \321\204(\320\272)

and need not

and the

corresponding characterpairs

Fourier-transform

its

ability

F.2.1)

to

produce

concern us here.

later.

The

B(u) upon

In

order
the

transforms,

the

From
definition

description of turbulence

statistical

The

202

transgain an appreciation for the usefulness of Fourier

as reflected
in B(u) and conversely are explored.
behavior
of \321\204{\320\272)
of the average of a function
definition
given in F.1.4), and the
of \321\204{\320\272),
it is evident that

to

F.2.2)
As

denotes a time average.This equation

that
suggests
the
of
a
function
that
output
averaging
generator
by
of B(u)
sin u(t) and cost/(f). The experimental
convergence

overbar

the

always,

can
be
\321\204(\320\272)

measured

convertsu(t)

into

is poor,
the

becauseone must

window

width

wait

and longer

longer

Of course, there cannot be a net

to obtain B{u) from
the
transform
Fourier

direct measurement of B(u).

If we
have to deal with
combinations
the
characteristic
function
of the
v{t),
is simply expressed by
=

\321\204(\320\272,\320\241)
exp

+iMt)].

The corresponding

probability

[iku(t)

such simple
characteristic

form. This
function.

The moments

dk

which

density,
is

one

joint

as a

as long

say the sum of u{t) and

function)

characteristic

we encounter

reason for the

discuss

further

of

u(t)

are

joint

shortly,

characteristic

has

no
the

of

introduction

functions

in

to

related

of F.2.1) with
respect
of \321\204(\320\272)
derivatives
at the origin:
first

(the

take just

6.3.

Section

the

of functions,
sum

enough

\321\204(\320\272)
accurately

is bound to

F.2.3)

simplicity

We

to obtain a stableaverage
as
of \321\204(\320\272)
is much
better.

The convergence
gain; to determine

\320\220\320\270
is decreased.

tok,

in a simple way. Differentiating

\321\204(\320\272)
we find that the moments are related

\"**.

to

F.2.4,

*=0

Because

U=0,

characteristic

the slope of \321\204

at
can
function
be written

the

is zero. Becauseof F.2.4),

Taylor series of the moments:

the

origin
as a

01*)= Z ^7-0\".
\"'

F.2.5)

n=Q

obtained in a laboratory
have moments that
in principle
characteristic functions
unbounded, the corresponding
derivatives.
We say \"in principle,\"
because
the larger the order of a
to obtain a stable value. High-order moments
is, the longer it takes
Because

no densities

are

un-

have

all

moment
are

very

6.2

203

strongly affected by
moments
Therefore,
never have more than

the

in

the antisymmetric part of

we also conclude that
F.2.6)
imaginary
part is odd.
Only

The modulus

is given
of \321\204(\320\272)

\\f

becauseB[u)> 0
last integral

in

of

widths

The

alize the

\320\270
by

is even
\321\204(\320\272)

Definedthis

du

J\"

the

for

measure

right-hand

we

side of

F.2.9)
B'. accordingto

F.1.2), is

a decreases.

If

to one.

The

F.2.10)
of

can
be
\321\204(\320\272)

F.2.10) is equal
unit

to

\\.

the
where
as the value of \320\272
This value is clearly proportional to

defined

The effective width

of
is
and
vice
versa.
B(u)
broad,

width.

is narrow,
\321\204(\320\272)

The flat spots

in

the

function

increases
thus
\321\204(\320\272)

if

Suppose B(u) has a very high,

denote by s. This is pictured in
u{t) might be causedby a \"dwell\"

of spikes and discontinuities

of u, which we
spike at some value

effects

6.5.

equal

becomes

then

has

The

can write

related.
Let us nondimensionB(u) are inversely
=
that
we
so
a new
have
u/o r). Let us define
a,

integral of

the width

Ma, becausefl'(r?)

the

F.2.7)

of the exponential is unity.

modulus

ekanB'(n)dn-

0Wr)=J~

while

B(u) du=\\,

oB(ot)),

way,

in k,

by

characteristic function

Figure

| e*u | B(u)

J
the

and of
\321\204(\320\272)

density B'

= oB{u) =

narrow

of

to the second integral.

F.2.8)

fluctuations

probability

The

real part

the

is

of F.2.1)

F.2.6)

can contribute

to 0@), so that

is equal

first

by

because

and

F.2.7)

the

1 = 0@).

|0(/r)|<

<

ekuB(u) du

\321\204(\320\272)
|

seen if

kuB(u)du.

B(u)

From

B'{tj)

of \321\204(\320\272).

few derivatives

first

0(fc)=f coskuB{u)du+i\\ sin

fourth

the

than

higher

seldom
occur.
the mean, which
are seldom measured,so that we

from

excursions

large

is real. This can be

is symmetric, \321\204(\320\272)
terms of sin ku and cos ku. This yields

If B{u)
written

and characteristic functions

transforms

Fourier

204

The statistical

of turbulence

description

. U= S
\342\200\224TZ-TZT\342\200\224

_* __

-A

The

Figure 6.5.

dotted

line

characteristic

circuit of some

the rest of

the

a component

and

<j>s

is the

We

kind.

to a probability density with a spike. The

finite
width of the spike.

of \321\204(\320\272)
due to the

assume

that the

area

by B(u) is then
of the characteristic function
area

does

component

spike is never

corresponding

the attenuation

indicates

enclosed

not decay at infinity

(Figure
high and narrow. If

infinitely

spike component

=
eikuBs(u)du
Jkx

of 0, the

6.5).
Bs

latter

0\302\273.

spike

in B(u) is A;

B(u)
produces
spike
as A exp iks. This
in

behaves

which

e'kiu~s)Bs{u)
= eiks

the

under

1 \342\200\224
A. The

is the

In reality, of

be written

can

course, the
of \320\222

spike component

as

du

F.2.11)

6.2 Fourier transforms and

205

functions

characteristic

shifted
to the origin,
(k) is the transform of Bs, but
Here, \321\204'$
is a characteristic
not oscillate. Therefore, \321\204'${\320\272)
function

proportional

to the

constant.
\321\204'$(\320\272)

If

inversely

is

narrow,

k/as,

thus

the

reducing

has a

If B(u)
oscillations of

the

the

of

width

spike.

has a finite

spike

the

If

width

so that

it does
a

with

is

spike

width

infinitely

as

4>'s{k) decreases

os,

of exp iks (Figure

6.5).
oscillaits derivative has a spike, similar
we
first
of
the
once,
F.2.1)
by
parts
Integrating

amplitude

so that

discontinuity,

are generated.
\321\204(\320\272)

obtain

d^

If the

spike

in

large

values

In

general,

faster.

a discontinuity

with

of k.

the

If

(n

+ 1)st,

has finite

spike

and

if B(u)

in the

concludethat

narrow, we

is infinitely

dB/du

A//f) expiks at
somewhat

F.2.12)

du

\320\272

its

decreases
\321\204(\320\272)

width,

are continuous,
expiks

n derivatives

first

as

behaves
\321\204{\320\272)

to/r~'o+2'

is proportional
\321\204(\320\272)

asymptotically.

Three pairs

Fourier

of

are sketched

transforms

example, B(u) itself has a discontinuity,

so that

a discontinuity

\320\222
has

Parseval's relation Considertwo

functions,

f and

6.6.

Figure

as

\321\204
decays

of slope, so that
is the probability density of a sine wave;
example
not infinitely narrow, so that
does
\321\204
decay, though
example,

in

decays
\321\204
here

In the

first

\320\272~l.In

the second

as k~2.

The third
but it

\320\222
has

a spike,

is

rather slowly.
g,

with

transforms

Fourier

FandG:

F(k) =

a little

With

dx,

e*xf(x)

f\"

algebra it can

G(Ar)

F.2.13)

eikxg[x)dx.

be shown

that

F.2.14)

f{x)g*{x)dx,

F{k)G*(k)dk=2ir\\

denote the complex

This is known
as Parseval's
conjugates.
be used to see how an operation
carried out on a function
is being averaged
Fourier transform. For examplesuppose
thatf(x)

where asterisks
it can

relation;
its

affects

over

interval

an

right-hand

\"top-hat\"

\342\200\224X^x^X.

side of
function

F.2.14) with
at the

This
the

top left

amounts
use of a

of

Figure

to evaluating the
that
functional*)

integral

looks

on

the

like the

6.6:

g*(x)

=0

F.2.15)
otherwise.

The statistical

206

description of turbulence

B(u)

Figure

6.6.

Some

Fourier-transform

pairs.

Note that

because
\321\204{\320\272)
B{u)
\321\204(\342\200\224\320\272)

is rea!.

The integrand
on the
left-hand side of F.2.14) consists of the product
of
and
The
latter
looks
like
the
F(k)
function on the top right of Figure
G*{k).
6.6. Now, as g*{x) becomes wider,
becomes
as we saw
G*{k)
narrower,
earlier. If the averaging interval is quite long so that G*{k) is quite narrow,
the integral on the left-hand
side
of F.2.14)
may be approximated by F@)
times the integral of G*(k). Apparently,
is equivalent
a function
to
averaging
the value of its Fourier
transform
at the origin. If the physical
selecting
variable is time, the transform
is frequency;
variable
in transform
the origin
If we average something, the only
space corresponds to zero frequency.
thing
left is the component at zero frequency;
all other
become zero.
components
Similar

problems

random variables are measured

example,a hot wire of finite length

arise when

finite dimensions. For

with
spatially

sensors

of

averages

6.3 Joint

207

and statistical

statistics

independence

on
The effects of this averaging
that
are measured.
the velocity fluctuations
of the first
instrument
can be described in terms
the output of the hot-wire
two Fourier-transform pairs in Figure 6.6 (Uberoi and Kovasznay, 1953).

6.3
and statistical

statistics

Joint

Let us consider the

way to visualize

simple

the x

axis of

an

independence
for two

density

probability

variables simultaneously.

imagine that one variable

while the other variable

is to

this

oscilloscope,

v(t)

on
on the

is displayed

u(t)

is displayed

and v are variables with

zero
6.7). We assume that \320\270
mean, for
(Figure
B(u,v) is proportional to the fraction
simplicity. The joint probability
density
of time
that the moving
in Figure 6.7 spends in a small window between
spot
+ \320\220\320\270,
\320\270
and
\320\270
v and
v + Av. If we took a time exposure of the screen,the
at a point would be proportional to the joint
intensity
density. As
probability
before, the sum of all the amounts of time spent at all locations must be
be negative.
equal to the total time, and the time fractionscannot
Thus,
axis
\321\203

if all

Also,

the

of the values of

the

a given

at

so

axis,
\321\203

can be

statement

similar

value of \320\270
are

Bu{u). On the

to zero on the

gain

line.

horizontal

which we call

of u{t),

density

turning

F.3.1)

B(u,v)dudv=\\.
^\342\200\224a*

B(u, v)>0,

we should get
amounts to

combined,

this

oscilloscope,

that

the

figure

collapses

to

made about Bv(v),

so that

we can

write

B(u.v)dv

J\"

of u(t)

moments

The

most important

Uv= IT uvB(u,

=
Bv(v).
J\" B(u,v)du

Bu(u),
and

v(t)

can

be obtained

joint moment is Uv,

v) du

which

F.3.2)

separately, or with

The

F.3.2).

as

is defined

F.3.3)

dv.

\342\200\224oo

is called

This

mechanics
of

inertia

will

the covariance
recognize

a distribution

asymmetry of B(u, v).

that

or correlation

of mass.
If the

The correlation

value of

examples are given

As we discussed in Section
2.1,

then

Uv

= 0.

A few

between

\320\270
and

the covariance is equivalent

is thus

v) is the
B(\342\200\224u,
in

Figure

if uv =

v. Students

of

to the product of
a measure

same as that

of the

of B(u,

v),

said to

be

6.8.

0, u(t)

and

v(t)

are

208

The

statistical

description

of turbulence

v(t)

contour

lines,

long exposure

time

short time
exposure

on screen

of

oscilloscope

Figure

6.7.

The joint

probability

density.

6.3 Joint

209

uv

and

statistics

statistical

independence

W>0

<0

Figure 6.8.

densities

of joint

Examples

B(u,v)

B(u,v)

with

various

B{u,v)

correlations.

Figure 6.9.

for two

density

Probability

uncorrelated variables

that

tend to

each

inhibit

other.

Uncorrelated variables, however, are not necessarily

indepenother. The correlations in Figure
6.8 can be made zero by
one
about
the figures on the left and right until they are symmetric
rotating
of
of the axes. In other words, it is possible to selecttwo linear combinations
are
new
variables
u'{t) and v'{t) which
u(t) and v{t) and to create two
is no clue for the presence or
uncorrelated.
Clearly, the absence of correlation
a
the
between
variables.
absenceof dependence

uncorrelated.

each

independentof

Two variables
B(u,

statistically

independent

if

F.3.4)

Bu(u)Bv(v).

The probability
variable, and
density

are

cannot

of

density
vice

versa.

one variable is

For variables

be written

that

as a product. An

then

depend
example

not

affected
on each
of the

by the

other, the

other
joint

joint density of

210

statistical

The

uncorrelated, but
variable tends to

of turbulence

description

is shown

variables

one
simultalarge

6.9.

Here,

The
characteristic
is
function, defined by F.2.3),
joint
of the joint density, B(u, v). In
two-dimensional Fourier transform
function
statistically
independent variables, the joint characteristic
product:

clearly

dependent,
the

inhibit

so that

other,

in

Figure

seldom

are

they

simultaneously.

<p(k,t)

[iku + itv]

exp

[iku] exp

exp

\320\250

the

case

the

of

is a simple

F.3.5)

<pv(().
\321\204\320\270(\320\272)

6.4

Correlation

and

functions

spectra

to describe the evolution of a fluctuating

function
u(t), we need to
times are related. This question
how
the values of \320\270
at different
could
know
for u(t) and u(t'). However,as we
be answered
by forming a joint
density
of the
have
seen, the correlation provides much
required information. The
the values
of \320\270
correlation u(t)u(t') between
two
at
different times is called
If

want

we

the autocorrelation.Becausewe

autocorrelation gives
u{t')u{t),the

inequality

with

working

on the

difference r =
must

autocorrelation

Schwartz's

are

information

on the time

only

depend

no

stationary
of

origin

t' \342\200\224
t.
Also,

be a symmetric

function

time,

variables, the
so that

because
of

variables,

stationary

define an

\321\202.

states that

F.4.1)

u2{t)

= u2

coefficient

autocorrelation

(t') = const, so that

it

is convenient

and

F.4.2),

F.4.2,
we obtain

F.4.3)

|p!<1=p@).
An
integral

^\"=

coefficient

autocorrelation
scale

3\"\\% defined

similar

to

was used
\321\200(\321\202)

it is

always

in Section

2.3. The

by

\320\223
\321\200(\321\202)\321\201/\321\202.

In turbulence,

to

by
p(\321\202)

\321\200\321\200(-\320\263).

With F.4.1)

can

u(t)u{t') =

\\u(t)u(t')\\<[uW)'uW)}U2.
For

it

assumed

F.4.4)

that

the integral

scale is finite. The value

6.4 Correlation functions and

211

of

is
\320\243

measure of the

a rough

shown

Also

of the

curvature

d 2p/dr2

is given
\321\200{\321\202)

u{t) is

which

correlated

is defined

series about the

origin,

we can

write, for small r,

\320\234-\321\2022\320\2202.

The

is

microscale

origin (Figure

by the

F.4.5)

a Taylor

p in

with

in Figure

s -2A2.

|r=0

Expanding

over

interval

6.10.
in Figure 6.10 is the microscale \\, which
autocorrelation
coefficient at the origin:

of

A sketch

itself.

coefficient.

of an autocorrelation

Sketch

6.10.

Figure

spectra

F.4.6)
the

thus

of the

intercept

parabola

6.10). Becauseu(t)is stationary,

we

that

matches

at the
\321\200(\321\202)

can write

F.4.7)

From 16.4.5)and

F.4.7)

we obtain

(IF-*
In Chapter
3, the Taylor microscale, definedin
used.
velocity autocorrelation,was extensively

The convergence
a function
D(t)
infinitely

finite

of averages Supposewe
in

the

long time

integration

laboratory.

interval,

time.

u(t) dt.

The

so

that

want

a similar

to obtain

way from the spatial

the average value

Of course, we cannot integrate

we have to consider the error

over

due

of

an

to

average is

F.4.9)

212

statistical

The

betweenUT

The difference
is given by
1

UT-U=-\\

(UT-UJ
T
the

t0 = 0 for
\342\200\224.

T2

\320\223
Jo

T is much longer

the

than

F.4.11)

p(r)dt.

T/

integral

so that,
\321\200(\321\202)\320\2440,

scale 3~, \321\202/7\"~\320\236

in

by virtue

of F.4.4),

average value
scale is finite.
The

that

is,

the error

increases

and that the

is called

ergodicity. A

by

uncorrelatedwith

itself

be formed

to

any

average should

become

smaller

accuracy

if

to a mean

converge

as the

desired

integration

time

be the same,
way should always
is called ergodic if averages
of all possible
variable
it converge. An ergodic
variable
not only becomes
-> \302\260\302\260),
it also becomes
but
at large time differences (\321\202
of itself. A variable is ergodic if all integral
scales

independent

statistically

be determined

should

mean value

from

formed

quantities

can

that a time

requirement
that

the

F.4.12)

that the

Ergodicity

value,

1
\\

FIT.

the integral

+ u)

= U

F.4.10) is

value of

mean-square

=\342\200\224

may be approximated

error

?7

F.4.10)

u(t)dt.
The

p(t-t)dtdt'

where
\321\202

(recall that

\320\276

convenience.

time

(UT-UJ^2~i?
is clear

fT\"

J0J

integrating

mean-square

1
'

range of values of

the

It

dt=-\\

[u(t)-U]

true mean value U

the

and

\320\276

we took

Here

If

fr

of turbulence

description

found

this

is not quite necesActually, this condition

Let
us
a laboratory
could
be
made.
consider
general
from
the
of
which
should
differ
little
characteristic
funcaverage
exp iku{t),
function \321\204(\320\272)
defined
by F.2.2). If the integral scale of expiku(t)
=expiku(t)
vanish
and expiku{t') should
between
exists, the autocorrelation
expiku(t)
t. Thus,
for large t' \342\200\224
for large t' \342\200\224
t,

that can

from

it exist.

statements

necessary; more

-\321\204[\320\272)]
[expiku(t')

F.4.13)

\320\236,
-\321\204{\320\272)]-+

so that

exp [ikuW +iku(t')] -> \321\204{\320\272)\321\204(\320\272).

From

F.3.5)

the definition
which

it

takes

F.2.3) of a

joint

for statistically

characteristic

independent

F.4.14)

function,
variables,

and the form

is clear that

it

6.4Correlation

213

the

would not approach a simple

product. Thus, by virtue
independent at large time differences.

of F.4.14)

side

left-hand

joint

are statistically

u(t')

the

unless

product

a simple

were

itself

density

and spectra

functions

u(t)

of F.3.4),

and

reasonable to expectthat all the integral scales associated with u(t) are
are determined
about the same, becausethey
by the scale of the physical
scale
not only
^\"of u{t) itself is thus
proces's that produces u(t). The integral
is correlated
a measure
of the time over which
with itself but also a
u{t)
is dependent
measure of the time overwhich
on itself. For time intervals
u(t)
becomes
to 2\320\223,
u(t)
large compared
statistically
independent of itself, so that
9~ is a measure
for the time interval
over
which u(t) \"remembers\" its past
It is

history.

look at

Another

circuit
one if

in

u(t)

of /(f)

value

is obtained

concept

if

Let us

is considered.
in the

appears

The mean

this

6.1

Figure

call

between

window

the

of the discriminator

output

function

this

/(f);

otherwise.

is the value of B{u) \320\220\320\270

we wish to determine:

F.4.15)

\320\251) \320\222(\320\270)\320\220\320\270.

The

error

mean-square

The variance a2 of
o2 = ll{t)
=

The last

the

in

step

in

could

F.4.16)

same value

(either one or

laboratory

average

T is

as follows.

F.4.16)

=\320\222\320\220\320\270\320\220\320\270J
(BAuJ.

the

if

\320\220\320\270
is obtained

2l(t) BAu + (B \320\220\320\270J

the

find,

of B(u)

measurement

is given by

l(t)

-BAu]2=l2(t)-

l2(t)-(B

large and

to

is equal

it

and zero

+ du,
\320\270

\320\270
and

IT

be taken

because l(t) and / 2(t)

zero).Applying

(obtained

the

error

by integrating

estimate

/(f) over a

have

always

F.4.12)
time

T),

to
we

\320\222
\320\220\320\270
is small.

F.4.17)

The mean-square relative

error

is then

given by

F.4.18)
Now

+ \320\220\320\270
if the
and \320\270
amount of time spent by u(t) between \320\270
time is T. Hence, F.4.18) shows
the error is small if the
that
is
time is so long that the amount of time spent in the window \320\220\320\270

\320\220\320\270
is the
\320\242\320\222

averaging
averaging

large compared

Another

way

to the
to

integral

obtain

scale

BAu is to

3~.

sample t(t)

at time

intervals

large

enough

description of turbulence

The statistical

214

the samples

make

to

the

procedure,

other.

of each

independent

statistically

this

With

proce-

relative error is

mean-square

<6A19)

VWBbtf
VW

1\320\223\320\223\320\2422\320\242,
T

\320\277-\320\273

N is

Here,

the total

F.4.19)

samples

independent

two

The Fourier

exists.

Fourier

to

whose

origin;

The
density,

The

formulate

(co,f)

that

conclude

p(r) is a

must
be
\321\200(\321\202)

of

transform

function

continuous

func-

that is
integral

must
\321\200(\321\202)

symmetric, positive, real

it
1/\321\202;

be the
S(co)

because p

must

Siu)

du.

by

\342\200\224
\320\223
dr.
\320\265\"/\321\202\321\210\321\200(\321\202)
277 J \342\200\224

for the relevance of 5(co) can

Fourier
transform of u(t) itself. Let

-ff+

recall

this case, the

g*(t')

Section6.2,we

appreciation

to

us

coefficient

origin and is majorized by that value,

so that its
1/r,
goes to zero faster than

it is defined

spectrum;

simply

= \320\223
e/T\"s(co)
\321\200{\321\202)
J-\302\253.

Let

statist-

be symmetric because p is real; it must be

it must
have a unit integral because p = 1 at the
it must be positive because p is majorized by its value at the origin.
is known
Fourier
transform
as the power spectra/ denS(co) of \321\200(\321\202)

or

An

of records

at the

a continuous,

goes to zero faster than

real because p is symmetric;

averages

of

once every
and
converge

other.

back to

is unity.

sampling

compare

number

as consisting of a series
are approximately
analog tape), which

of an

that

and

of

integral

that

we

If

the

be regarded

may

unity

Referring

transform

Therefore,

of \321\200(\321\202)
The autocorrelation

transform

real and symmetric,

scale

7\".

We conclude

is adequate.

of each

is equal

that

function

T/2T

samples taken.
may be regarded as

of length

a record

integral scales exist if u(t)

of length
22\320\223(say, pieces
statistically independent

independent

we see that
in

scales

integral

of

number

with F.4.18),

A/7\")

obtained

by attempting

us define

F.4.21)

eiwt'u{t')dt'.

the discussion on
function

exp

be

Parseval'srelation at the end of

u(t')

multiplying

/wf'

for t

< t'

F.4.20)

<t+

is<7*(f'), which is given

Section

6.2.

by

T,

F.4.22)

g*(t')

= 0

otherwise.

In

6.4Correlation

215

The

~\"
\302\260\302\260

sin

G*(co') =

is

of g*[t')

transform

and spectra

functions

- co)(r+ \320\223/2)].

exp M(co'

F.4.23)

\321\201\320\276)
\320\223/2
(\321\201\320\276

The

has an absolute

exponential

midpoint of the integration

the right-hand side of

right of
F.4.21)

F.4.21) is obtained by

Apparently,
only

think

of u(t)
the

for those
contributions

that

they

is,

the

if

With

aT
lim

(co,f)

near

frequences

admits

as being synthesized
close to

contributions

contributions does the

to

from

u{t)
do

not

little

other

7\"

u(t)

of the

u(t)

is large

enough.
a filter

through

is about

filter

at many

1/7\".

cause the

frequencies
if

the

to

integrand

integration

time

we

frequencies,

with exp /cot', so that

not oscillate. The
F.4.21)

7\"

only

contriso

oscillate,
is large

algebra,
to the

it can be shown
spectrum 5(co)by

that

the

mean-square

(that

value of

= u2S(u>).

T\\aT(u>,t)\\2

that
If

square
in

integrand

to ar(co,r)

in

1/7\" is small).

bandwidth

is related

all

contribute

\321\201\320\276
form
a

the top

fre-

of

contributions

from

on

factor
on

at the

passing

The
\321\201\320\276.
width

first

The
frequency\321\201\320\276.
average
transform

time interval

if the

origin,

the

because

only

running variable. The

the same as the function

exactly

displaced to the center

value of the Fourier

at the

\321\201\320\276
rather
than

frequency

only

the

selects

thus

it is present

unity;

\320\223
is a

interval

F.4.23) is

but

6.6

Figure

of

value

F.4.24)

\320\223-\320\275.\302\273

For

a similar

represents

the mean-square

square amplitude
as the energy
From

calculation, see Hinze

of the

A959), Section 1-12.The

of

amplitude

Fourier

the

filtered

coefficient of u{t) at

at that frequency.
we conclude that

spectrum

thus

signal or the mean-

it may
\321\201\320\276;

be thought

of

in u{t)

F.4.20)

the

value

of S(co) at the

origin

is given

by

if \321\200(\321\202)
> 0 everywhere, S(co) is maximized
5@) = ^7\321\202\320\263.
Also,
by its value at
the origin. Conversely, if 5(co) has a peak away from the origin,
then
\321\200(\321\202)
must
have negative regions. However, this
not imply that 5(co) must
does
from
have
a peak away
the origin if p(r)
is negative somewhere, as the Fourier
transform
in Figure 6.6 demonstrate.
pairs
of the derivative
of a function
The spectrum
is related
to the spectrum of
in a simple way. The autocorrelationoidu/dt is given
the function
by

du(t)du(t')

d2

~d2

The statistical

216

Figure

coefficient of the

The autocorrelation

6.11.

Differentiating the

of

first

r\302\260\302\246

d2o

of turbulence

description

e/COTco2SM

--7=

twice, we

F.4.20)

first

derivative

of u{t).

obtain

do:.

F.4.26)

-1-\302\273
\320\276\321\202

we conclude that the spectrum

of the first derivative
to co2S(co). This relation,
of course,
also can be applied to
for example,
the spectrum of the second
is
derivative
derivatives;
higher
is finite (it is equal to &~/n, as we have
5@)
proportional to co4S(co).Because
vanish
at the origin. This means
that
the
seen), the spectra of derivatives
scales
of
are zero.
derivatives
An example is given
in Figure
integral
6.11; the
area under the curve is zero:
From

6.4.26)

F.4.25,

is proportional

Jo dr2

F.4.27)

0.

dr

6.5

The central
In the

theorem

limit

analysis

of

many quantities can be written

7 we find that such quantities

turbulence,

stationary variables. In Chapter

in the discussion of turbulent

arises, do

averages

of

pattern,

variables

stationary

independent of the nature

words, we wonder if the
characteristic

transport

which

averaged. Subject to some

density
yes; the probability
have the same shape.

of

the

variable

(diffusion,

mixing).

have a probability
that is being

as

of

averages

frequently

arise

The question
density

averaged?

that

is

In other

of averaging
its own charintroduces
the
of
the
variable
that
is
masks
characteristics
the answer to this question
is
conditions,
simple
variables
of averages of stationary
always tends to

very

process

6.5The

217

limit theorem

central

Let us consider N statistically

have identical probability
all xn{t)
with
zero. It is convenient to work
defined

xn(t). We assume
their mean values are
which
is
function \321\204(\320\272),

quantities

independent

and that

densities

that

characteristic

the

by
F.5.1)

\321\217\320\223).

Because
1 and

the densities of all xn(t)

are the same, F.5.1) holds for
N. Let us definethe sum z(t) of all xn(t) by

z(t) =

all

n between

(8.5.2)

*nW-

/7 = 1

of z is given

The variance

*2=

/7

by
/V

*\342\200\236*\302\253,= x2n

= 1 /77 = 1

= No\\

F.5.3)

/7=1

Here, a2 is the variance of xn, which

have
identical
densities. The double sum
xm

are statistically

reiated. The

to definea

new

of z

increases, so that

increases as N

predict the

is equal to
density

probability

a2,

First it
We obtain

w(t).
\321\204\321\202(\320\272)
of

so that

independent,
the

could be
mean
the
of the

in F.5.5)

step

product

of all

(kN~1*2)
\321\204

If the
\321\204.

may

are uncor-

of all exp

moments of the
in

Can we

becomes.

to compute the

a Taylor

F.5.5)
xn are

the

because

product

first few

/V

'm)V\\

taken

be expanded

large

is convenient

'

\"

last

how

matter

no

of w(t)?

/*\302\246
K

to

they

more convenient

F.5.4)

characteristic function

xn exist,

that

it is

w(t) by

quantity

of w(t)

variance

The

mean, so

zero

have

and

each xn becausethey
sum because xn and

a single

becomes

z(t).

w(t)=N-m
The

independent

variance

same for

is the

statistically

(ik*nN~1/2) is equal

probability

density

F.5.6)

N'3'2).

This expansion
remainder

is based

is of

order Ar3

on F.2,5);
N~3'2,

the

so that

of

series:

last

term

it can

in F.5.6)

indicates

be made as small

that

as desired

the

by

218

The statistical

selecting a
=

$w(k)

into

F.5.6)

Substituting

we

F.5.5),

N,

large

-k2a2/2N)N

F.5.7)

exp (-ArV/2).

is
theorem; the characteristicfunction
<l>w(k)
The
correcharacteristic function.
B(w)
probability
density
the
of the
can be computed from
definition
F.2.1)
4>w(k)
the result
is
pair and the shape F.5.7) of 0w(Ar);

the central limit

called

is

This

Mm

of N.

value

large

sufficiently

obtain, for very

of turbulence

description

called a Gaussian
to

corresponding

Fourier transform

exp(-w2/2a2)

This is called a
one

only
conclude

that

that

Gaussian

independent

The statistics

of

T.

is also

If

of the

distribution

experiment many

like a

distribution

large compared to
sections
of length
independent

Jo

u(t)dt=\\

We

transformation.

the
con-

an integral

consider

variable,

integral could

of u{t) over a time

the value of the
on the

depends
the

in

be obtained

by

laboratory,
repeating

origin of

the probthe experi-

times.

An integral is
probability

now

a stationary

interval.

time

2
\342\200\224
\320\272is

sum of a large number of identihas a Gaussian probability

density,
the variables themselves.

random
u(t) is a stationary
random variable which
the integration is performed

Because

interval
integral

of

density

Let us

integrals

exp

the
N-*-\302\260\302\260),

variables

shape of the

of the

regardless

probability

(as

function

under a Fourier

its shape

asymptotically

The

density.

probability

preserves

identically distributed

the

la68'

(recall

Jo

the

so

sum,

the central

that

under

suitable

integral

scale

larger

than

2!T,

the discussion

u{t)dt+\\

inv

the
2\320\223,

theorem

limit

conditions.

If

integral

so that the

of F.4.18) and

the

may govern

integration

may be

broken

sections are

its

time T is
up

into

approximately

F.4.19)):

u(t)dt + ....

F.5.9)

become
more nearly independent,
increases, the sections of integral
because adjacent sections depend on each other only near the ends. If the
the total
of
length of each section is n^\"and
integration time is T, the number
sections
is T/n2T. It is easy to arrange this in such a way that both n&~and

As n

as

We then
to infinity
T->\302\260\302\260.
\320\242/\320\277\320\243\320\264\320\276

become less and

less

dependent,

have more

so that the

and

probability

more

sections,
distribution

and they
of the

219

6.5 The central

integral

on the

theorem

limit

of

side

left-hand

becomes Gaussian

F.5.9)

favorable

under

conditions.

question is
fast enough. It is

The primary
independent
as

that,

as

long

all

fast

independent

the

for

enough

central

become

sections

For a

to apply.

theorem

limit

do it here)

cannot

we

(although

are nonzero,the

exist and

in-

become

integral

full

1972a.

see Lumley,

discussion,

to show

possible

scales

integral

of the

sections

the

whether

The conditionon the behavior

of the correlation at large separations may
translated
near the
into a condition on the behavior of the spectrum
we
as
Section
From
the
recall
from
the
discussion
in
6.2.
definition
origin,
of S(co) we conclude,in analogy
that the derivatives of
with F.2.4),
F.4.20)
the spectrum near the origin
of the correlation coefficient
are the moments
if the
moments
exist, the derivatives do too, and vice versa. The
\321\200(\321\202);
be

condition

the condition

becomes

that

be

should

correlation

the

that

the

near

spectrum

a value

to

integrable

the

finite

be

origin

\320\244
0

then

and

nonzero.
is not apparent in terms of correlations,
of the spectrum. We know from the
Parseval's
relation
that the average of u(t) is
F.2.14)
to
an
of u(t).
In fact, the
operation on the Fourier transform
equivalent
6.6
to an average.
at the
top-hat function
top left of Figure
corresponds
is
to
the
Fourier
transform of
u(t)
Evidently,
averaging
equivalent
multiplying
the
\"filter\"
at
the
of
6.6.
As
the top-hat
function
u(t) by
top right
Figure
the average becomes wider, the filter function
on the
function
representing
that
the spectrum
be nonzero at
right becomes narrower. The requirement
A

the

that

function gets narrower

It

is easy
its

origin,

constant
proportional

to

to find
small

the product

as the

integration

a violation

of

is proportional

spectrum
at

in terms

stated

guarantees

origin

which

question,

secondary

becomes clear when

discussion following

\321\201\320\276.
The
Fourier

\321\201\320\276
near
the

origin.

of the Fourier transform

time increases.

this

to

Consider

condition.
because
\321\201\320\2762,

transform

However, the

S(co)

of du/dt must

filter

function

the

and

filter

du/dt; near the

is approximately
then

be

on the

top

proporright

of

remains of constant
it
width;
time increases. Therefore,we do
does not become narrower
as the integration
of du/dt
will become Gaussian. This is obvious,
not expect that the integral
does not need to be
the integral of du/dt is u{t) itself, which
because
certainly
Figure

Gaussian.

6.6 behaves

as \321\201\320\276
*. Hence,

the product

description of turbulence

The statistical

220

of the

A generalization

central
finite

limit

theorem On the

can be simplified

theorem

and

preceding discussion the

Any

variable

if it is

filtered

generalized.

scales takes on a Gaussian

integral

of the

basis

distribution

having

with a

enough; it becomes more Gaussian as the filter becomes

narrower.
to simple averages. A
Clearly, we are not limited
progressively
variable
before it is integrated;
the
u(t)
may be multiplied
by any function
be a filter that,
only condition is that the Fourier transform of that function
transform of u(t), makes the product progressively
multiplied
by the Fourier

filter

is narrow

that

narrower.

a second

For example,

dt |f

u(f')?/f'=

The

factor

2T

may

integral

be written

as

F.5.10)

\342\200\224
2\320\223|

front

in

of

\\u(t)dt.

(i-

integral on the
normalizing factor

the

not

need

side

right-hand

the variance of
concern us here. It is merely a
that
affects
The
theorem.
but not the applicability of the central limit
the double integral
has
the
in
same
as
the
function
function
F.5.10)
multiplying
shape
triangular
6.6. Hence, the corresponding filter
at the center left of Figure
function
as co~2. If the Fourier transform of u(t) risesmore
than \321\201\320\2762,
decreases
slowly
the
becomes asymptotically Gaussian. This implies
that
a
F.5.10)
integral
double integral of the first derivative
of a stationary
function u(t) becomes
even

Gaussian,

of

statistics

More
limit

though

theorem,

of co(f)

the

a single

integral of du/dt

In
the
derivation
integrals
sum of the variables was

remained finite. That was a

of the central

F.5.1-6.5.8)

normalized, so that
of

matter

doesnot.

convenience

only;

not normalized, it would still have a Gaussian distribution,

increase
with N.
variance that would
variable
Let us define an integral X(T) of a stationary
u(t) by
were

X(T)=
The

variance

\320\2452=\320\2771

{{

if

but

variance
the

sum

with

F.5.11)

u(t)dt

of X(T)

becomes (seeF.4.11))

p{t'-t)dtdt'

The characteristic

the

function

= 2Tu*

J
of

XG\")
\320\244\321\205(\320\272)

Mp(T)tfrs

is Gaussian:

27\"

i/2.r.

F.5.12)

221

Problems

ikX(T)=

The

SIX) corresponding

density

probability

F.5.13)

TTl.

exp(-fcV

exp
\321\204\321\205(\320\272)

to F.5.13) is

I6S'41
If

integral W(T) is defined

a double

W(T)=

tfff

f
Jo

F.5.15)

u(t')?/t',
-\"\320\276

be shown

it can

^
The characteristicfunction
=

W{T)

We use

exp

?\\

of

in

by

T3ST.

\321\200(\321\202)

dr^l^

F.5.16)

is Gaussian:

W{J)

T3

{-k2u2

these relations

of W(T) is given

variance

the

that

exp/*

by

F.5.17)

\320\257\320\227).

7.

Chapter

Problems

6.1
rate

fluctuations.

6.2

Consider

are associated

derivatives

velocity

Fluctuating

with

strain-

and

vorticity

ever
be
of a velocity-derivative signal
that
the kurtosis of velocity derivatives
is large
zero? Experiments have shown
if the Reynolds number is large. Use the
model
of Problem 3.2 to
simple
make
estimates
of the skewness and
kurtosis.

probability

exceeding

probability

6.3

Will

a stationary

much larger
of exceeding 3a? What
the

Fourier

the

than
is the

with

expression for the

standard

probability

In turbulent

very

small compared

flow

at

large

to the

Reynolds

integral

to approximate

the

scale

autocorrelation

some

is the

What

is the

corre-

scale?

numbers, the Taylor

and
\320\243,

of

probability

deviation a. What
of exceeding 10a?

curve of a sine wave.

is
What
the value of the integral

transform?

and a Gaussian

mean

zero

autocorrelation

6.4

convenient

random variable
an approximate

amplitudes

Compute

corresponding

Derive

density.

skewness

the

microscaleX

investigators

coefficient

by

is

find it
=

\321\200[\321\202)

The statistical description of turbulence

222

What

exp(\342\200\224|t|/^).
approximation?

results

Also,
the

with

shape of the spectrum

spectrum of the derivative

is the

is the
spectra

given

in

correspondingto this
well

behaved?

approx-

Compare

your

8.

Chapter

of ocean waves in the range of

Estimate the form of the spectrum
where the Fourier coefficientsof the wave amplitudes are deterdetermined by the frequency
and the acceleration of gravity
only.

6.5

frequencies

a sum

of two

Gaussian
variables, one
independent
zero
than
both
mean.
the
other,
frequency
having
look like? Suppose there is a
What do the autocorrelation and the spectrum
the spectra of the two, and the averaging time is long enough
between
to
gap
the
the
fast
one
not
what
do
the
correlation
and
but
slow;
spectrum
average
look like in this case? What is the integral
scale?
6.6

of

Consider

statistically

content

lower

much

one Gaussian variable modulated by another.

The variables are
each
a
lower
of
the
second
has
other;
statistically
independent
frequency
mean.
The product of the two
content
than the first. Both variables have zero
variables appearsto be \"intermittent,\"
that
is, the low-frequency modulation
is the kurtosis?
on
and off. What
the
to
turn
signal
appears
high-frequency
a
three
consider
of
is
the
Also
What
independentvariables,
product
spectrum?
are gaps between the spectra of the
or of four. What is the kurtosis? If there
on the averaging
how does the measured kurtosis
individual
depend
spectra,
the logarithm
of the
a continuous
time? Try to construct
model, in which
6.7

signal
limit

Consider

is

represented

theorem.

as the

integral

of

a stationary

process. Use the central

7
TRANSPORT

TURBULENT

flow moves, it

As a turbulent

carries

place to

from

fluid

place.A

tiny

parcel

but large com(small, say, compared to the Kolmogorov

microscale,
molecular
its initial location.
from
scales) gradually wanders away
compared to
This is the mechanism
that
is responsible
for the large transfer
rates
observed
in turbulent flows. In the preceding
of
the transport
chapters,
capability
turbulence
was represented by such quantities
as the momentum flux \342\200\224puv

of fluid

and

the

of

in

the

the

study

of the pro-

transports

we deal with

chapter,

similarity

by

details

motion

turbulent

how
this

we

the

fluid

transport

of contaminants.

mixing)

(dispersion,

reasoning. Here,

We first analyze
second
half of

transport.

points; then,

were obtained

these

for

estimates

\342\200\224\321\200\321\201\321\200\320\262\321\203;

and dimensional

arguments
process

flux

heat

7.1

Transportin
We

to be

turbulence

homogeneous

stationary,

like

would

able to

predict transport

in

real

flows, which

generally

and nonstationary. This is the heart of the turbulence

it is impossible to describe
of transport
the
details
in
problem;
unfortunately,
other
than very simple cases. Let us first
discuss
the motion of a single fluid

are

inhomogeneous

mean
in stationary,
This
homogeneous turbulence without
velocity.
is an idealized situation,
because
turbulence
without a mean velocity gradient
has
it decays
no source of energy, so that
and cannot be stationary. More
to transport
idealized
case may not even be relevant
this
in real
important,
decaying flows, because(as we later see) the \"memory time\" of a fluid point
is usually of the order of the
never
time, so that a real decaying flow
decay
\"point\"

appears

we

have

even approximately
in
to
be careful

idealized
qualitative

turbulence;
significance

Stationarity

the

generalizing

we should

not

be

point. Consequently,
we obtain for this
the conclusions have qual-

a wandering

to

stationary

conclusions

surprised

if

only.

Before we

start

the

analysis,

let us

ask when

we

expect the
function
steady)
of the central
may

velocity of a wandering
point to be a stationary
(statistically
of time. This question,
of course,
bears on the applicability
limit theorem (Section 6.5). Clearly,
it is necessary
that the flow be stationIf the flow is also homogeneous,
we
itself.
that the velocity of
are assured
stationary
is stationary. This case is discussedfirst.
the
If the flow is
point
wandering

224

not

transport

Turbulent

homogeneous
point

moving

and

wanders

For example,

in

point

wandering

layer the

a boundary

direction.

cross-stream

moves

of

As time

is distinctly

proceeds,the

progressively

farther

boundary
away

from

the

characteristics.

different

progressively

flow

of inhomogeneity,

direction

the

in

unbounded

into regions

inhomogeneous
layer
the

grows

in

the

and a

wall into regions

where the turbulence properties are different.

In such a case, the velocity of a
is not stationary. In a pipe flow, on the other hand,
the flow
point
and inhomogeneous, but also
direction
is homogeneous in the streamwise
in the cross-stream direction. A wandering
bounded,
point
may then move
one
but it eventually returns
and
moves
toward the other.
toward
wall,
that the velocity
Hence,we expect its velocity to be stationary. We conclude
is
the
is
of a wandering
if
flow
bounded in all
and
stationary
point
stationary
wandering

directions

of inhomogeneity.

mean
Let us analyze
Stationary, homogeneous turbulencewithout
velocity
the motion of a fluid point in stationary, homogeneous turbulence without
t of a moving point which
mean
velocity
(Figure 7.1). The velocity at time
=
be called
use of vector
was
at the point x,=a;- at f 0 will
t). The
i/,-(a,
notation
of vt prevents
(denoted
confuby boldface letters) in the argument
confusion of
indices.
As we discussed above, y,<(a, t) is a stationary (statistically
it is called a Lagrangian
function;
steady)
velocity.
The position of the wandering
is the integral of its velocity:
point

X/(a,r)=a/+j^

G.1.1)

Vi{a,t')dt',

0)

.X/(a,t)

Figure

7.1.

The motion of a

wandering

point

7.1 Transport in

225

turbulence

homogeneous

stationary,

is Xj, and the Eulerian position

where X,-(a, 0) = a,-.The Lagrangian
position
is equal to the velocity of the fluid
at
is Xj. The velocity of the moving
point
at the
to be. The velocity t/,-(x,
the point where it happens
t) measured
it is related to v,- by
location Xj at time f is called the Eulerian
velocity;
G.1.2)

\342\200\236,(a,f)=t/,(X(a,f),f).

The

study

(Uj)

can

of

be measured

measurement
of

Lagrangian

be followed

points

in

Vj

light

in

the

fluid,

motion

the

Eulerian velocities
but the measureof

fluid

\"tagged\"

tracer techniques.

Often,

however, the statisticsof u-t are not

way. The problem is that one needs to know
to that of the
find t/,-. The problem is similar
turbulent fluctuations
in the index of refrac-

are made;
simple
to

order

air with

through

in

or radioactive

photographic

a
V/ in

to find Xj

order

passage of

on the fluctuations
in the n it sees.
ray depends
path of a light
to curve around regions with
n and tends to veer away
tends
high

The

refraction n.

The

with

those of

related to

of G.1.2).

because

difficult

by putting a fixed probe

velocities (i/;) requires that

measurements

Eulerian

only

is very

transport

path

the
statistics
with low n, so that
of n experienced by the light
regions
seen
on
a
air.
are
different
from
those
line through the turbulent
ray
straight
is
because
a
function
However,
stationary
v;
presumably
having nonzero
scales
the central limit theorem (Section 6.5) can be applied
to the
integral

from

a may

Here,

be equal to

convention does not

asymptotically

to

apply

has a Gaussian

of X,~a,,

component

1, 2, or 3, but

we

stipulate

Because1/7

index a.

the

and

call

this

that the index

is stationary,

its variance

probability

density;

^)^

= 27^^.

Xa-aa

is

Lagrangian

by

autocorrelation

coefficient

defined
\321\200\320\260\320\260(\321\202)
is

by

G.1.4)

integral

scale

of

is

Eulerian

shortly.

it is

called the

\321\200\320\260\320\260
\320\243\320\260\320\260;

looks
approximately
shape of \321\200\320\260\320\260
A great deal of effort
has

The

given

G.1.3)

lp^^^
The

\320\245\320\260-\320\260\320\260.

summation

1921)

(Taylor,

The

one

Consider

G.1.1).

integral

like the
been

spent

in

integral

Lagrangian

curve in

Figure

attempts

to

data, with very little success. A relatively

simple
also have to consider the problem of determining

We

set of

equations G.1.1-7.1.4) is also

applicable

scale.

The

6.10.

predict
prediction

from

2\320\223\320\26001

is made

v\\.

to molecular

diffusion

226

Turbulent

transport

be the position of a molecule

be its velocity). A
and i/,- would
scale
in
molecular
motion
for
Lagrangian
integral
gases is of the order of
a few collisiontimes %/a {% is the mean free path, a is the speedof sound; see
Section 2.2). At ordinary
and pressures, the time scales of
temperatures
interest
in diffusion
than %/a, so that the asympare
much
problems
larger
is then
asymptoticform
of G.1.3) applies. The dispersion(\320\245\320\260-\320\260\320\260J
to
proportional
t and the coefficient a2 (%/a) ~ a? is the molecular diffusivity,
which
is of the
would

(Xj

time

same order as the kinematic

v (Section 2.2). In turbulence,
viscosity
however,
the time span before G.1.3) reaches
its asymptotic
form is not too short to
be of interest. In fact, by the time the integral
reaches
the \"diffusion limit\"
the
of

point has
flow field where

wandering
the

useful,

rather

though

interest. Note that the

that the eddy diffusivity
The

it

the

left

usually

started.

Still,

homogeneous)

(approximately
the asymptotic

form of

crude, approximation in many cases

form of G.1.3) is equivalent

G.1.3)is

of

practical

to

asymptotic

part

assuming

is constant.

v^^a

Lagrangian velocity In order to make use of

The
easiest way to predict this is to exploit the
v?.
fact
that an incompressible fluid
in a box always fills the box. This
moving
If we want to integrate
consequences.
simple-looking statement has surprising
either
a quantity
over all the moving fluid points in the box, we can integrate
their
locaor
over
initial
their
locations
Eulerian
over
(an
integral)
present
continues
to fill the box as it
locations (a Lagrangian
integral). Because the fluid
so that it is
is counted only
moves
either way
each
once,
around,
point
is
the
we wish to
function
immaterial which
we
take.
f)
F(x,
integral
Suppose
statement
then
reads
the
of
the
V
box;
integral
integrate over the volume

G.1.3), we need

Jj

of the

density

probability

know

to

j F(X(a,t), t)

dax

da2 dab

V
an

If

on

gradually

wander

are

of order

the

volume

utL2

problem

same

as that on the

(L

away

of the volume
from the original

confined to a

move,

so that

ones.

However,

new

of the

statement can
on the left-hand
that were initially

a similar
volume

side.

a distance

G.1.5)

dxb.

box,

integration

right-hand
V

u, the boundaries move

between the
Vm is the length
scale
difference

F(x, t)dxl dx2

is that the

only

boundaries

the

J JJ
v

flow is not

incompressible

be made. The
side is not the

Points

the

new

if the

of order

boundaries

velocities

\302\253*f
in a

gradinvolved

time t,

so that

order
The
volume
integration volume).

and

the

old boundaries

is of

7.1 Transport

227

in

turbulence

homogeneous

stationary,

at any fixed time interval

is of order \302\253t/L,which,
fraction involved
as desired
made as small
by making L large enough. Hence,for an
flow the equivalent of G.1.5) reads

lim

da2da3 = lim

ff f F(X(a,t),t)dal

fff

F(x,

t)

dxt

t, can

be

unbounded

dx2

dx3.

G.1.6)
t) = exp

of this gives the

average value
we use vectors
of the Eulerian velocity field (note that
characteristic function
On the
of u,- are treated simultaneously).
u here; all three
\320\272
and
components
function
of
the
characteristic
after
other hand,
f), t) gives
F(X(a,
averaging,
let

Now,

the

into

functions

G.1.6)

\342\200\242

\342\200\224
[/k*
exp
J \342\200\242>
\342\200\242>

lim

lim

\342\200\224

II

--

V
!/+\302\253.

taking

averages,

char-

da2 da3

v(a, f)]

exp[/k'

lim

and

and Lagrangian
we obtain

Eulerian

the

Substituting

v(a,r)]cfei

V+~v

The

da2 da3

v(a,t)]dai

JJJexp[/k
=

t)].
[/k \342\200\242
u(x,

velocity field.

Lagrangian

characteristic

lim

F(x,

exp[/k-

\320\270(\321\205,\320\263)]?/\321\205,
dx2 dx3

exp[/k-

u{x,t)]dx1 dx2

fff J
J \342\200\242>

dx3
G.1.7)

exp[/k-u(x,f)].

because
The characteristicfunctions
can be removed from under the integrals
are
functions
is homogeneous, so that
the
characteristic
the turbulence
and
the
characteristic
of
We
conclude
that
functions,
independent
position.
Eulerian
veloof the Lagrangian
and
therefore also the probability
densities,
are identical in homogeneous
turbulence
in an incompressible fluid.
velocity fields
This
implies that in homogeneous, incompressible flow

G.1.8)

^-^.

Therefore, we do
relatively

easy

not

need

measurement

to

determine

of

suffices.
\320\270^

v\\

in

G.1.3)

by direct

methods; a

Turbulent transport

228

expected, but the method used can also

to more complex
be applied
problems. For example,considerfully developed
=
turbulent
pipe flow (Section 5.2). Let us take F(x, t) Qx (x, t), which is the
total
axial velocity in the pipe {xt is the streamwise direction).
instantaneous
Sincepipeflow is homogeneous
in thexj direction and bounded
in thex2,-*3
of
G.1.6) gives
plane, application
The

\342\200\224

G.1.8)

result

f f
d* = \342\200\224

v1(a.t)da2

f Jf
w2 \302\246>

J J
\320\2662

We may expect

pipe

if

f is

convention,^

= V\\

axial

dx3

\342\200\224;
f [ffi(x,r)dx2

mean

The

= Ui,

0\\

velocity

of a

homogeneous
where

so that

\342\200\224

in

G.1.9)

fluid

moving

point

a cross

a moving
With

becomes,

(x) dx2 dx3

f fa,

bulk velocity Ub
The mean-square fluctuation

G.1.9)

dx3.

cross section.

the

around

all

and

be

because no matter

large enough,

wanders

t) dx2

(x,

ffi

will

Vt (a, f)

that

it eventually

Vi

have been

might

point
the

of the

section
starts

from,

notation

usual

for large t,

= Ub.

G.1.10)

in a pipe is thus

to the

equal

of the fluid.

same

the

\342\200\224

//

in the

da3 = \342\200\224
V\\da2 da3
jj

(vl(a,t)-VlJda2

left-hand-side

the

right-hand-side

we

velocity is obtained in

way:

=
Again,

axial Lagrangian

G.1.11)
\342\200\2242jj[Oiix,t)-Ub]2dx2dx3.

integrand

integrand

is

not

may be

expected to be homogeneous.

homogeneous;

however,

with

ffi

The
=

Ux +uu

obtain

f)
(\321\205,
[\320\277\320\263

Ub]2

= u\\

+ [Ui(x)

G.1.12)

-Ub]2.

Hence, G.1.11)becomes
\342\200\2241

G.1.13)

UA -UbJ]dx2dx3.

The

Lagrangian

the Eulerian
the

Eulerian

axial

velocity

variance

velocity variance and

mean

velocity

and the

from
bulk

thus receives contributions

both
from
the square
of the difference between
velocity.

Clearly,

as a moving

point

229

7.1 Transport

wanders

around

Eulerian
into

the

in

pipe, its axial velocity fluctuates

but also because it wanders

the mean

where

results G.1.10, 7.1.13)are

It

correlation.

Lagrangian

velocity is different
in Section

used

to extend

be tempting

would

turbulence

homogeneous

stationary,

not

fluctuates

velocity
regions

in

but also

because the
time to

bulk velocity.

time
The

7.2.
to the

approach

are

evolve,

poorly

relatively

of the

determination

would

correlations,

space-time

would

the

from

no useful results

However,

analysis
yield
Lagrangian
beyond the scope of this book,

this

only
from

which

the

because
not

are

only

understood.

scale
The second problem associated with
applicaformula
of \320\243\320\260\320\260.
From
applications of
G.1.3) is the determination
dispersion
the Lagrangian (time) integral
that
dimensional
reasoning, we know
simple
with a single length scale /
scale
must be proportional to i/a in turbulence
scale
a.
In
Section
a single
and
2.3,
velocity
extremely crude mixing-length
to
that
show
were used
arguments

The Lagrangian

integral

the

2 at

In

the eddy

wakes,

G.1.14)

2.

\320\242(\320\251)\320\246^2

viscosity is given

by

4.1)

(Table

G.1.15)

i>T=2.8t/\302\273/..

Here,

is
?/\302\273

defined

on basis

maximum slope of the mean

and
u2) to be equal to ?/\302\273
{=

of the Reynolds stress and

velocity

profile.

if we identify

the dissipation

(e is
(\320\270'\320\263)\321\2151\320\265

rate), we obtain

If

we

take</2

with
/\302\273
from

is
/\302\246

Now,

wakes
G.1.15)

However,

are the most

of

value

length t defined
and G.1.15)
G.1.14)

the

by

G.1.16)

\320\24322=\320\2572.8\320\270'2.

that

on the

based

(the rms

nearly

homogeneous

flows

we have

examined, so

be approximately valid for homogeneous

turbulence.
Howis known to be incorrect because
the
time
the
\"diffusion
by

may

G.1.14)

of different
wandering points have moved to regions
propin the nearly homogeneous turbulence of a wake.
properties, even
an
Therefore,
which
does not rely on G.1.14), would
be
independent estimate of \320\227\320\22322,
limit\"

is valid,

welcome.

Corrsin
considerations.

A963a) derived an estimate of \320\24322from spectral similarity

His analysis
is discussed in Section
8.5; the result is

con-

G.1.17)

230

The

between G.1.16) and

good agreement

seriously.If

are honest,

we

we

all

should

G.1.17)

interpret as \"somewhere between and

are quite successful in
and G.1.17)
G.1.16)

estimates

like the

Karman

von

The diffusion

with

3\".

1, which

the

practice;

coefficient

constant

determined

experimentally

the esti-

Nevertheless,

(much

constant).

equation

variance is given
estimated

as an

be regarded

may

G.1.17)

taken too

not be

can state is thatt/j'^j/^

really

should

we

in

transport

Turbulent

In

G.1.8)

by

and the

The asymptotic

G.1,17).

the Lagrangian

turbulence,

homogeneous

form of the

diffusion

velocity
esti-

may be

scale

integral

Lagrangian

G.1.3)

equation

then becomes

G-u8)
defined
convenient to use Eulerian
The

/ is

length

8.5 shows

and L22

relations

the

that

by

and

(downstream

t =

(u'aK/e, as was stated before. It

scales instead of {. The analysis
integral
between ^and the Eulerian
integral

cross-stream

more

is often

in Section

scales

integral scales, respectively),

L\\\\

may

be

as

estimated

7.2

Transport
The case
rather

shear.

in

shear

flows

of homogeneous,stationary
because

unrealistic,

Uniform

cannot be

section, we discusstransport

In this

transport in pipes

turbulence

turbulence

in a

discussed

in Section

maintained

without

shear

uniform

and

flow

7.1 is
mean
trans-

and channels.

shear

flow

Consider

turbulent

flow

with

uniform

mean

shear

will be homogeneous in planes

normal
(dUi/dx2 = constant). The turbulence
velocities
are
not
to the mean velocity Ui; however,
stationary,
Lagrangian
so that all length
scales slowly
the mean flow has no length
because
scale,
much as in grid turbulence
direction,
(see Lumley, in
grow in the streamwise
Batchelor

scales is

and
fairly

Moffatt,
slow;

we

1970). Nevertheless, the rate of

impression
may get a qualitative

growth

of the

of the

length

effects of

231

7.2Transport

mean shear

the position of a

jf*

Xl{a,t)=a1+

=
(a, t)

a2 +

v2 (a, t')

by

G.2.2)

dt',

G.2.3)

dt',

X3{a,t)=a3

'

\320\223
\320\276

is given

+ i/!(a,f')]

[SX2(a,f')

\320\276

X2

by

G.2.1)

point

moving

G.2.4)

v3(a,t')dt'.
J \320\276
is

turbulence

all

is stationary.

= 0,

U2=U3

U1=Sx2,

velocity field is homogeneousin

field

velocity

Lagrangian

flow is defined

mean

the

If

the Eulerian

that

assuming

by

so that the

directions,

flows

in shear

the fluctuating

Lagthe
limit
central
Lagrangian
theorem
we conclude
directly that X2 and X3 asymptotically have Gaussian
the downstream
whose
variance
is given by G.1.18).
However,
distributions,
of the
to be determined separately becauseof the presence
has
transport
mean shearS. As a wandering point moves in the x2 direction, it moves into a
it tends
to move faster (or
with a different mean velocity, so that
region
as the case may be) than
in a flow without shear.
slower,
If the
mean value of G.2.3) is combinedwith
the
mean value of G.2.2),
the

Because

velocities

and

stationary

v2, and

vu

are

v3

homogeneous,

From

stationary.

there results
G.2.5)

states that the

This
location

mean position moves with

(\320\233\022@)
=\320\2602). Subtracting

G.2.5)

from

the

of the initial
obtain
we
after diffG.2.2),
mean

velocity

differentiation

G.2.6)

~Xl)=S{X2-a2)+v1.

^(X,

The variance of X2\342\200\224a2

grows
constant.

second

Hence,

term may be

d2

\342\200\224

for

[X1-X1)

dX2

S-^

large

times

linearly
the

at large
first term

neglected.Differentiating
= Sv2.

times, but the variance

of G.2.6) dominates
G.2.6)

once

of
and

i/i

is

the

more, we obtain

G.2.7)

transport

Turbulent

232

This shows
to
According

that

integral of a stationary
has a Gaussian distribution,

a double

Accord-

function.

variance

whose

1953)

(Corrsin,

by

G.2.8)

u\\t3^22.

(Xx-X^=ls2

The dispersionin
dispersionin

X\\

it asymptotically

F.5.16),

is given

\342\200\224
is

X\\

xx direction thus increases much

directions. The latter are given by

the

and*3

thex2

than

faster

the disper-

G.2.9)
In

the Lagrangian
variance
the turbulence is homogeneous G.1.8).
and

G.2.8)

because

If we

statistics

Joint
pollutant

particles,

(smoke

Xi\342\200\224Xxand

algebra, it
times

(Xi

At

G.2.9)

want to predict the

say) released in
to

have
X2\342\200\224a2

their covariance is given

times,

2\\/3~; contours

x2

xy
/\342\200\224
\342\200\224-V3
O\\
O\\02

variance

o\\

of

a2

y2

of polluof

statistics

joint

Gaussian at

jointly

of

amount
large

by

the correlation coefficient

of constant probability
density

+ -T=

the

a considerable

\342\200\224
are

X2

of a patch

shape

flow,

t/

by

G.2.10)

uiSt2y22.

\302\246j:K)

betweenX\\\342\200\224X\\and

is
X2\342\200\224a2

are given by

const.

G.2.11)

02

= Xi\342\200\224X1,y=X2\342\200\224a2; the

Here, x

With

\342\200\224
1 p{T)dT
11 \342\200\224

-XiHX2-a2)=ujSt2^o
large

be analyzed.

that Xi - Xi and

be shown

can

and that

average
a shear

been replaced

v\\ has

is
\321\203

given

variance

by G.2.9).

o\\ of* is given

as in
deviation,
ellipses; normalized with the standard
a
have a constant aspect ratio, with
major axis of length
= 0.36.The
and a minor axis of length
A\342\200\224
y/3)in
|
axis
and
direction
is
thexi
by
major
given

G.2.8)

by

The contours defined

by

the

G.2.11),

and the
are

G.2.11)

ellipses
=

A+|

\\/3)\321\210

angle

a between

1.37

the

G.2.12)

As the

axis rotates
patch moves downstream, the major
7.2). At large times, the patch becomesquite

horizontal
(Figure

towards
elongated.

the horizon-

7.2 Transport in

233

Figure 7.2.
times are

The mean flow is in

flow.

is 2\320\233.
The

channel

the

Let us

flow

in channel

of time

increments

Equal

are shown;

now

consider
=

G.2.13)

G.2.14)

X2(a.t)-a2

X3(a,r)-a3=

point.

distribution.

stay

function;

the

this,

Eulerian

the

inside

the

the

scale must be
central

that

the

axial

velocity

integral

v2

zero,and

moving

point

has a Gaussian

a stationary

function,

it

constraints imposed on
a moving point has
derivative of a stationary

of the

because

function

limit theorem

of a

of

because

distribution

is a stationary
channel.
Therefore,

its integral

mean

is also

of the

7.1, v2 and v3 are stationwhich itself is not

function

X3\342\200\224a3
asymptotically

function,

itself

X2-a2

at the position

fluctuation

velocity

discussed in Section
integral of a stationary

X2-a2

Although

origin, so
The

the reasons

have a Gaussian

not

v2. Clearly,
to

is the

For

of a stationary

a derivative

does

r'))

X3\342\200\224
a3 is

stationary.Because

G.2.15)

\320\270\320\267
(a, t')dt'.

JJ

(X(a,

moving

dispersion in
=
0, the height
U3

X\\, x2 plane, U2
of a moving point
is given by

position

the

lU1{X2(a,t'))+ul(X(a,t'),t')]dt',

Here, Ui

all

Corrsin, 1953).

from
(adapted
6\320\223.\320\263\320\263

dispersion

channel
of

to

compared

Longitudinal

shear flow.

in uniform

Dispersion

large

flows

shear

is the
its

spectrum

behaves as

\321\201\320\2762
near

does not apply (seeSection6.5).

is given by

G.1.10);

integrating

we obtain

G.2.16)

234

Turbulent

as

Here,

in

transport

G.1.10),

is the

Ub

bulk

of G.2.16)

Substitution

velocity.

yields

G.2.13)

G.2.17)

-Ub+ul]dt'.

Because X2

\342\200\224is

in

integrand

at large

core

= u\\i

integrals.
u, and

because

given by

in G.1.13);

G.2.19)
flow at large Reynolds numbers, we may

G.2.20)

g(r\\).

into G.2.19), we obtain

G.2.20)

G.2.21)

is approximately
equal to
the wall layer is so thin that

The

integral

\320\233
are

the

flow (Section

channel

flow

=
F2dr]+ Jo? gdrj)
g<tn)=Aul.
j1 F'dn+\\
/

however,

the

to

for pipe

computed

Jo

\\

The constant
valid;

u\\lu\\

F{r)),

Substituting

\321\202?
=x2/h.

ul\\\\

was

i/f

channel

of

region

- Ub)/u. =

v2x

that

5.2)

(Section

Here,

variance

+ (U\\-UhJ]dx2.
D

\342\200\224[
udA
J ~f>
2\320\233

In the

(Ux

is then
of Xx \342\200\224Xx

so

this to channel flow, we have

transposing

write

a derivative,

G.2.18)

velocity

Lagrangian

times. The

is not

integrand

variance

= 2v\\t$'.

\\XX-XlJ
The

as the

far

The

is stationary.

G.2.17)

encounters
Ux (X2) and
moving point is concerned, the

point

moving

way: as

a stationary

is Gaussian
\342\200\224Xi

Xi

v\\

in

the

stationary,

a2

i')

(X(a.f'),

ux

into

in
2\320\223

scale

and

velocity

5.2). With

5.

G.2.18)
length

wall

and G.2.21),

estimate

this

layer, G.2.20) is not

negligible contribution
should be of order \320\233/\320\270*,
scales
of the core region
of

the

In

it makes a

G.2.18) becomes

G.722)
\320\241
should

where

flow

Channel
values

for

\320\241
in

the channel
Yaglom,

equal to 10.
to set up in a laboratory;

be approximately
is difficult
pipe

half-width

flow indeed
h

is used

1971). Of course,

range
in

the

around

formula

G.2.22) is valid

only

however, experimental
instead
of
pipe radius
for the variance (Monin
and

10 if the

for f

\302\273h/u*.

7.3

235

of contaminants

Dispersion

Bulk velocity measurements in pipes

G.2.16) and G.2.22) may
Equations
with tracer methods. If
in
be applied
to the problem of determining
pipes
Ub
h in G.2.22),
half-width
the
the pipe radius D/2 is used instead of the
channel
is
relative error in the measurement
of bulk velocity

(*s)
=

Xi
the

a\\

patch

CD \\1'2

fe)

\"U

'

G-223)

of tracer material
at
release and the passage of
at time
interval
t between
is the
at some downstream location is measured.The factor
Ubt/D
is performed
=
f
0; the time

measurement

The

\\1/2 /

/u,

(Cu\302\273D\\V2

a patch

releasing

by

streamwise distance in

the accuracy of the measurement

diameters;
clearly,
is the square root of the
distance
increases.
The
ratio
improves
ujilb
friction
at typical Reynolds numbers, its value is about 0.04, so
coefficient;
as 0.2. If C= 10, a streamwise
that
separation of 100 diameters
(uJUb)U2
about
a 4% standard deviation in the measurement
of Ub. The accuracy
gives
can
be improved
if
the
concentration
distribution of
streamwise
considerably
the patch of tracer
is measured at the downstream location.
material
as this

7.3
of

Dispersion

So far,

we

that
that

would

it

contaminants
discussed

have

only

be possible

the dispersion

to mark

its identity.

or tag

of

and

points

moving

a Lagrangian

\"point\"

two

in

assumed

such

a way
7.2 we

keep
examples given
assumed without
discussion
that the motion of a minute
tracer
is
particle
identical to the motion of the Lagrangian
point of fluid that would
occupy
the position
of the particle if it were not there. Now,
we have to consider
more realisticdispersion
Two questions
arise. First, contaminants
problems.
are commonly
so that
released
with some initial
concentration
distribution,
the concentration distribution
at
later times has to be predicted.Second,
which may interact
are also dispersed by molecular
contaminants
transport,
with

it

the

would

turbulent

transport.

the

In

We will

discuss

in

these

Section

separately.

problems

are not
Let us consider
contaminants which
The concentrationdistribution
in
molecular
motion.
Thisis
an
however,
idealization;
liquids the
dispersed by
of contaminants
molecular transport
(salinity, heat) is poor and in air the
tracer particles (smoke, say) is poor, so that
molecular transport
of minute
the

assumption

of zero

diffusivity

should

be fairly

realistic

in

those

cases.

Turbulent transport

236

The

of a contaminant

transport

zero

with

is governed

diffusivity

by

\320\255\321\201
\320\264\321\201

|7-3\"

\321\201
is

Here,

concentration

instantaneous

the

fluid velocity at

instantaneous

that

The

point.

at a point x,-, t, and

solution of G.3.1) is

is the

\320\277,-

G.3.2)

c(X(a,f),f)=c(a, 0).

the concentration at each moving

remains
point
equal to its
time of release. Because
is no molecular diffusion,
this
there
is
we
to
mean
want
result
obvious. If
concentrationC(x,t), G.3.2)
predict the
to be inverted.
This is a backward dispersion problem: instead
of asking
has
where a point that
started
are
from a,- at time t = 0 will
we
to,
go
asking
where
a point that arrives at x, at time
f came from. In other
words, we need
a Lagrangian
like G.1.1), but with time running backdisplacement
integral
that

states

This

the

at

value

backwards.

the

If

velocity field is

Lagrangian

dispersion problemsare
X/(a, t) for points
probability

f. If

time

C(x, t) is the

This states that

all

at

jjj

= 0 for

integral

and

G.3.5)

C(x,

is the

probability

t = 0,

mean concentration,

of
can

we

then

B(a,

points

and forward

the

mean

concentration

all

of

density

is the probathat arrive at x, at

x, t)

write

G.3.3)
at a

is the

point

of the

particle

at one

point

carried

concentration

being there,

(a\302\260,say),

we

over

integrated

have

G.3.4)

a^a?,

cc{a,0)da1da2da3 = 1.

The

reduces

a, t)

B(X,

at time
a,-

positions a,(x, t)

a particle
times the probability
particles that could be there.
If the
initial concentration
is all

c(a, 0)

If

backward

c(a,0)B(a,x,t)daida2da3.

C(x,t)=jjj

by

same.

the original

of

density

the
started

that

the

stationary,

G.3.5)

has been normalized for convenience.Equations

G.3.5)
define a Dirac delta function
the
5(a \342\200\224a0);
integral

G.3.4)

G.3.3)

re-

to

t)

=jjj

5 (a -

a0)

B(a,

x,

f)

dax

da2 da3

B(a\302\260,x,

t).

G.3.6)

7.3 Dispersion

237

of contaminants

concentration is then

The mean

to the

of the posiprobability density

suggests that B{a\302\260,x) can be
at af and
measured by introducing
a small
point source of contamination
The
mean
concentration
the
field.
omission
the
of the
throughout
measuring
is
in
t in \320\222 intentional:
sources
with
practice, continuous point
argument
and \320\222
are independent
constant flux are used, so that \320\241
of time.
minute
tracer
It is clear
from G.3.6) that
conparticles and nondiffusing
contaminants indeed may be used to mark
The
conclusions
Lagrangian
points.
obtained in Sections
7.1 and 7.2 thus
to the concentration distribuapply
distribution
as well as to the probability
it must be kept in mind
density;
however,
that the identification can be made only
if the Lagrangian
velocity field is

a moving

of

position

point

equal

a\". This

from

leaving

stationary.

The effects of

molecular

diffusivity

has a finite

contaminant

the

If

transport

\320\264\321\201
\320\264\321\201\320\252\320\263\321\201
\342\200\224=
7\342\200\224\342\200\224.

G.3.7)

'

-+U,.
bt

\320\255\321\205,-\320\255\321\205,\320\255\321\205,-

of molecular

The

presence

that

we have to

point. If ?,- is
of the Lagrangian

the wandering
the position
and
Xj
with

Here,

the

equation

continuity

dispersion
the

of
neighborhood

to

relative

Kolmogorov
the

/7,(x)

a moving

point

has been

coordinates

between the Eulerian

G.3.7) becomes

velocity
rotation

usedto bring

system moving
but

\342\200\224

?/,@).

?/,(?)

?/;-

inside

moving
position

the derivative;

a Lagrangian

with

Equation

G.3.8)

of contaminant

patch
point.
the velocity distribution
If

the

microscale,

in the

point, the

describes
is smaller
neighbor-

linear:

\320\254\320\270-

G.3.9)

\320\270\320\224)-\320\270/@)
|\321\203\342\200\22440).

body

Xt,

moving point is approximately

=

so

G.3.8)

a coordinate

is not

velocity

than

7^.

of course, seenfrom
Eulerian

specialcaseof

difference

the

G.3.2),

problem raisedby
small spot of contami-

point. Let us change to

a moving

write

way. The general

a different

we consider the

around

contaminant,centered

to

it impossible

makes

diffusion

proceed in

is intractable;

G.3.7)

The

molecular

equation fore becomes

conservation

y, the

field

around

(corresponding

the

a combination
of a solidpoint is then
and
the skew-symmetric part of \320\255<7;/\320\255?\321\203)
a

moving
to

Turbulent transport

238

strain

pure

(corresponding
0, of course,

=
bOjIbh at ?#.
Substitution

JJJc
The

of G.3.9) into

see that

It is easy to
conserved:

to the symmetric
G.3.8)

total

the

of

part

of

The

value

spot

must be

\320\255\320\270,/\320\255|;).

in time.

varies

generally

yields

of contaminant

amount

the

in

G.3.11)

rf$i

has been

integral

spot can be measured

for

normalized

by

lpq,

The shape

convenience.

which is defined

and

of the

size

by

G.3.12)

The

sum of the

square of the
G.3.10);

spot

average

is

of

lpq can be obtained

lpq

is equal

bujbh

from

it reads

G.3.13)

^.
If

to the

is proportional

this

lpp;
lpq
radius. The equation for

components

diagonal

to zero, the solution

of G.3.13)is

straightforward:

G.3.14)

2yt8pq.

This states

that,

absence of
= 0 if p
(lpq

in the

is round

contaminant

molecular

in

diffusion

lpp ; clearly,the
The effect of pure,

all directions.

radius

steady

increases

strain

motion

relative

and q

The

as (yt)in,
Equation

near

are different)
radius

as in

of the

a point,

the spot

of

it spreads

by

spot is proportional

to

that

and

all diffusion

G.3.13) cannot

problems.

easilybe solved

for

of a special case is instructive.

velocity field. However, the solution
the analysis
to the effects of pure strain. Take a two-dimen=
and
=0,
strain-rate
field in which bu<ilb!?\\
two-dimensional
=s,
s, \320\252\320\27031\320\252%3
\320\252\320\270\320\2631\320\252%2

a general
Let

us restrict

in which

plane

strain

all

off-diagonal
with

stretching

components

in the

of

zero.

This

represents pure,
in the ?2 direc-

\320\255\320\270/\320\255^-\320\260\320\263\320\265

?i directionand

compression

7.3Dispersion

239

approximation G.3.9) implies

tion. The

not vary

it does

We

in

found

are

recall

d/u/df-to/u
+ 2sl22

d/22/dt

thus

s/y-

an

small-scale
s to

consider

=27,

G.3.15)

=2y,

G.3.16)

G.3.17)
is

of G.3.15-7.3.17)

solution

are

microscale);these large
motion. For the small spot we
be of order afK.

the Taylor

dl12/dt = 0.
The

one.

arbitrary

in turbulence

G.3.13) becomes

plane strain,

steady,

fluctuations

(X is
the

with

uniform; we also assumethat

symbol s is not

strain-rate

thats,y~*A

here, we may

considering

s is

that

choice of the

3 that the

Chapter

are associated

rates

For

The

time.

in

quite large. We
strain

of contaminants

G318)

^.^i-xpt-a*

I,

G.3.19)

ll2

0.

G.3.20)

For very small total

agrees with G.3.14).

result of molecular

sinhBsf)

that

transport

the

spot
alone.

= 2st,

so

strain

st

that

+
/\321\206

increases,

\342\200\224

4yt,

which

G.3.19) increases

much faster than

straining motion thus

spreads
The

/22

it would

as a

accelerates

this effect is quite proof small spots. In turbulence

fluctuating strain rates are so large.
of the accelerated diffusion
is easy to understand. As a spot of
is drawn
out in the %x direction
(Figure 7.3), the concentration
that
are reduced. Becausethe diffusion
of contaminant
direction

diffusion

molecular

because

pronounced,

The

st,

However, as the

t, so

than

faster

much

strain

cause

contaminant

gradients

in

is proportional

the

to the concentration gradient,

of spread in the |i
comthe spot is being
that
the
in
the
direction
so
the
and
molecular
diffusion
?2
compressed,
gradients
increase. At small values of st, the increase in the ?2 gradient is about equal to
the decrease in the ?i gradient, but at large values of st the increase
of
is much larger than
the
decrease
of diffusion in
diffusion in the %2 direction
as indicated
the
increases
so that the net rate of diffusion
by
?i direction,
G.3.19).
and
The interaction of turbulent
molecular
transport thus results in much

direction

is reduced.

In

the

%2 direction,

the

however,

rate

Turbulent transport

240

increased

gradient

/I

Figure 7.3.

Effect

>\321\207
reduced

\\

of strain

faster spreading of the

is so effective. If there

gradient

on concentration

gradients.

is one

of the reasonswhy

spot.

This

were

no molecular transport,

carry

thin

sheets and filaments of

minimum

scale

in cases with

turbulent

turbulent

mixing

mixing
would

part of the flow.

there
still
would
be
at
small
However,
scales, because
large inhomogeneities
the
filaments
be separated by regions
would
of uncontaminated
fluid, which
have to be filled by unaccelerated
would
molecular
diffusion.
The expressions G.3.18) provide
for the calculations of the minisupport

Figure

3.6).

smaller

than

no

3 (see C.3.68), C.4.7), and

given in Chapter
it never
expression for I22, we see that
gets
matter how large the total strain becomes. The minimum
ylv

< 1,

On substitution
then is (y/sI/2.
microscale becomes{y/v)ll2r).

of s

scale

The

saw

in

order

that the

assumption
Chapter
R(Xn

3, time
relative

every

the

Examining
yls,

to

contaminant

to

times Ms. Of course,the

strain-rate

field

by ufK~(elv)in,
is steady

derivatives of the vorticity

Ms. In other words, the
strain

rate

eventually

is not

and

the contaminant
unrealistic.

strain-rate
goes

straining

changes

sign,

so

As we

fields are

of

on for many
that

the rate

7.4Turbulent

241

in evolving flows

transport

of spreading is controlled not by

scale of the strain-rate
gian
integral
The

assumption

exact calculationthat
obtained here (Lumley,
Transport

includes
1972

at large scales

transport are

the

spot size
vorticity

to

corresponds

clearly

is not

is zero

does

not

1.
/\321\203\320\233>\302\253

argument; a more
the conclusions

the

to

vital

change

b).

The

scales because the

scales.

molecular

turbulence-accelerated

of

effects

to small

confined

mainly

The

field.

compared to the
that the vorticity

is infinite

field

where 9\"is the Lagranassumption that the strain-rate

by s(t2T)in,

but

st,

fluctua-

strain-rate

molecular
the
small-scale
diffusion
removes
concentration
rapidly
inhomogeneities
created by the straining motion. This interaction
tends
to make the concenconcentration distribution
at small scales. The time
homogeneous
approximately
be
needed
for homogenizing
to
(vieI/2, but (vieI12 ~
may
large compared
tlu A.5.15), so that this time scale is likely
to be small compared to
R(in
the large-eddytime scale tla.
If the
instantaneous
\321\201
is decomposed
concentration
into a mean concentraconcentration
\320\241
concentration
fluctuations
the
and
conservation
c,
equation for \320\241
the
mean
becomes
absence
of
(in
flow)
fluctuations

are

intense

most

at small

As

seen above,

have

we

\342\200\224 d2C
\320\255\320\241
\320\255
\342\200\224
=
+\342\200\224
\302\246
\321\201\320\270(
\321\202\320\2637

9f

\320\255\321\205,

The

term on the

transport

length scale

is of

The ratio

increases/,,

is of

of G.3.21)

concentration

mean

order yC/t\\.

diffusion

turbulence-accelerated

side

left-hand

characteristicof

term

diffusion

G.3.21)

bXjbXj

of

these

\320\270
order \320\241
tc (lc

The molecular

gradients).
is a(ch.

rapidly, atjj

is a

Because turbuto

is comparable

(which

the Reynolds number if ylv = 1, as in gases) tends to become large, so that

the
effects
on the mean concentration
of molecular diffusion
can
distribution
often
be neglected. This conclusion, of course, is identical
to the one obobtained
for the transport
of mean momentum
(Section
2.1).
7.4

Turbulent
In

the

gian

transport

preceding

velocities

in evolving

sections

were stationary.

are not. Nonstationary

or
field is nonstationary
they

flows

we have discussed only

Lagrangian

inhomogeneous

the

in which

cases

The problem becomesmuch

velocities

arise

(or both);

in

this

if

more
the

Eulerian

section,

Lagran-

difficult

if

flow

we discuss

242

the

transport

Turbulent

of contaminants

dispersion

in

statistically

inhomogeneous,

self-preserving,

steady flows.

Thermal wake
source

line

in

in

The turbulence

turbulence.

grid

The mean velocity U is in the x

turbulence
is homogeneous in the
scale
increases
(Eulerian) integral
energy

\\

decreases

u*

transport of heat releasedfrom a

is produced in a wind tunnel.
The
direction; it is assumed to be uniform.
The
it decays
downstream.
y, z plane, but
Consider

turbulence

grid

asx\021,

asx1/2

a first

to

turbulent
the
downstream, while
approximation (Section 3.2).

be a heated wire stretchedacrossthe wind tunnel;

is steady. The wire produces
a small temperatemperature
rise in all the material points that
to
pass through its boundary
happen
The heated wake of the wire is slowly broadened by the turbulencelayer.
accelerated
molecular transport, but it is also carried from side to side by
eddies
difference between any
larger
(Figure 7.4). If the mean temperature
is called
the
thermal
and
the
unheated
fluid
0 and if the
within
wake
point
the equation
for 0 reads
fluctuations
are designated by \320\262,
temperature
we assume

could

source

line

The

that

heat

the

90 \320\255
.^
ox ax

oy

The second and

fourth

demonstrated

by

ox
terms

\320\255\321\205
by

Figure

7.4.

oy
of

G.4.1)

G.4.1)
has

are small,
analysis

as can
for

plane

easily

be demon-

wakes (Section

is also small,
but
we will retain it
on the distribution of 0. Consequently,

to

see what
G.4.1)

by

\342\200\224

d_

920

the order-of-magnitude

4.1). The last term of

effect molecular transport
99

920

9 .-^.

repeating

is approximated

supply

cP9

{742)

\320\252\321\2032'

Definition sketch for

plane

thermal

wake.

7.4 Turbulent

243

in evolving flows

transport

Integrating G.4.2), we obtain

G.4.3)

\\

flux of heat past any downstream

to the momentum
integral

total

The

relation is similar
Self-preservation

We are

7.4.3). Immediately,

location

is thus

ordinary

wakes.

a self-preserving

for

looking

problem

in

The turbulence

arises.

constant. This

solution to
has a length
has another

G.4.2,
scale/,

is fixed; if the temperature

distribution
length
at
a
increase
different
exist.
which
cannot
rate, self-preservation
scale,
might
is the same as the virtual
wake
If the virtual origin of the thermal
of the
origin
would
not arise. This could be arranged
turbulence, this problem
by putting
the heated wire very close to the grid or, even better, by heating
one of the
the
is
heated wire
at some distance from the grid,
bars of the grid. If
however,
does not seem possible.If the mean temperature
difference
self-preservation
at the center line of the wake is called @0 and if the length scale of the
whose

growth

thermal

wake

the

is te,

turbulent

in G.4.2)

term

transport

order

is of

\342\200\224 =
\320\231) 0\320\270\320\262\320\276//\320\265).

G.4.4)

by
If

wake is

thermal

the

the

grid,

the

transport

self-preserving, becausethe heated

wire

is located

G.4.5)

<PU\302\256o/D.

-^~\320\250

near

term is

by

The values

the same
the

from

behind
transport

wire

in

the
so
way

of

width

root

of

the

not

the

same;

ne

heat

flux is

at some given downstream distance*

of \320\262\320\276
wake of the wire that is closest \320\276
\320\273.
close
Also,

that G.4.4) produces abnormally

turbulent
large
direction.
This causes rapid broadening of tne temperature
\321\203
that we may expect tQ to catch up with t (Figure 7.5).
to understand
this effect is to take account
of the fact that

the
time

velocity U, the
the wire; if the

are

the value

cases,

is larger for the

that

Another

and G.4.5)

in G.4.4)
\320\262\320\276

both

in

grid

distribution,

the

of

/e\302\253

I, so

distribution

\320\262
increases

since release for

width

distance

thus

all

increases

from the

wire

roughly
but

as the

very

proportionally
small times. At

square root of

is much

the

smaller than the

to the square
a given

distance

mean
from

distance from

Turbulent

244

transport

i
1
j

self-preserving

j
1

range

1
1
1
1

\\

\\

heated wire

grid

The growth of Iq for a source

7.5.

Figure

turbulence.

the turbulence-producing
allow
some distance for
be feasible.
solution should

0O f(yll),

Here,

and

\302\251o \302\251oM

of

G.4.6)

primes

dx
\320\270
\302\251\320\276

we

a self-preserving

t,

G.4.6)

\302\253gKvIO-

We have

?=?&).
of

turbulence

the

into G.4.2)

assumed

prescribes

of course, the
\302\246
Substit<*xxn
u<*x~in,
that

te

= I;

yields
GA7)

dx
\320\270

\302\253(

denote

differentiation

can be obtainedonly
\\LL<**-A,

of the

Therefore, if

than t.
to

origin

uL^t_^
dx
\302\251o

Here,

faster

(e to become comparable

-fc= 0o

self-preservingdecay
Substitution

increases

te

virtual

consistsof
of self-preservation

The assumption
0 =

grid,

near the

located

not

if the

\302\261d-l-Bi

a dx

Becausea <xx~in and

(P is a Pe'cletnumber).

with

coefficients

in

\\ori(=ylO-

G.4.7)

are constant:

1\320\233.

at

G.4.8)

second

/<\321\205\321\205\321\210
, the

The

Self-preservation

respect

first

of G.4.8)

and

third

can be satisfied

of

are satisfied

G.4.8)
by

any

power

law

the heat flux

G.4.3)
\302\251o
integral
requires that 60^be constant, so
axn,
as x'1'2. This is not surprising,
because
that
6o is similar to the
@o varies
in
wakes
center-linevelocity
difference
momentum
(Section 4.1). It is
U%
that the molecular transport
is also self-preserving; it will be
term
convenient
retained. With these results, G.4.7) becomes
but

245

Turbulent

7.4

in

flows

evolving

+ P'lf\"-

f')=g'
of

Integration

transport

G.4.9)

yields

G.4.9)

-Bvf = g+P~lf'.

edges, is
If

in the

than

assumption

the

not

is called

group<*///yT

to define

is convenient

the

G.4.11)

-Br]f=(Pjl +P'1)f'.
It

no

direction.

cross-stream

the

in

has

flow

PT, G.4.10) becomes

number

Peclet

this

4.1, because

Section

better

This is a much

is constant.
in

and is homogeneous
is 7T and the nondimensional

intermittent,

diffusivity

eddy

turbulent

the eddy diffusivity

wakes studied

that

assume

us

Let

G.4.10)

/by

//

B =

f4 f
-\342\200\224
=

The

solution

G.4.12)

Pyl+p-1.

of

then becomes

G.4.11)

G.4.13)

f=exp(-|T?2).
mean

The

temperature

deficit

momentum

the

clear from

It is

difference
wakes

in

is additive.
Table

If

4.1)

and

if P

is at

all

distribution,

like

just

degree of approximation

that, to the

on the
of molecular transport
is of the same order as
PT
/?T

the effect

here,

a Gaussian

D.2.15).

7.4.12)

G.4.11,

has

thus

the

large,

used

mean temperature distribution

=
in plane wakes
(/?T 12.5, see

spreading due

additional

to

molecular

is negligible.

transport

It has been assumed that

the
Dispersion relative to the decayingturbulence
of the temperature wake scaleswith
the
the
of
turbulength
decaying
increases
as xU2. This implies that
the dispersion,
nondimenturbulence, which
sionalized with the local length scale, does not increase
as soon as self-preser-

width

self-preservation
has

sense

the

been

turbulence

grid

If

Clearly,
this

\"disperses\"

jets, wakes,and

the

unlikely

in

of contaminants;

dispersion

such as

attained.

used earlier

heated

to be

wire

points

wandering

chapter.

its

own

it

is characteristic

boundary

being dispersed in

of dispersion

in

evolving

flows

layers.

is not located

observedexperimentally.

are not

This peculiar behavior arises becausethe

scales at a rate consistent with
the
length

close to
The

time

the

grid,

scale (la

self-preservation

is

of the turbulence

246

Turbulent

transport

order as t=x/U C.2.32).It takes the length scale of the

temperature wake several lla to catch up with the length scale of the turbuturbulence. However,
so that after severaltla the
(la is also the time scaleof decay,
the same

is of

is no

turbulence

decay,

in

longer self-preserving, but

/and

which

\302\253change

The Gaussian distribution

the

(within
with

The

even at small

data,

should not be construed

the

probability

experimentally

be

to

of

distribution

as

support

in a different

that the

result

of constant

assumption

experimental

downstream

the

entered

has

the

density of the velocity fluctuations

Gaussian at all
approximately
6 would seem to be an unavoidable

Dispersion in

The analysis

flows

shear

presented

experithe Gaussian
fact, the posi-

In

result.

in

observed

so that

a wandering

this

local
from

This

because

diffusivity,

is also

point, nondimensionalized with the

itself
becomes
a stationary
variable at a large distance
is no reason why it should have a Gaussian distribution,
to make it so.
dynamics of turbulence which
happen
of

position

agreement

of release.

point

eddy

times,

is Gaussian

of

in good

is

for a constant

of

period

way.

distribution

eddy diffusivity)
distances from

final

length scale/,
the grid; there
except

section

for

the

may also

be

flows, such as jets, wakes,

self-preserving
Some time after release,the plume of contamicontaminant
will
have spread throughout the turbulent
of the flow; beyond that,
part
of momentum
and dispersion of contaminant
dispersion
go hand in hand, just
as in the thermal plume discussed in Section
4.6. Because the contaminant
cannot spread beyond
the
scale
of the contamiedges of the flow, the length
contaminant
as
distribution
remains
the same
the length scale of the flow.
If the
does
not coincide with the virtual
point of release of contaminant
of the flow, we cannot expectself-preservation
near
the point of reorigin
shear flows exhibit no cross-stream homogeneity, the initial
release.
Because

applied to dispersion by
and

plumes,

dispersion
solutions

the

are

boundary

problem
obtained

other

layers.

is extremely
by assuming

mean velocity U is

complicated. Sometimes,approximate
that

the

turbulence

approximately constant in

is homogeneous
the

neighborhood

soluand

that

of the

can then be describedwith the analysis

point of release;the initial dispersion
The effect
of Section 7.1, where the time t since release is replaced \320\252\321\203\321\205/U.
of
mean shear is sometimesaccounted
that the mean velocity
for by assuming
is approximately
7.2 may
constant; the results obtained in Section
gradient
then lead to qualitatively
correct
conclusions.

247

Problems

Problems

7.1

at the center line of a fully developed turbulent

flow. The reaction rate is large, so the total reactiontime
is determined
pipe
diameters
are required for the reaction
by turbulent transport. How many
is added

chemical

to

be completed?
7.2

A kilogram
a 25-watt

homogenizedby

of a half-and-half
mixer. The two

density (about 10~s m2/secand

fluid into the other is about

mixture
fluids

1 kg/m3,

of

two fluids is
about

have

respectively);

being

the same

the

homoge-

viscosity and

diffusivity

of

one

3 x 10~6 times the viscosity. This situation

of the fluids
is a dilute
solution of high molecular
weight
estimate
Make
a
conservative
of
the
time
polymers.
required for
mixing
that in the mixing process it is neceshomogeneity of the mixture.
Suppose
use only strain rates small
to 5 x 102 sec\021,
because
necessary to
compared
larger
strain rates tend to tear the polymer
limit
molecules
If
yourself to
you
apart.
strain
rates
one-tenth
of this value, what
time is required? What
is the
mixing
is
power of the mixer in this case? If the mixer paddle is 5 cm in diameter,
the flow turbulent?
occurs

7.3
layer

if one

A smokestack
releases

located in the
stream of

a steady

lower
neutrally

part of the

concentration?

smoke.

buoyant

downstream positionof
point of maximum
is the
surface. What
effect of the stack height
the

atmospheric
concentration

pollutant

on

the

boundary

Estimate

maximum

the
at the

surface

8
DYNAMICS

SPECTRAL

6, the energy
spectrum,
was introduced.
autocorrelation,
In Chapter

The

energy

to

opportunity
sizes

not have

did

it

if

little

relatively

that

find

shall

the

about

think

energy with each

exchange

becauseturbulence

analysis

spectral

allows

us

way

which

in

other. Thisis the

central

its energy at

receives

commonly

waves,

value

in

physical

draw

to

or eddies, of different
issue in this chapter,
large

scales,

viscous dissipation of energy

at very small scales. We
occurs
there often exists a range of eddy sizes which are not directly
maintenance
and dissipation mechanisms; this range
energy
inertial

own

its

the

of

transform

conunattainable in any other way. Spectra are decomthe measured function into
waves
of different
periods or wavevalue of the spectrum at a given
is the
or wavelength
frequency
in that wave, as we found
in Section
6.4. Spectra thus give us an

of

decompositions
wavelengths.

be

almost

are

that

conclusions

however,

spectrum,

We

interpretation.

mean

the

with

working

as the Fourier

defined

There would

shall

while

the

find

that

affectedby
is called

the

the

subrange.

8.1

three-dimensional spectra

One- and
A

flow

turbulent

Experimental
line

a fixed

at

fluid

moving
generates a

time,

If

separation, the

the

of time.

of position or

autocorrelation

transform

Spectra obtained in

if

the

variable
this

producing

velocity, may

point

can

autocorrelation

is a frequency;

measurements

a fixed

function

homogeneous, an
computed.

at

space directions and in time.

be made
along a straight
as a function
of time,
or following a

way

three

all

in

say of

as a function

point

random

variable

varies randomly

measurements,

is a

the

function

be formed and a

wave

are called

a time

of

function

number

(with

kind generor

is stationary

spectrum can be com-

interval, the

is a function

autocorrelation

is a

of this

measurement

time. If

of a spatial

dimensions

transform

separa-

length\021).

one-dimensional spectra becausethe

them were taken

in

one

dimension.

One-dimensional
spectra do not seem
spectra
for
the
of
because
it is three dimendescription
turbulence,
very appropriate
In
a
one-dimensional
about
dimensional.
information
spectra give misleading
way,
three-dimensional fields. Supposethat we are making measurements along a
line
and that we are looking
for
of wave number \320\272.
straight
components
Aliasing

in

one-dimensional

8.1 One-and

249

we are

Because
disturbances

of

direction

wave

three-dimensionalspectra

measuring
number

a line,

along
\320\272
whose

of measurement

and

we cannot

wave-number

disturbances

of

distinguish

distur-

between

is aligned
wave numbers larger
vector

with
than

the
\320\272

vector is oblique to the line of measurement

whose
wave-number
(Figure
in a three-dimensional
field
obtained
8.1). Thus, a one-dimensionalspectrum
\320\272
contributions
from components
of all wave numcontains at wave number
This
is called aliasing. Measured one-dimensional
numbers larger
than \320\272.
spectra
to the integral scale).
have a finite value at the origin
(proportional
ordinarily
the
This does not mean that there is finite energy at zero wave number;
zero.
from
wave
numbers
to
been
aliased
has
higher
energy merely
however. This
is not serious at high wave numbers,
The problem
of aliasing
so
is because small eddies tend to have about the same size in all directions,
8.1 occurs at
that the situation depicted in Figure
that there is little chance
small scales.

direction

of

measurement

wave-number

vector

(a)

Figure 8.1.
\320\272,
aligned

wave-number

in a one-dimensional spectrum: (a) a wave

of true wave number
with
a wave of wave number \320\272
the line of measurement,
>\320\272,
(b)
vector oblique to the line of measurement.

Aliasing

with

250

dynamics

Spectral

three-dimensional

The

spectrum

measurements not
produces a correlationthat

can take

eliminates

makes

physical

the

information,

space.

In

of the scalar wave-number

function

the total energy at

calleda

integrated over sphericalshells around

this
way, we obtain a spectrum that

is usually

spectrum

of wave-number

origin

three-

transform of such a correlationproducesa spectrum

that
this gives much
wave-number
vector \320\272,-.
Unfortunately,
inforthan
we can handle. The addition of the directional
the aliasing problem in exchange
for a complexity
that
In order to remove the directionalinfordifficult.
reasoning

information

information

function

is a

we

This

a line

the

of

function

more

avoid the aliasing

problem,
but in all possible directions.
of the separation vector.The
to

order

Fourier

dimensional

is a

In

along

just

wave-number

that

three-dimensional

whose

\320\272
and

magnitude

without

magnitude

the
is a

value represents

aliasing. This is

spectrum.

U\\, u2,
components
problem remains. Often, the velocity
and 1/3 are measured separately. However,
for
spectral
analysis we need a
wave
number.
all of the kinetic energy at a given
spectrum that represents
it is
Therefore, the spectra of U\\. u2, and u3 are commonly added together;
the spectrum of the total
to
as
the
threewhich
is
referred
always
energy
One additional

dimensional

spectrum.

The correlation tensor and

we have described in words.
;y

The

correlation

the

turbulence
of

Let

transform

Fourier

The correlation

tensor

R/j

us

formalize

now

is defined

tensor

(8.1.1)
of the vectorseparatjo't only,

is a function

is homogeneous. The spectrum

is given
ff,y,

=
\342\200\224j,
\320\244/\320\234)
jjj
\"~

what

by

r,f).

fy

transform

its

tensor

which

\321\204\321\206,

providing

is the

Fourier

by

exp (-/K

\342\200\242

r)

R9{r) d\\,
(8.1.2)

jjj

Unlike

the

exp

definition

\342\200\242
(/\320\272r)

0#y(K)

of

here has not been normalized;

the

spectrum
the

Of primary interest is the sum

form

of the

used

in

Section

6.4,

(8.1.2) is customary
diagonal

components

the correlation
in

of

the

literature.
which

\321\204\321\206.

is

8.1 One-and

251

three-dimensional

Ru@)

J =

= 3

\320\270~\320\277-,

The directional

If

KjKj).
=

we

clear by

considering

dK.

(8.1.3)

is removed

in

\321\204\320\237(\320\272)

modulus

the

surface element of the

over a spheri-

by integration

of the vector \320\272;

that
shell do, we can write

is,

= \320\272*\320\272
=
\320\2722

do.

(8.1.4)

\321\204\321\206(\320\272)

The purpose

given

is
which
/?,\342\200\242,\342\200\242(()),

\321\204\321\206{\320\272)

\320\272
is
(\320\272

call the

JJ J

information

radius

of

spherical
shell

EM

This becomes

vector.

the kinetic energy at a

it represents

because
+$22
+\320\244\320\267\320\267,
\320\244\321\206~\320\244\320\270
wave-number

spectra

of the factor |

spectrum \320\225(\320\272)
equal

to the

is to
make the integral of the three-dimensional
kinetic energy per unit mass:

dK=\\

\\

\320\241
[h(K)da]dK

\320\250

*\302\273dK

(8.1.5)

Two

most

one-dimensional spectra

common

measured are the one-dimensional

/?2 2 (r,0,0). The geometry involved

often

R11 (r,0,0) and

is sketched in
is
\320\23122{\320\263,0,0)

The one-dimensional

8.2;

Figure

called

is called
\320\257\321\206(\320\263,0,0)

correlation.

a transverse

spectra

/?22 <r. 0,

0) =

exp

exp

(/\320\272
!r)

F!!

/?i j and

a longitudinal

between

The

relations

seen

by considering the relation

/?n(r,0,0)=

j^

F22,
\320\223\321\206,

correlation,

and

(8.1.6)

(8.1.7)

E are quite

exp(/K!r) (JJ

and

by

(\320\272
J \321\201\320\223\320\272
j,

between /?i i

/?22

is called
Correspondingly, Fi \320\263

\321\201/\320\272i.
(\320\272i)

(iKxr)F22

of

transforms

Fourier
in measuring

longitudinal spectrum and F22 is calleda transverse

spectrum.
The one-dimensional spectra Fj i (\302\253j)and F2 2 (\320\272
i) are defined

R11 (r, 0, 0) =

are

that

complicated. This can

which

\321\204\321\206,

be

is

c/kl
0\320\277(\320\272)\321\201/\320\2722\321\201/\320\272\320\267|

(8.1.8)

252

Spectral dynamics

8.2.

The

longitudinal

and

Comparing (8.1.8) with

(8.1.6),

Figure

Fii(nl)=

correlations.

transverse

we find

\320\230\321\204\321\206{\320\272)\321\2011\320\2722\321\2011\320\2723.

(8.1.9)

The integration
is over a slice of
of \320\272\320\263,
so that
energy from high wave
numbers
which are not located near the Ki axis is aliased to \302\253i.
The
of Fj t and F22 are somewhat
different.
Measured
values of
shapes
go negative (though there is no reason why they should
/?i i do not ordinarily
a maximum
has
at the origin.
Because
not); this means that \320\240\321\206
F\\\\ is

This

the

demonstrates

wave-number

majorized

its

by

value

=0
Ki

problem.

aliasing

at a given value

space

at the

it curves

origin,

(note
F\\
The transverse correlationR22. however,

from

of

values

i is symmetric

that

r (Figure

8.2).

It

downward

because ffj

i is

parabolically

away

real).

become
does
negative for some
to see why this occurs. Consider a
Across this plane there should
be no
x2 direction.
mean value of u2 is zero. Therefore, the integral
of

interest

is of

plane perpendicular to the

the
net mass flux,
because
the
over
u2
entireXi ,x3 plane should be zero:
dx3

\320\230u2(x1,0,x3)dx1

If

the

integral

=0.

is multiplied

by

(8.1.10)

u2

at

some given point,

there results,

after

averaging.

R22(r1,Q,r3)drldr3

This

means

that

R22

must go

(8.1.11)

negative

somewhere

in thexb

x3 plane. This

253

three-dimensionalspectra

One- and

8.1

backflow is necessary somewherein the plane in order to

is isotropic (meaning, as we saw
keepthe net mass flux zero. If the turbulence
in Chapter 3, that
its statistics
of
are invariant under reflections or rotations
the coordinate
can
be
function
of
the
a
distance
\320\236,
r3)
system), \320\230\320\263\320\263\\\321\205\321\205,
only
r={rj +ri)u2. In this case, (8.1.11) becomes
that

states

merely

rR22(r,0,0)dr =

j:

the

that

the

from

(8.1.12)

correlation

The transverse

found

0.

somewhere. In
to have
F22, is likely

be negative

must

thus

spectrum,

corresponding

a probe

so

appreciably
which

probe is large

the

enough,

as

known

frozen-turbulence

of measurement.

only

away

is an important

constraint

Isotropic relations

in the

In

complicated.

the

general,

This

is

design

by moving

probe

does not

sees a fluctu-

speed U of the
with u(x/U).
identified

traversing
be

it is also referredto as
hypothesis;
The substitution t=x/U is a good

Taylor's

1 (Hinze,

u/U\302\253

The

of time; if the
signal u(t) may

approximation.
if

approximation

quite

velocity

obtained

commonly

that the velocity field

turbulence

during the time

is a function

This approximation is
the

the

through

rapidly

velocity,

fluctuating

a peak

origin.

Experimental one-dimensional spectra are

change

6 we

Chapter

1959, Sec.

1965).
1.8; Lumley,
of turbulence experiments.

relations between

unfortunate;

Fu, F22. and

to base

natural

it seems

This

are

E
physical

give one-dimensional spectralike

If the
turbulence
is isotropic,
F, 1 and
F22.
however, the relations between
E
and
are
The
of these
derivation
F11, F22,
isotropic relations
fairly simple.
is beyond the scope of this book. Two of the most useful
are
relations
on

reasoning

but
most
\320\225(\320\272),

measurements

1953; Hinze, 1959)

(Batchelor,

, d /1
dK

\\k

dFu\\

(8.1.13)

-i-1).

\320\260\320\272
]

these is often usedto obtain

E from
numbers. This procedure is legitimate

first of

The
high

wave

nearly isotropic at
According

high

wave

to (8.1.13) and

measured
because

values of
turbulence

F\\

at

is very

numbers.

(8.1.14),Fx

\302\253 and
\320\272?

F22

\302\253
\320\272\"
if E \302\253
\320\272\".
The

254

Spectral

dynamics

power law is the same, but the coefficients are different.

in a major
shortly that
part of the spectrum ?<*\320\272~5/3;
to
know
that
and
Flx
F22 exhibit the same power law.
encouraging
are
to*c~5/3
, (8.1.14)gives F2 2 = |^n- This relation
spectra
proportional
often used to examine turbulence for evidenceof isotropy.
in the

exponent

shall

find

also

relations
isotropic
and E near the origin.

The
F22,

are

which

in

known

give

Because

indication

some

#11

is real

<Q anywhere),

Rlt

Fx

and

of the
positive

is symmetric

shapes of

We
it

is

If all
is

Ft

(no experiments
and majorized

1,

by

at the origin:

its value

-Bk\\+Ck\\ + ...

Fn[K)=At

into

this

Substituting

(8.1.13,

(8.1.15)

8.1.14), we obtain

(8.1.16)

... ,

(8.1.17)

2+lBK21+

while F22 curves upward

upward,
paraof
from the origin. The quartic behavior
is
is
there
no
the
that
deserves
attention.
E(k)
point
energy
special
Physically,
= 0. Because
it begins
is symmetric,
at zero wave number,
so that \321\204\321\206@)
\321\204\321\206
is an integral
over
a spherical shell
of \321\204\321\206
\320\225(\320\272)
Now,
parabolically (\320\260\320\2722).
be proportional
to \320\2724
to \320\2722,
must
whose area is proportional
so that
\320\225(\320\272)
this
is needed
to show that
near
the origin. A much more careful analysis
is not restricted to isotropic
turbulence.
result
Also, the coefficient in the
but that
form of \321\204\321\206
near the origin is not the same in all directions,
parabolic
has no effect on the behavior
of E (Lumley,
be kept in mind,
1970). It should
of turbulence
is unlikely to be isothat the large-scale structure
however,
be used to obtain
so that
not
(8.1.13) and (8.1.14) should
isotropic,
quantiat small wave numbers.
quantitative results
Thus,

begins

from zero,

so that

bolically,

it

has

quartically

a peak away

We may get an impression of the shapes of

three-dimensional spectra by examining
a rather artificial case. ConConsider an
but
field of waves that all have the same wavelength
2\321\202\320\263/\320\272\302\273,
isotropic
whose
vectors have random directions. For this isotropic
wave-number
field,
is
where
it has a uniform distribution.
\320\272\302\273,
except on a shell of radius
\320\244,;- zero,
=
is zero everywhere,
of
The shape
\320\225(\320\272)
Therefore,
except for a spike at \320\272
\320\272\302\273.
be computed from (8.1.9). If the plane of integration is beyond \320\272,,
F\\ 1 can

Spectra of

isotropic

simple

waves

one- and

Fy 1 is

zero;

if \302\253x<
the integration
\320\272\302\273,

yields

8.1 One-and

255

three-dimensional

spectra

(8.1.18)

Here,

is an

of

Substitution

F22 = 0

constant, related to the area under the spike

into (8.1.14) gives an expressionfor F22;
(8.1.18)

arbitrary

for/Ci >k\302\273, while

for

in

\320\225(\320\272).

again,

(8.1.19)

These

spectra

parabolically
In

spikes

of waves

with

of

F22

field,

can bethought
\320\225(\320\272)

and

different

simple

wave

transverse spectra of
of wave number

waves

wave numbers

be noted that

It should

Fx i

curves

curves upward.

amplitudes at different

Longitudinal

a field

8.3a.

Figure

while

isotropic

of different

for

in

shown

downward,

a general

Figure 8.3.
spectra

are

(adapted from

of as being
numbers,

fields

t,
Corrsin,

Fx

from
\\

and

simple waves: (a)

composite spectra for a field

of isotropic

\320\272(b)

made up

so that

1959).

256

Spectral dynamics

of the type sketched in

is likely
to be a
spectrum
Figure
longitudinal
is
the
monotone
while
transverse
to rise
spectrum
likely
decreasing function,
at first before it decreases
should go to
8.3b). Of course, both
spectra
(Figure
the total area under
is proportional to the
zero as Ki -*\302\260\302\260,
because
the curves
be constructed

can

F22

kinetic

spectra

many

adding

by

It is evident

8.3a.

the

that

energy.

8.2

cascade

The energy

The existenceof

energy

vortex

and

stretching

from large

transfer
leading

gorov microscale, was demonstratedin

energy exchange takes place.

Let us
itself

in

conservation
of

the

near

by
Kolmo-

we discuss how

the

the vortex-stretching mechanism. When

finds
vorticity
On the basis of conservafield, it is subject to stretching.

a strain-rate

we expect that the vorticity

in the direction of a
in
the direction of a
is amplified, while
the
vorticity
8.4. If the
strain rate is attenuated. This effect is sketchedin Figure
of viscosity is ignored, the vorticity
reads (recall
equation
thats^- is
momentum,

angular

rate

strain

negative

influence

strain-rate

du./dt

3. Here,

Chapter

driven

eddies,

recall

briefly

positive

the

eddies to small
of energy

to viscous dissipation

tensor)

(8.2.1)

co,s,y.
the

=s,
\342\200\224s2%

while

field

strain-rate

two-dimensional

Consider

in

Figure

8.4.

is a constant tor
thats
S12 = 0. Let us assume
=
t
0.
In
this
at
case, (8.2.1) reduces to

Here,
all

r>0

S\\ \\

and

that o>) = co2= co0

diojdt = soju

dco2/dt

(8.2.2)

sco2.

This yields

coi = co0<?sf,
+ col
\321\201\320\276?

for

Except

with

co2

2coo cosh
very

increasing

stretching

growth

(8.2.3)

2st.

(8.2.4)

values of

increases

of

co0e\"sf,

small values

compression(shrinking)
of

a spot

rapidly,

of st, the

st.

The

vorticity

while the

decreases

of contaminant

of vorticity thus
increases
in
the
direction
component

amount

total

vorticity

slowly

component

in the

of

direction of

at largest. This is similar to the rate

the same stretchcourse,

(Section 7.3); of

257

8.2The

Figure 8.4.
stretching.

cascade

energy

Vorticity

stretching

in a strain-rate

ing mechanism is involved. Note,

for in (8.2.1, 8.2.2).
accounted

field: (a) before stretching,

that

however,

viscous

effects

(b)

are

after

not

an exchange of energy, becausethe strain

rate
work on the vortices that
are
stretched.
We
being
learned in Chapter
3 that the amount of energy gained
a
with
disturbance
by
u.velocity components u,-, Uj in a strain rate s,y is equal to \342\200\224u,per unit mass
s,-,and time. In the plane strain-rate field of Figure
8.4, the energy exchange rate
Vortex

involves

stretching

deformation

performs

is
= s(ul-u\\).

to an
coi is increased, which
corresponds
is
which
to
a
decrease
u2
u3; also, o>2 decreased,
corresponds
and u3. We thus
that u\\ increases and
while d\\
expect
u\\ decreases,
from
fairly slowly. Hence, the difference u\\-u\\, although
starting

the

Now,

increase
in

u\\

increases

(8.2.5)

zero at t

vorticity

in

= 0,

component

and

becomespositive.

This

means

that

T also

becomespositive,

so

258

Spectral dynamics

that the strain

rate
indeed
performs
total amount of energy in the vortices

work on the eddies in Figure

is thus expected to increase.

8.4.

The

flow field can (conceptually,at any

smaller than a given size and all
eddies
The smaller
are exposed to the strain-rate
eddies
eddies.
field of the larger
Because
of the straining,
the vorticity
of the smaller
a consequent
eddies increases,
with
increase in their energy at the expense of
the
of energy
of the larger eddies. In this way, there is a flux
from
energy

Spectral energy

A turbulent

transfer

be imagined as divided
larger than that size.

rate)

all eddies

into

larger to smaller eddies.

we expect
that
yet quite clear, however.Although
flux of energy from smaller to larger wave numbers, we do
in the spectral energy transfer
across
not
know
which eddy sizes are involved
For
the
from
a given wave number.
eddies that
example,does energy come
or does it come from all larger
are
wavelength,
larger than a given
slightly
In the same way,
is the energy
absorbed at wave
eddies
indiscriminately?
is
it
than
a
or
absorbed
numbers slightly
given value,
by all larger wave
larger
to
answer
these
at the charnumbers? We attempt
questions by looking
we do this, however, we
rates of different eddy sizes. Before
characteristic
strain

is not

situation

The

there

a net

be

will

need a better mental

A

Let us

eddy

simple

spectrum are

size,say

wave number
the vicinity
of
spectrum

correlation,
characteristic
their

or

of

identity

\320\272
may

is a

If

of as

be thought

number.

wave

wave number, say

some disturbance

corresponding
of
A certain eddy

is a function

correlation

the
of

function

a certain

with

and the

autocorrelation

An
\320\272.

containing

\"eddy\"

of

energy

in

to think of an eddy as a disturbance

a narrow
the
a narrow spike in
to
However,
spike
spectrum at \320\272.
in the
creates slowly damped oscillations(of wavelength
2\320\277/\320\272)
as we discoveredin Section
6.2. Such a correlation is charbut not of eddies;we expect
wavelike
eddies to lose
disturbances,
because
of interactions with
others
within
one or two periods
It
\320\272.

should be a

Therefore,

the

broad

spike,

the

correlation.

(\"ringing\")
It is convenient
in

be tempting

would

fairly

wavelengths.

containing

an

pair.

spectrum

thus associated

{, is

contributing

recall that

concept of an eddy.

Fourier-transform

the

separation,

spatial

the

of the

picture

to

define

contribution
wide enough
an

energy between, say

eddy

0.62k

of

to

an

eddy

avoid

of wave number
and

1.62k.

This

to

the

oscillatory

\320\272
as

choice

spectrum
behavior

a disturbance

centers the

8.2The

259

around

energy

We recall

8.5).

wave of

is a
\320\272

of the
an

eddy

it to

want
The

a logarithmic

scale, because

of the contribution
from Section 6.2 that

eddy

defined

is of

this

order

way

envelope

eddy presented

in

lnA.62) = lnA/0.62) ss 1;it

spectrum equal to
of a narrow band

whose

the relatively
equal
Figure

to
8.5

width

the
selected is \320\272,

is sketched

This
1/\320\272.

is indeed

be. The eddy size^is roughly

schematic

the

the bandwidth

because

Now,
the

to

transform

the

with
an
2\321\202\320\263/\320\272,

wavelength

bandwidth.

envelope of
that

\320\272
on

the width

makes

also

cascade

energy

in

Figure

\320\272
(Figure

is the

around

inverse

width

of the

8.5;

we see

compact disturbancewe

2\320\277/\320\272.

suffices

for the development

of energy-cascade

all of the
This model, however, cannot deal with
concepts.
associated with the distinction
between waves and
eddies.
The
Fourier transform of a velocity field is a decompositioninto waves of diffdifferent
each wave is associated with
a single
Fourier coefficient.
wavelengths;
An
is associated with
Fourier
coefficients and the phase
however,
eddy,
many
are conrelations among
them.
Fourier
are used becausethey
transforms
convenient
transforms
can be measured easily); more sophisticated
are
(spectra
needed if one wants to decompose a velocity field into
eddies
instead
of
waves (Lumley, 1970).

problems

0.1k

Figure

8.5.

0.6k

An eddy

of

-1\320\277\320\272

10k

\320\272
1.6k

wave

number

\320\272
and

wavelength

2-\320\277/\320\272.

260

dynamics

Spectral

The energy cascade Let us return

to the role of the strain
eddy sizes in the spectral
energy exchange mechanism.
is roughly
eddies of size 2\321\202\320\263/\320\272
to \320\225(\320\272)
times
proportional

eddy spectrum,
in.

[kE(k)]

rate

strain

given

is

which

The energy
the

width

all

of

of the

velocity is given
by
the characteristic
is
eddy of wave number \320\272

a characteristic

\320\272.
Hence,

The size of the eddy

(and the characteristic

of different

rates

is about

so that
2\321\217\320\243\320\272,

an

of

vorticity)

by

826)

We recall from
Section
3.2 that the strain
rate of large eddies, which
contain
while
the
most of the energy, is of order alt(l\\%
an integral
small-scale
scale),
strain-rate
fluctuations
are of order ul\\
(X is a Taylor microscale). Therefore,
we should
that the strain rate s(k) increaseswith
number.
We
wave
expect
find in the next section that ?(\320\272)<x K~5/3 jn the central part of the spectrum;
this
\320\272.
We shall use this
s(k) \302\253
\320\2722/3,so that
s{k) indeed increases with
gives
for

result

convenience.

The energy

however, we

spectrum is continuous;for

the
of this discussion,
purposes
made
as
spectrum
up from eddies of
being
number
\320\272
due to the
imposed on eddies of wave
extends from 0.24k to 0.62k,centered
(which

may

think

of the

discretesizes.The

strain

rate

eddies of the next

larger

size

around

due to

eddiestwo

0.24k,centered
rate

next

sizes
around

rates of

strain

which is about ^s(k)

iss@.38K),

0.38k)

(whose
larger than 2\320\277/\320\272
is again about
0.15k)

eddies larger

felt by an eddy

of

wave

than

if

s(k)

energy
half

we conclude
2\321\202\320\263/\320\272,

number

one-half
\320\272,

as

\320\260\320\2722/3.
The

extends

Adding all
that of the total

large.

comes

rate

strain

from 0.09k

from eddies

of

to

the

strain

of the

we
quarter from the next larger size. Therefore,
wave
number
comes from
energy crossing a given
eddies with slightly smaller wave numbers.
The question now is which eddies benefit most from the energy transfer
to (8.2.5), energy transfer
across wave number \320\272.
depends
upon
According
the ability
of the strain rate to align
the
smaller eddies so that
u\\ and u\\ (of
rate
thus has to overthe eddies in Figure 8.4) become different. The strain
overcome the
of eddies to equalizeu\\, u\\, and u\\. This tendency is
tendency
to isotropy;
called return
the lack of isotropy (or anisotropy)
that
can be
the
strain
rate
the
time
scale
return
on
for
to
generated by
depends
isotropy
larger

expect

that

size,

most

and

another

of the

8.2The

261

time scale of

relative to the

of

dimensions

for eddiesof
isotropy

S? is

If

time

the

compared

to

if

the

rate

of all

strain

rate

rate

strain

1/s(k)
return
eddies would
to
were removed. Because
to isotropy

return

eddies

eddies with
is of order

reasonable to

rapidly.

below

numbers

wave

If \302\2539^is
\320\234\320\243.
large

the anisotropy is large; if if is small compared

return to isotropy prevents the creation of a large

rapid

has

rate

strain

is roughly

isotropy

that those

larger strain rates, small

the combined strain

scale of the applied

to

return

means

1/s(k)

Because the

motion.

straining

scale of

\320\272.
This

of order

have

s(k),

relatively

the

time

number

a time

in

the

time\021,

wave

eddies

smaller

cascade

energy

\320\272,

com-

to s(k), the
anisotropy.

of anisotropy is proportional
to SP/s(k).The energy transferred
from all larger eddies to an eddy of wave
is then
number \320\272
of (8.2.5). The
6^2kE(k)/s{k), by virtue
approximately
1.6k
energy absorbed by eddies of the next smaller size (with energy between
and 4.2k, centered around
is
about
because
2.6k)
\\^2kE(k)Is(k),
It appears

sB.6k)^2s(k)
number

also receive

about

one-sixth.

about

A crude picture is beginning

to emerge.
exchanged across a given wave number apparently
eddies

as a
overflows

that

to the next smaller eddies.It seems

cascade, much like a series of waterfalls,
into the next one below.This
concept

because

exceptionally
useful,

direct effect on
we should not

leaky cascade
other

describe the energy

each
one filling a pool
proves to be exceptioneddies clearly have no

fair to

the

if

half

development

have been
spectrum.

the

the largest eddies and the smallest

transfer at intermediate wave
energy

expect too much

from

the

water crossing a

the

cascade
given

is exlarger

numbers.

model.
level

After

comes

However,
it is a very

all,

directly

from

all

uphill.

pools
In

Most of the energy that

comes
from the next

and goes

transfer

of wave

if ?(\320\272)\302\253\320\272~5/3.
Eddies
\\\320\272\320\225(\320\272)

two-thirds of the total energy transfer, those of

smaller size receive about one-sixth,
and all smaller eddies combined
receive

\320\272
thus

next

the

2.6\320\272?B.6\320\272)^

and

the degree

that

assume

of the

made, some of
One major

cascade model,a

which

assumption

are

not

is clearly

number

likely to be
not valid at

of crude
valid
very

assumptions

throughout
small

scales.

the

The

there
is a viscous
time scale of an eddy has been estimated as 1/s(k);however,
1 and 3. The smallest time
lower limit on time scales, as we saw in Chapters
rate of very small eddies is of order
and the strain
so
scale
is (vieI*2
(e/vI/2,
is
here
not
that
the
model
if
and
become
of
the
valid
s(k)
(e/yI^2
developed
is inviscid;
same
order of magnitude. The cascademodel
it should be applied
to eddy sizes whose Reynolds numbers(K)/K2f is large.
only

dynamics

Spectral

262

8.3

of turbulence

The spectrum

ratio
that the anisotropy of eddiesdependson the time-scale
is compareddies
rate
of the large, or \"energy-containing\"
~
comparable
to the strain rate of the mean
flow
a/I). Therefore,
(recaN that bU/\320\252\321\203
of the mean flow,
rate
large eddies have a steady anisotropy due to the strain
We

have

found

Sf/sM. The

which
small

strain

a steady

maintains

is large

eddies

orientation. On the

compared to

of

that

the

the

hand,

other

mean

flow

and

strain
of

rate of

the

large

no permanent anisotropy can be

at small
that
small eddies are isotropic,
induced
scales. This does not mean
becauseenergy transfer is possible only if eddies are aligned with a strain rate.
section is temporary;
the anisotropy discussed in the preceding
However,
eddies (recall

eddies of

that

s;y~

so that

ufK),

stretched
strain-rate field is constantly shifting
size are

a given

sizebecomessmaller,

the

permanent

whose
and direction. As the eddy
in magnitude
isotropy decreases, so that at small scales
by

mainly

somewhat

larger eddies,

in the mean.
In
the strain-rate field itself may be expected to be isotropic
small
and
at
\"scrambled\"
other words, turbulenceis increasingly
scales,
any
is called local isotropy; it
sense of direction is lost. This concept
permanent
in 1941 (see Friedlander and Topper,
was
by A. N. Kolmogorov
proposed
scales (large wave numbers).
\"local\"
refers
small
T
he
to
1962). adjective
number is not large enough.
not
exist
if
the
Local isotropy does
Reynolds
The strain rate of the mean flow is of order \320\260/t,the strain rate of the smallest
order to
KWlin
eddies is of order a/\\~ (elv)l/1. We probably need \320\260\320\223\320\232>

have local isotropy at the smallest scales.Consequently,(fk~

R}a C.2.17)
a
at
least
100.
to be at least 10, giving
number of
needs
Reynolds
local isotropy prevails, time scalesare
In the
part of the spectrum in which
This means that small eddies
to those of the mean
flow.
short
compared
in
to
the
mean flow. Therefore, small
conditions
respond quickly
changing
in the
are
in approximate
local
conditions
eddies always
equilibrium with
the latter
the range
mean flow, even though
may be evolving. For this reason,
It
is called the equilibrium
of wave numbers exhibiting
local
range.
isotropy
mean
the
at
a
wave
where
first
to
number
becomes
s{k)
begins
large compared
and it includes all higher
wave numbers.
strain
rate,
The spectrum

are so short
the

that

turbulence

in

the

the

(which occurs

energy

mainly

the

equilibrium

transfer

between

In

range

equilibrium

details of the

at

large

range, time
the mean flow

scales) cannot

be

scales

important.

and

8.3 The

263

amount

the

However,

spectrum of turbulence

of energy cascading

major parameter.Becauseall

the

down

should

spectrum

the

is finally

be a
total

dissipated by viscosity,
energy
be equal to the dissipation rate e, and
the
must
amount of energy transfer
second
major parameter should be the viscosity itself. If no other parameters
are involved, we have E = E{n,e,v), which can have only one nondimensional
form:

EM

EM

This

was derived

law

scaling

as before,

Kolmogorov;

by

77

is the

(v3/eI^4

Kolmogorov velocity. The

is supported by a large amount of experimental
(8.3.1)
spectrum
Kolmogorov
in the equilibrium range is isotropic, the isodata. Becausethe turbulence
E and F22 from
relations
8.1.14)
(8.1.13,
tropic
may be used to compute

Kolmogorov microscale and

measured Fi
The

is the

v={veI^4

1.
between

similarity

and the

(8.3.1)

of

law

the

wall

in

boun-

turbulent

wall, the momentum flux

=
U - U(y,ul,u), so that
if ul and v are the only
is pul;
U/u*
parameters,
In
the
flux
is
in
momentum
the
f{yujv).
spatial
involved;
boundary layers,
spectrum, it is the spectral energy flux..
Most of the viscous
of energy occurs near the Kolmogorov
dissipation
5) is

(Chapter

layers

boundary

as
microscale\321\202?,

we

Close

striking.

discussed

in

to

a rigid

3.

Chapter

The

much
numbers,
dissipation range of wave
the
viscoussublayer
(Section
boundary
layer includes
that
the spectrum
of the dissipation, DM. is given
Hinze, 1959)
the

includes

equilibrium range thus

like the wall layer of
5.2). It can be shown
by

1953;

(Batchelor,

DM = 2vk2E{k).
The

dissipation

in
\320\2722

(8.3.2)

wave number.

If
with

Jo

most

(8.3.2)

is proportional
arises because

The dissipation
j

of the

DM

to the square
differentiation

rate

corresponds

? is

?
occurs
dissipation

of velocity

given

gradients;

to

multiplication

by

by

K2Edn.
within

factor

the

the

(8.3.3)
equilibrium

range,

we obtain,

(8.3.1),

(K77J/(K7?) d(Kn)

I.

(8.3.4)

264

dynamics

Spectral

of e

The value

is determined

often

(8.3.3)

by integrating

a measured

with

energy spectrum.

spectrum scalesin a
different
way. If the spectral
Reynolds number s{k)/k2u is large, we do not
to be relevant. The principal
are those that desexpect
parameters
viscosity
describe
the
transfer
from
the
mean
flow
to
the
turbulence
and the
energy
transfer
from
small
scales.
The
turbulence
its
to
receives
energy
energy
large
from the mean strain
rate
5 and transfers energy to small
scales
at a rate e, so
the
that
of the spectrum
should be basedonS
scaling of the large-scale part
e. If these are the only
and
relevant
we
must
have E = E(K,e,S).
parameters,
The large-scalespectrum

For

5 and/by the relations 5=

we define

convenience,

spectrum then

wave numbers, the

small

For

\320\273/fand

e =

a3/(.

The

becomes

(8.3.5)

This relation,

of course, is not

geometries.

a family

In

the large-scale
part
inertial

The

this

same

the

with

flows

in

with

different

however, we expect

geometry,
(8.3.5).

(8.3.1)

spectrum

Kolmogorov

with

s(k)IS-*-\302\260\302\260.
Evaluatings(k)

limit corresponds

differs

to scale like

spectrum

The

subrange

in which

process
that

of the

but

universal,

of flows

(8.2.6)

to a limit
and (8.3.1), we find
is related

to

1/2

(8.3.6)

^=^-[<\302\253?K\302\2531\320\262?)]|/2-~\320\276 2ft

we used

Here

is

and

for

valid

5 = a/t

0A)
\320\272\320\263)

R(

in the

scale spectrum (8.3.5) applies

and (8.3.5),

(8.2.6)

this

= a(h>. It
as

limit

wave

to

is clear that

the

Kolmogorov

On
R^\302\260\302\260.

the

other

numbers

for

which

spectrum

hand, the large-

s(k)Ik2v-*\302\260\302\260. With

becomes

limit

(8.3.7)

\320\235\320\223
?'[\342\204\226\320\223!\320\226)]\321\210-\320\276\321\201.
27\320\223
K2V

This

that

implies

(8.3.5) is

viscous scaling at
numbers,
for

channel

both

high

valid

flow

in

valid

wave
the

limit

and Rf-*<*>. We thus have

inertial scaling at low wave
is similar to the scaling laws
This
as R(^\302\260\302\260for

numbers

(Section 5.2), where

\320\272{=
0A)

and

we used an

inviscid

description

for

265

8.3Thespectrum

- 0A)

y/h

description
that those scaling

existence

limits

to the small-scaleend

large-scaleend

of

the condition

required
R(-^\302\260\302\260

recall

that

<f/r?

the

the

by

large-scale

validity;

possibility of taking
be
words, we should
and
to
the
spectrum
without

simultaneously,

8.3.7). Take

(8.3.6,

region of

on the
In other

spectrum

Kolmogorov

violating

and

(n>0)

K.t=R\"

We obtain

A.5.14).

ff//4

of

limit as

in the

both

&C\\),

a common

depends

and
\320\272{-*\302\260\302\260
simultaneously.
\320\272\321\202?-\302\2730

to go

able

had

laws

do the same here.

of a region of \"overlap\"

we can

The

the

for yujv-

a viscous

and

-\302\273\302\246
We found
ff\302\273 \302\260\302\260.

perhaps

of turbulence

~ \320\272
=
\320\250-\321\210
\320\251 \320\273\320\270\321\204

(8.3.8)

PTf\342\204\242,

we need

0 <n < 3/4

-* \320\236.
to obtain \320\272\320\263)
Because
we do not
we
tell
if
and
cannot
(8.3.6)
(8.3.7) will
vary,
be satisfied. We assume that
indeed
and
the condiare, though,
they
verify
the matching has been performed.
conditions after
With
it is possible to have \320\272^->\302\260\302\260
and \320\272\321\202?-\302\2730
0<n<3/4,
simultaneously,
so that we expect that
and (8.3.5) can be matched.Equating
the two
(8.3.1)

so that

f(\302\253i?)and

how

know

and using

K<f=

R\",

order

in

F(k()

\320\272\321\202?~/?\"~3'4,

obtain

we

(8.3.9)

3Mb

which becomes
=
R?*F(Rn()

F(kD= eint)
the

in the

any

between 0

interval

and

3/4.

~5/3,

~s/3.
\320\237\320\270\320\277)
\320\260(\320\272\320\263})

(8.a 11)

this spectrum is often presented

of (8.3.11) into (8.3.1)
or (8.3.5) gives

literature,

Substitution

in

form.

nonnormalized

E(K)=ae2/3K\"s/3.
This

expression

indicate

that

(8.3.12)

the

With

(8.3.12)

is valid

a =1.5
is valid

inertial

dimensional

The

of (8.3.10) is

solution

In

be satisfied for

has to

This

(8.3.10)

f(rf-y\302\253).

(8.3.11),

\320\2721-*-\302\260\302\260,
Experimental
\320\272\320\263)-*0,
R{^-\302\260\302\260.

is called the

sublayer
spectra

for

approximately.
in

range

inertia!subrange;

boundary

Fi i and

The
layers.

are
F2 \320\263

the conditions

also

of

wave
is the

numbers

data

for

indiwhich

of
spectral equivalent
In the inertial subrange, the oneto \320\2652/3\320\272
f5*3.
proportional
it

(8.3.6,8.3.7)become

266

dynamics

Spectral

107

106
The inertial

8.6.

Figure

subrange.

sfe) = n1/2

(8.3.13)
(8.3.14)

2i

these are

so that

Recallthat
obtained

simply

found

in

the

that

< 3/4.

\302\260\302\260
and 0

<n

profile

velocity

inertial

the

in

is a
dU/\320\254\321\203

function

of

sublayer
and
u\302\273

can be

ob-

As we

\321\203
only.

d(J/dy = ujv.y. In a similar way, (8.3.12) can

that E = \320\225(\320\265,\320\272)
for
\302\2531/r?.
The
1/^\302\253\320\272
postulating

by

such care is to

with

(8.3.12)

obtaining

Rf->

this gives

5.2,

simply

of

mean

by postulating

Section

be obtained
point

indeed satisfied if

delineatethe

of its

conditions

conditions is given in Figure 8.6.

the eddies of
line
to
makes
s{k)/S=
corresponds
10, which
size
that
of
the
mean
strain
rate
5 and therefore of
independent
marginally
The line with a slope of |
the turbulence-productionprocess{&= \342\200\224UJUj
Sjj).
validity. A
The horizontal

corresponds
approximately

to
independent

of these

representation

graphical

= 10,

s{k)Ik2v
of

which

viscosity.

should

It is

clear

make
that

eddies of
no

inertial

that

size

approxi-

subrange

exists

conditions used prequite

number needs to be at least 10s; if the conditions are
previously, the Reynolds
relaxedto s[k)/S> 3,s{k)/k2i>
> 3, the Reynolds number needs to be larger
4 x 103. This is still a rather
than
stringent condition. We conclude that it is
we
would
encounter
an inertial subrange in laboratory
that
flows;
unlikely
unless the Reynolds

number

is

large. With the

8.4 The effects of

267

Figure 8.7.

The spectrum

normalization,

it is

however,
inertial

observed
the

in

is sketched

numbers

in

different

numbers:

Reynolds

small-scale

(a)

normalization.

frequently

subrange

dissipation

at

of turbulence

large-scale

(b)

and

production

spectrum

flows. The emergenceof

in geophysical

of turbulence

with

an

Reynolds

increasing

8.7.

Figure

8.4

The effects of production

In the inertial
subrange,
is taken out by viscous
number is constant. In

conservative, much

Becausethe
In

behaves

this

number

whose

the

\320\272
get
strain

in

the

inertial

ends of the

their
rate

we want

section,

near

of energy

amount
flux

dissipation

is added

by

energy,
is s@.38k)

dissipated per
subrange

to get a
inertial

qualitative
subrange.

from
\320\272\320\225(\320\272),
mainly

?^s(k).

flow and no energy

T across
each wave

mean

the

so that the energy

dissipation,
other
the central part
words,
a cascade of waterfalls
without

like

total

energy

spectral

and

no energy

unit

flux

of

the
any

mass

is equal to

energy cascade is
springs or

drains.

and time

is e, the

of how

be\320\225(\320\272)

e.

impression

eddies of wave
eddies of wave number 0.38k,
Recall

that

The anisotropy producedby

the

larger

268

Spectral dynamics

so that

to s@.38k)/s(k),

is proportional

eddies

the

flux

energy

T may be

representedby
s2 @.38k)

87\320\223

27\320\223

\342\200\224\302\253?(\302\253)
\320\223(\321\205)
,
\320\260\321\212\320\277 s(k)

(8.4.1)

kE(k)s(k).

=\342\200\224n

a3n

factor has been chosen in

withs(k) = <\320\2723?I/2/2\321\202\320\263
(8.2.6)

The numerical

such

subrange,

and

into (8.4.1), we may

(8.2.6)

Substituting

a way

that T = e in

the

T as

write

\320\260-3/2\320\2253/2\320\2725/2.
\320\233\320\272)

gives some

This

less rapidly

(8.4.2)

3n
\302\253
\320\27212,

than

so that
decreases

\320\272\025'3and

of T across the spectrum.

If
T increaseswh en the spectru m decreases
when E decreases more rapidly
than

variation

the

of

indication

<* \320\272\320\277 then

~5'3,

inertial

= \320\260\320\2652/3\320\272~5/3
\320\225(\320\272)
(8.3.12).

\320\272\025/3.

In the

s(k) is given

inertial subrange,

by

(8.4.3)

^--a\342\200\224e^K^.

to be convenient

It turns out

the inertial

inside

hand side of

subrange

(8.4.3)

into

right-hand side of (8.4.3)not

its edges. Substituting
the
beyond

use the

to

also

but

we obtain

(8.4.1),

T(K) = a-1ei/3Ks/3E{K).
of

estimate

This

by

only

number,

crude

however
\320\242{\320\272),

the
and

because

course, (8.4.2)
so that it produces

us

(8.4.4)

spectral flux at some wave

value of E and the inertial

the

represents

a local

behaved

poorly

it may
number
time

the relation
estimate for

it makes

also

is

be, is attractive because it

as a local flux, determined

scale

between

inertial

T=

subrange,
we

are

relaxing

to

proportional
scaling
approximation

can

strain

though

be justified

rate are

are

we

only

small, so that

if

the

the

T and

wave

E a linear one.
not linear in

it is

Of
E,

spectra.

e -a~1E 3/2\320\2725/2; comparing

the condition T=e. Clearly,

even
\320\265\321\21212\320\272^12

for T even

\320\265\021/3\320\272\022/3
at that

\320\242(\320\272);
however,

Before we use (8.4.4)to calculate

outside
spectra
a close look at the assumptions underlying
take

that

only

right-

if

\320\242\320\244\320\265.
In other

outside
effects

difference

the

the inertial subrange, let

and (8.4.4). In the
(8.4.2)
this
(8.4.2)

with (8.4.2), we see

assumes
that T is

words,

we use

inertial

inertial
This approxisubrange.
of viscosity and those of the mean
between \320\223
and e is small. Equation

effects of production

8.4 The

269

and

dissipation

is even cruder, becauseit relaxes the condition T= e but retains the

rate.
expression for the strain
inertial-subrange
Both (8.4.2) and (8.4.4) may
be thought
of
of as spectral interpretations
the production
of turbulent
mixing-length
theory. If ~uv~u(bU/by,
energy
is proportional
to uttdU/\320\252\321\203I. Making the substitutions \320\260-*(\320\272\320\225I/2,^->-1/\320\272,
and
we obtain
(dU/\320\264\321\203J
(8.4.2); of course, turbulence production
->\320\2722(\320\272?),
is now interpreted
as transfer of energy from larger
eddies
to smaller eddies
than
rather
transfer
from the mean flow to all eddies. In a similar way, if we
use e~ \302\2533//to substitute
in at(dU/dyJ,
for \320\270
we obtain eif3t*l3(dU/dyJ.
(8.4.4)

With

if-M/\320\272

crude

and

theory

mixing-length

relative merits of
spectral

is, we

(8.4.2) and

(8.4.4).

models,

like

mixing-length

with a single

in situations

only

(8.4.4).

this
{dU/\320\264\321\203J
-+\320\2722(\320\272\320\225),
produces
not

should

It should

be kept

in

mind

scale

these

that

spatial counterparts, can

and a single time scale.

their

length

Realizing how
concerned about the

be too

The effect of dissipation

The viscous dissipation in a wave-number
dn is equal to 2pk2E(k) da, as we found
in (8.3.2). This loss of
taken out of the energy flux
so
we
must have
that
\320\242(\320\272),

be used

interval

dT/dK = -2vk2E.
If

we

(8.4.5)

for

substitute

is

energy

with
\320\242(\320\272)

and integrate the

(8.4.4)

resulting

equation,

we

obtain
(8.4.6)

\320\225\320\234=\320\260\320\2652/3\320\272~5/3
\320\260(\320\272\321\202?L/3].
exp[-f

This

result,

first

given

by

Corrsin

A964)

and later

by

Pao

A965),

agrees very

that
have
largest values of \320\272\321\202?
=
are available beyond \320\272\321\202?
1, this is

experimental data up
no data
been measured. Because virtually
~
is unwarranted
test.
In fact, the use of s(\302\253)
\320\2651/3\320\2722/3
not a very severe
= 1 because
rate
limits
the
maximum
strain
to (e/f)\022.
viscosity
beyond \320\272\320\263)
use
in
in
viscous
time
scales
are
of
the
a
which
of
(8.4.2)
Also,
course,
region
it
is incorrect. The exponential
of (8.4.6), which allows
to
decay
important
is thus
at large \320\272\320\263},
be integrated
or differentiated without
problems
creating
well

with

to

merely a happy

The dissipation

coincidence.
spectrum

corresponding

2ave2riKiri
In

the

inertial

the

subrange

to (8.4.6) is

exp[-| a(Kv)m].

1), the
(\320\272\321\202?\302\253

dissipation

(8.4.7)

spectrum is proportional to

270

Spectral

dynamics

10~4

10~3

10\022

Figure 8.8.
lines

indicate

10

. 10\"'

1(\320\2237
.

10\"'

10\"'

10s

Normalized

cutoffs for

energy
the

and dissipation spectra for R(=2

x 10s.
later.
spectra to be described

approximate

The

dashed

8.4 The effects of production

271

curves also show

analysis

the

off at

trail

DM.

The

numbers;

the

and
\320\225(\320\272)
wave

low

follows.

this

peak of the

1.5, the

value of D(k) at

of the shapes of

and
\320\225(\320\272)
D{k)

how

to

leading

a =

If

dissipation

gives an impression

8.8

\320\2721/3. Figure

and

= 1Aer).

is D

peak

occurs at

spectrum

dissipation

and the

of

agree well with most

numbers

These

= 0.2

\320\251

the experimental data.

Eddies near the lower edge of the inertia! subrange,
from
necessarily
very large, receive most of their
energy
also absorb
some energy directly from
larger eddies, but they
slightly
the strain rate S of the mean flow. The anisotropy
induced
by the mean strain
rate
in eddies of wave number \320\272
is proportional
to S/s(k), so that the work
done by the mean strain
rate
and
per unit wave number
per unit time is
to substitute
for s(n), we obtain
for
(8.4.3)
proportional to ES2/s(k). Using
of production

effect

The

where

the

not

\320\272/
is

spectrum

production

\320\240{\320\272),

(8.4.8)

The

constant

spectrum

In the

undetermined.

is

/3

to

is proportional

\320\272'113; this

inertial

agrees

the production
well
with
experimental
fairly
subrange,

evidence.

The spectral
If the

transfer

energy

increases
\320\242(\320\272)

total amount of energy

be neglected,

does not

energy is being

wherever
and

change

if viscous

dissipation can

have

we

(8.4.9)

dT/dK=P(K).
When

added.

and

(8.4.4)

are

(8.4.8)

into

substituted

(8.4.9),

there

results, after the

equation is integrated,
?(\320\272)=\320\260\320\2652/3\320\272-5/3\320\265\321\205\321\200[-|\321\202\320\263/\320\227\320\2601/2(\320\272\320\233'4'3].

Here
as

we have

defined (by

in (8.3.5).

small

values

integral
/3

= 0.3.

of

of (8.4.10)

The

\320\2651/3\320\2722/3
and

\302\253.i.
The

maximum

value

of

be equal to
of

taken S = <*/<ffor convenience,

is well behaved at all wave
the
numbers,
on which it is based are not valid for
(8.4.8)

and
\302\2533/e

(8.4.10)

Although

~
assumptions s(k)

(=

(8.4.10)

(8.4.10)

can

/3
the

we have

be determined
total

occurs at

energy
\320\272^=
1.3

by requiring
\\ujUj=

j\302\2532;

approximately;

this

that

the

yields

its value

272

dynamics

Spectral

0.2u2(.

is about

predicted by

8.8

Figure

experimental data. The

=

of inertial

decades

Reynolds

large

the

\\u2=\\

EMdK=

We may

requires

set the upper

be determined

be correct.We

we

the

limits of

have

(8.4.11)

x~s/3dx.

if t/r\\ is large. This

equal to \302\260\302\260
The integral condition (8.4.11) serves
to
\342\200\224
1.8.
The other end of the range
(|K/2

that

the

integral

of the dissipation

spectrum

xm
dx.
\320\227\320\265\321\202?(\320\272\321\202?I/3<\320\233\321\201\320\263=\320\227\320\265

(8.4.12)

has

be large.

to

presumed

write

can

limit

cutoffs not=

KqI=

by requiring

D{K)dKS.\\

The lower

two

integration

numbers.

the result is

Kof;

\342\202\254=

of

limit

about

appearance of

If

integral.

\302\253d,

d1.5\302\253V(K0~5/3cfasi.5\302\2532f

Reynolds

large

determine
can

are only

a wave

and
spectrum are \320\2720

truncated

of

and

have a correct

should

spectrum

integration

8.8 is H{= 2 x 10s,which

From the

numbers

as

with most

agreement

qualitative

in Figure

= 2vk2E(k)

D(k)

number near \320\272\321\202?=

1, and to
In
such an
fact, for many
range.
purposes
provided that the Reynolds number is

put it equal to zero outside that

approximation is quite satisfactory,
large enough.

Of course, the

?{\320\272)and

between
approximate\320\225{\320\272)
by 1.5<\320\233(\320\272\320\233~5/3

somewhere near \320\272{=1

wave number

in

of

The graph suggests that

there
at this
number.
Reynolds

tempted to

we are

8.8

Figure

subrange

spectra for

Approximate

number

Reynolds

//\321\202? 104.

to

corresponds

are

curves

These

(8.4.10).

a sketch

gives

is prebecause the Reynolds number

=
we
obtain
0.55 approximately. The
From (8.4.12),
Kdrj

1.8 and

put at zero

been

KdT?

= 0.55

are indicated

with

dashed

lines

vertical

in

8.8.

Figure

The one-dimensional

spectra

and
(\320\223\321\206

can be

F2i)

corresponding

to

this

trun-

computed fairly easily if we assume

Because \320\225(\320\272)
is equal
to zero in the range
0<K<f< 1.8, Fi i curves parabolically downward
in that
range (8.1.18) and
curves
In
the
where
\320\225(\320\272)
F22
\320\260\320\272~5/3,
parabolically
upward (8.1.19).
range
the coefficients
involved
Fy i and F22 have the same slope (seeSection
8.1);
can be computed
with
the
relations (8.1.13, 8.1.14). For
isotropic
truncated

that

three-dimensional

the

turbulence

0 < \302\253i/< Ko?

there

spectrum

is isotropic.

results

8.4 The effects

273

and dissipation

of production

(8.4.13)

[1+?

\\m
the

For Kif>K(,t,

(8.4.14)

(Ki/k0J].

are

results

(8.4.15)

||^
Of

Fi

course,

(8.4.16)

and

The integrals

0.55.

F2

of

at the

truncated

are

and
\320\223\321\206

over

F22

all

same

are
\302\253!

=
that is, \320\272
xr\\

point

as ?;

equal

to a1

virtue

by

of

are
8.1.7), so that the integrals of F\\ i and F22 over all positive
\320\272\321\205
^a2.
the
and
in
to
In
are
sometimes
normalized
literature,
F\\\\
F22
equal
over all positive \320\272\321\205
are equal
such a way that their
to u1; in that
integrals
becomes g|, with
8.4.16)
case, the coefficient 55 in (8.4.15,
corresponding
in
and
Note
that
describe
(8.4.14).
(8.4.13-8.4.16)
(8.4.13)
Fx 1 and
changes

(8.1.6,

for

F22

8.9. The

of slope, but

values
determine

they

Fn@)

F22@)

of

part

parabolic

discontinuity
The

The spectra

>0.
\302\253!

of

Fx

the

F22 at the

origin

=0)
(\302\253j

and transverse

at

\320\272~5^3 part

changes sign

in Figure

sketched

are

without

Kq

at \320\2720.

interest because

are of
scales

integral

Lx!

and L22:

r\302\260\302\260
\342\200\224

Rll(r,0,0)dr

dr =

0,0)

\320\241
R22(r,
^J\342\200\224
2\321\215\321\202

of F2 2

slope

longitudinal

(8.4.13\342\200\2248.4.16)

matches the

F\\\\

the

1 and

by

given

\342\200\224Llll

(8.4.17)

\342\200\224

(8.4.18)

L22.

\321\217

are definedas the integral of the correlation between

zero and positive infinity, so that the factor 1/2\321\217in front of the integrals
side of (8.4.17,8.4.18). Evaluating
becomes
at the right-hand
1/\321\215\321\202
Fx 1 @) and
we obtain
F22@) from (8.4.13, 8.4.14)and using a = 1.5 and \302\253</=(|K/2,
Note

that

integral scales

We

scales

recall

and

(8.4.19)

L22=fl4.

Lxx=ei1,
that

/was

defined

the Lagrangian

by

e = \320\270\321\212/?.
The
relations
time

integral

Although (8.4.19) was derived for

obtain crude estimates

in shear

scale

isotropicturbulence,

flows.

between

are derived

in

the

it may

these
next

length

section.

be used

also to

274

dynamics

Spectral

1(\320\2234 \320\232\320\223*
10\022

10\025

1\320\241\320\223'

10'

Figure

10*

10

10\"'

\320\2563

104

Crude approximations for

8.9.

the

10

one-dimensional

spectra

at /?/=2x10s

10\302\253)

8.5

Time

spectra

So far we have discussed only

spectra,

space

which are

Fourier transforms

of

with a spatial separation and zero time delay. We now

from correlations taken at
are obtained
time spectra, which
If
time
the
of measurement is a
the same point
with
point
delay.
varying
mean
fixed point in a coordinate system chosen such that the
velocity is zero,
of measurement is a
time spectrum; if the point
we obtain
an Eulerian
The
time
a
we
obtain
material
spectrum.
Lagrangian
point,
wandering
taken

autocorrelations
want

to consider

are quite difficult

these
needed to obtain
spectra
very few experimental data are available.
are
time is a one-dimensional variable, time
spectra
we
can have time spectra of uu u2, or u3; however,

measurements
consuming;
Because
We
one-dimensional.

interested

in

define the

Eulerian

spectra

which
time

integrate

spectrum

to the total energy

i//,yM

by

and

time-

one-dimenare

mainly
Let us
\\u2.
\\\320\277~\321\200;
=

8.5 Time

275

t/,(x,

t)Uj(x,

t + r)=

The Lagrangian
(a,

t)\\/j(a,

X/y(w)
In

t +

If the
These

integral

=^y(r)

^~

f\"

T is the

^y/(r)

Eulerian

scale. It would

time

one

^\"if

the

In order

turbulence

to

i/yi/,-

=
^(cj) dco U:U:

(r)
J\" /?;/

be defined

can

by

dr.

<%(r)

(8.5.2)

(see

7.2), so

Section

that

= 3\320\2732.

(8.5.3)

=
=
and
isotropic, \321\204\321\205
i
\321\204\320\267\320\267
Xi i
\\\321\2002\320\263

is also
vanish
do
not
spectra
time scales:
=

(8.5.1)

o'w,
\320\265\321\205\321\200(/\321\213\321\202)
x,yM

turbulence,U/U/

tfw = [

^\342\200\242@)

Here,

\321\202)

turbulence

dr.

\320\257^(\321\202-)

/\" exp(- /cor)

i///7M

/cor)

i/>,yM o'cj,

exp(/cdr)

time spectrum XjAco)

homogeneous

=
RjjiT)

= \342\200\224
exp(J

i//,yM

Vj

spectra

at the

dr =

origin; instead, their

=
\320\223

^-

= -^5-=
\320\233-

(8.5.4)

(8.5.5)

scale and ^\"is the

energy cascade concept. We

number is associated with

found

7\"

and

more

than

isotropic.

time spectra mean,

in Section 8.2 that
each

scale

integral

Lagrangian

than one

these

what

= \320\236
\321\201\320\276
define

T,

be necessaryto define more

were not homogeneous and

understand

X22 = \320\245\320\267\320\267-

\342\200\224^.

time

integral

values at

we have
eddy

to

use the

size or wave

time scale
If each
over
most
of
the
spectrum.
increasing
either
can
be
to
a
size
and
a
one
used
time
scale,
assigned
identify its position in the time spectrum and in the space spectrum. Thereof the space spectime spectrum
should be a simple rearrangement
Therefore, the
spectrum in terms
of time scales.
One problem
arises.
In the dissipative end of the space
the time
spectrum,
~
scale 1/s(k) (\320\2723?)~1/2 (8.2.6) increases with increasing wave number. This

decreases with
eddy can be

wave

particular

number

time

and

that

the

276

dynamics

Spectral

the relation between size and

time scale decreasesfirst, but

that

means

= 1: the
\320\272\321\202?

Therefore,

spectrum.

dissipation

One

of the
spectrum is re-

the peak

beyond
in the space

energy

there are two

scale or frequency,

time

by

rearranged

the

if

monotone near

is not

scale

time

increases

at a given

contributions

low wave number,

where eddies are inviscid,
the other comes from a wave
number
in the disare
eddies
dominated
where
the
However,
by viscosity.
sipative range,
energy
numin the
to that at smaller wave
dissipation
range is very small compared
at very large time scales, which
receive
numbers; it can
safely be ignored. Even
is
1 and kij\302\273 1, the
contributions
from \320\272?\302\253
energy of the large eddies
to
that
the
small
in
the
of
eddies
because
the
large compared
very
spectrum
frequency.

dissipation range
We conclude
the

we

space spectrum
monotone

are

scales

much

decreases
that

a relatively

from

comes

contribution

than
that
below v.(= 1,
the time spectrum as a rearrangement
of
effects
viscous
can be ignored. Becausetime

more rapidly

treat

may

wherever

decreasing

number

wave

with

(except

in

the

dissipation

at frethe
time
two
spectra
frequencies
larger
if the Reynolds number is large
have
an equilibrium
range at high frequencies
be isotropic in that
The
should
range.
enough. Of course, the turbulence
e and v; there
with
spectra in the equilibrium
range have to be normalized
we expect

range),

the

that

than the

much

flow does

mean

mean strain

rate

the

affect

not

spectrum

S. Hence,

results
\\ps

v = (i>eI/4

Here,

length. The
(X

idea
suggested

dissipative

we

that

dissipation
In

if

the

spectrum

the

= (v3/eI14

are the

corj/u

frequency
it

familiar

seems

only

velocity

Kolmogorov

is equal
proper

and

to oiiv/eI a ~\320\270>\\1\320\270
to nondimensionalize

time scale

smallest

was
kind have
reasoning is. The
time

to

spectra

of this

known how well justified

the
is quite different in Eulerian
and Lagrangian variables,
mechanism
do not expect the forms of f and
/ to be the same in the
it

is not

range.
energy-containing

contributions
can

(8.5.6)

v-q /|\320\276\320\273?/\320\270).

of turbulence.
that equilibrium-range
scaling can be applied
spectra
by Inoue A951). Because no time
the

ever been measured,

so

ij

nondimensional

frequencieswith
The

and

Taylor microscale);

is the

first

Xh M

\320\251
f{ojr)M,

be

range, the

of eddies

neglected.

from

Therefore,

time spectra should

the

dissipation

we should be

range
permitted

with

scale
in

the
to

\302\253and/

space
write,

specfor

8.5 Time

277

spectra

(8.5.7)

).

of F

Again the shapes

frequenciesseen by

UF are

and

point and

a fixed

probably
by

inertial subrange If the Reynolds

with
frequency end of (8.5.7) overlaps
The

be an inertial

should

and
\321\204/j

Xji

and X//=

must be given

x~

The constants

low-frequency
in
and
In the
\321\204\320\277 x,/.

inertial

the inertial

subrange

in

the

rate)

(strain

is the

this

high-

(8.5.6),

subrange,

of the viscous frequency

\320\245\321\206(\320\265,\321\213),

case,

i///7

time spectra

= fieco'2.
/3 are

\320\222
and

the premise that

premise, we should
if the

that

so

end of

the

If

the

that

large

by

Bec^2,
\321\204-=

(8.4.3),

in

is so

number

large-eddy frequency alt.

and of the

(e/v)i/2
\320\270/\321\202?
ipjj{e,oo)

subrange

be independent

should

and

a wandering

mechanisms.

different

there

because the lowest

point are determined by

different

time

the

put

(8.5.8)
if we accept
only
they can be estimated
are simple rearrangements
of ?(\302\253).With
this
at
if
the
number
\320\272
is
wave
\320\272\320\225(\320\272)
Also,
energy

unknown;
spectra

=
\320\222
/3.

corresponding to

angular frequency
have

\320\272
is 2\321\202\320\265(\320\272)
=\320\2601/2\320\2651/3\320\2722/3

we should

l<? = CO\\L!;

(8.5.9)

COY;;,

= \321\201\320\273
\320\2601/2\320\2651/3\320\2722/3
\320\272
between

Eliminating

(8.5.10)

and (8.5.10)

(8.5.9)

and

using

we
?(\320\272)=\320\260\320\2652/3\320\272~5/3,

obtain

(8.5.11)

X//=a3/2^-2.

With

a =

The

Lagrangian

1.5, we

=
\320\222
/3

find

frequencies (below
mainly

predict the
dynamics

Lagrangian

well

enough

estimate the

Lagrangian

other

than that

inertial

X//@)

scale.

integral

to derive
integral
should

However,

if

we

spectra

at low

predict.

We are

time
to

becausewe

Lagrangian spectrum,

in the

interested

The form of the

is more difficult
subrange)
scale

time

integral
the

= 1.8.

understood

a spectrum, we would
probably
scale in this way. Lacking any

be finite,

the best we can do is

use

could

to

it to

Lagrangian
not need to
information

guess

that

X//

278

dynamics

Spectral

is constant for

all

above co0.Thus,
=

for 0

for

/JecoJ2
\320\245\321\206
/3eco~2
\320\245\321\206

< co<

(8.5.11)

it follows

(8.5.12)

co0,

(8.5.13)

coo.

value

over

all

be equal
\321\201\320\276

the

viscous

that

that

and

>
\321\201\320\276

The

be determined

coo can

of

co0

that

us assume

let

some

below

frequencies

to

3<?
\320\270,=
\320\270-,

can be

cutoff

the integral of \320\245\321\206(\320\276\320\267)

number is so large
Reynolds
that

requiring

by

(8.5.3).

If

ignored,there

the
results

2= 2.4.

\302\253<//\302\253=
40/3

(8.5.14)

The resulting
value
of 3~ is approximately tl3a.
we find
scales Ln and ?.22obtained
in (8.4.19),

the

Using

Eulerian

length

,8.5.15,

\320\223\\\321\210\\\321\210\\^.
3 \320\270 3 \320\270 3 a

of estimating
Corrsin A963a); his

This method
S.
for

(8.5.15), we

obtaining

seriously. In
&~~

cannot
the

Li2l\"-

should

at a fixed

velocity

correlation

Eulerian

of turbulent

prediction

for

transport

An approximate Lagrangian
crude approximation to

resolved:the
formulated in

of

spectrum.

we can

from
2\321\202\320\263\321\201(\320\272)
(\320\2723\320\225I12
If

a =

1.5, this

in

dimensional

state-

this

analysis

that

wander2\320\223>\320\242:\321\212

somewhat longer than

of better
the
absence

do no

integral

Lagrangian
for

3~is

needed

Equations
time

in

the

spectrum,
8.9.

Figure

in the

One detail yet

dynamics of dissipation
more

Corrsin's

than

form

maximum occursat

ktj

compute

define

(8.5.12\342\200\2248.5.14)

be truncated at some frequencyin

the Lagrangian

terms,

simple

=
\321\201\320\276

case,

in

involved

7.1).

(Section

spectrum

has to

spectrum

Because

dissipationrange.

In any

purpose of obtaining
data; recall that a value

that

the

the Lagrangian
spectra presented in

one-dimensional

velocity

original

in space.

point

estimates, (8.5.15) is useful

scales from

its

usedx,;-=0

of the coefficientstoo

T. Intuition suggests

maintain

by

suggested

assumptions

the
gives barely more than
be taken as a warning
may

It

^\"and

between

tend to

of the

the values

take

not

first

different because he

somewhat

the crudeness

should

(8.5.15)

effect,

Lt xlu~

distinguish

point
wandering

was

result

integral scale was

Lagrangian

Considering

0<co<co0.

statement

the

spirit

of

the

needs to be
the

cannot

dissipa-

be formu-

the maximum value

(8.4.6) of the Eulerian

=
1; its value is

space

8.6 Spectra

279

\321\216-3

scalar contaminants

of passive

10\022

10

\321\216-

Mir
\321\216-

0.74

Xii

\\

\\

\321\216-3

\\
^=2.4

,0~

\\
irrs
10

Figure

wd
This

8.10.

An approximate

= 0.74(eA>)m
in

is

much

less

105.
\320\230(=

= 0.74U/T?.

(8.5.16)

the ideas

with

agreement

rate)
and

(8.5.14)

in Figure
than that

developed in

strain

0.31
\320\235\320\260
\320\2501\320\237

The approximate
sketched

for

spectrum

Lagrangian

maximum frequency (vorticity,

between
cjd and co0 is. from
= 0.31

104

103

102

The

ratio

(8.5.16),

for
of

a>d/a>0
\320\257(\320\223=105,

scales

in the

space

measure
of the extent of the
rates, which are frequencies, dominate the

dynamics

of

\320\2562 is

time spectrum is

spectrum; indeed, cod/co0 is a much

because vorticities and
inertial
subrange

the

is, the

(8.5.17)

8.10. The separation

in

3; that

Chapter

order (e/v)l/2.

R}n.
spectrum

Lagrangian

is of

better
strain

turbulence.

8.6

Spectra of
When

passivescalar

a dynamically

spectrum of

contaminant

fluctuations

range

contaminants

is mixed by a turbulent
flow, a
The scales of contaminant
eddies to a smallest
energy-containing

passive contaminant
fluctuations

from the

scale of the

is produced.

280

dynamics

Spectral

depends on the

that

scale

found

we

as

number),

were used to elucidate

applied to the spectra
in
have simple forms
To
the
simplify
large.
heat. If the temperature
buoyancy

is dynamically

the

of the kinetic

number, Schmidt
concepts that
can also be
spectrum

(Prandtl

and 7.3.

3.4

form

of scalar

diffusivities

of

ratio

Sections

in

Many
energy

of

the

contaminants; we

shall
find
that these spectra
number is
ranges if the Reynolds
we
assume
the
is
that
contaminant
discussion,
passive
are
small
fluctuations
the associated
buoyenough,

various

wave-number

unimportant.

Passive scalar contaminants have oneOne- and three-dimensional

spectra
and three-dimensional spectra. These spectra are defined in a similar way as
velocity spectra, but they are simpler because there is only one variable,
rather than three components,to be accounted
If 6(x,t) is a temperature
for.
is
the
autocorrelation
defined
(r)
fluctuation,
spatial
by
Re
(8.6.1)

fle(r)=0(x,fH(x+r,f).

The Fourier
=
Re{r)

of

transform

Re (r) is

the

spectrum

spatial

\321\204{\320\272):

\320\263)
dK,
\320\265\321\205\321\200(/\320\272\321\204\320\264(\320\272)

jjj

mo

\342\200\242
r) Re (r)
\320\265\321\205\321\200(-/\320\272

jjj

\320\244\320\262(\320\256

^-3

Just as for the

\320\272.
A one-dimensional

vector

Re{r,0,0)=

between

=
Rg(r, 0,0)

jjj

^(Ki\302\273=

\"energy\" of waves of wave-number

Fq(k.x ) may be definedby

spectrum

(8.6.3)

expf/K^FfllKi^Ki.

The relation

(8.6.2)

is the
(\320\272)
\321\204\320\262

field,

velocity

dr.

Jf

and
(\320\272)
\321\204\320\262

Fe

(\320\272
i) is

given by

dK

\320\265\321\205\321\200A\320\2721\320\263)\321\204\320\262(\320\272)

expdKxr) (

jj

\321\204\320\262d\320\2722d\320\272\320\233d\320\272l,

\320\244\320\262d\320\275.2d\320\272\321\212.

(8.6.4)

(8.6.5)

8.6 Spectra of

281

same aliasing

from the

(\320\272
i) suffers

Clearly, Fe

contaminants

scalar

passive

one-dimensional

as the

problem

spectra for the velocity (see (8.1.9)).

three-dimensional

The

of

regardless

with radius

E,

spectrum

Eg

\320\272
(see

as the

is defined
(\320\272)

have the same wave-number

This is obtained
direction.

which

waves

by

spectral density

of

magnitude

=
=
\320\272
(\320\2722 \320\272\321\207\321\201
\320\272,*,),

integrating

\321\204\320\262{\320\272)

a sphere

over

8.1.4):
(8.6.6)

do,
\\\321\204\320\262
\302\247

(\320\272)

(8.6.7)

Ee(K)dK.

Because the

of

integral

Ee

is

Ee the

call

we

\\\320\2622,

spectrum of temperature

variance.

In an isotropic field, there is only

one
one-dimensional
spectrum because
For the same
is
r
in
immaterial.
the direction of the spatial
(r)
separation
Re
\320\272
modulus
under
reason, \321\204\320\264{\320\272)
isotropic
depends
only on the wave-number
and
are
conditions.
The isotropic relations between Fe (\302\253j),\321\204\320\262
(\320\272)
(\320\272),
\320\225\320\262

1959)

(Hinze,

Fe(Kl)=\\
If the

starts

isotropic.

The

cascade

the spectral

from

quartically

in

the

transfer

represent

the

Ee{K)

field has a finite

upward from

temperature

not

they

K-lEe{K)dK,

JKi

parabolically

begins
spectrum

(8.6.8)

\320\262(\320\272),

\320\262

temperature
of

integral
= 0
\320\272

=
\320\272
0).

scale, Fe @) is finite
(recall that the kinetic

is valid

This statement

spectrum

In

the

fluctuations,

temperature

\"energy\" at a

given

(8.6.9)

-K^-[FeM].
da

wave

even

development

and
energy

if the

(\320\272)
\320\225\320\262

spec-

field is

of a model for

we use E and Eg , because

without effects due to

number

for an equilibrium range

to
Reynolds number is large
enough
the
exist
in
kinetic energy
is also an equilibrium
there
spectrum,
range,
of temperature
variance, because it
exhibiting local isotropy, in the spectrum
is the turbulent
motion that is mixing the temperature field.
cascade
in the velocity
The
in the
temperature
spectrum is similar to that
aliasing.

If the

spectrum. The temperature

gradient

associated

with

an eddy

of wave

number

282

Spectral dynamics

Ki is

of order

next

smaller

The

(\320\272.\\)]l/2.
[\320\272\\\320\225\320\262

scale

(\320\2722
>\302\253i,

of the eddies of the

fluctuations

velocity

this gradient,

distort

say),

thus

tem-

producing

scale. This is like the production of temtemperature

from
we discussed
in
variance
a mean temperature gradient, which
temperature
Section 3.4. There, temperature
variance
was
at a rate
produced
we can reason by analogy
here. The spatial heat flux
perhaps
\342\200\224duj
d@/dxj;
as
was estimated
the
in Chapter
2;
spectral flux of temperature
duj
a$@/dXj
variance thus should be the spectral equivalent
of
Now, \302\253and/
afldQ/dxjJ.
have
to be substituted by the velocity
and the size 1/\320\2722
of the
[\320\2722\320\225{\320\2722)]1/2
smaller eddies that
distort
the temperature
gradients of the larger eddies. The
spectral flux of temperature variance may then be estimated as
fluctuations

smaller

of

(8.6.10)

\320\241\320\272\320\2631
\320\242\320\262
[K2f(K2)]1/2K?fe(Ki).

If

we

the difference

ignore

between

K\\

and

because
\320\2722

they

are

close

fairly

we obtain

together,
=

(8.6.11)

\320\242\320\262{\320\272)
\320\241\320\2722\320\225\320\262{\320\272\320\225)\321\202.

as the cascade model

the significance
at
developedfor the kinetic energy spectrum. In particular,
with
such quantities
as
large and small wave numbers of scalesassociated
kinematic viscosity v, the thermal diffusivity 7, and the mean strain rate S is
This

local

estimate

of Te is,

of

as

course,

crude

ignored.

Spectra

in

the

range

equilibrium

Within the

with the

range,

equilibrium

field, which

velocity
parameters governing
the corresponding parameters for the temperature field. The
variance will be called N; it is defined by
temperature
scale

the

should

\320\225\320\262{\320\272)

are e and
dissipation

Thus, we expectEe -Eg

combination of variables

(K,e,v,yJ\\l)

in

the

range. A

equilibrium

convenient

is
(8.6.13)

\320\225\320\262(\320\272)=\320\253\342\202\254-\321\210\320\272-\342\204\242\320\246\321\211,\320\276).

0 =

of

<8'6-12)

rr'

Here,

v, and

v/y

is the

Prandtl

number. Because of

dimensional spectrum f is different

in different

the

fluids.

presence

of a,

the non-

283

8.6 Spectra

the

If

enough, so
where the thermal diffusivity
that is, an inertial
subrange,

spectrum
convective
fluctuationsare

is small

converted.

simply

Eg

first

independently

suggested

(8.6.14) and
find that the

spectral
is constant, as
transfer

length\" model for

If we want to

fluids

numbers.

Prandtl

the

influence

the

As

spectrum.

scale for the temperature

if 7 < v. If 7 \302\273v,
i?e < \321\202?
mercury, for

large, so

other
that

Section

field by \321\211;
is a range
there

is called an

that

of

becomes

diffusivity

if
>\321\202?
\321\211
numbers

wave

inertial-diffusive

in water

and most

viscosity

becomes

important

does

The inertial-diffusive
inertial-diffusive

y>u

and that

where

1,
\321\211\320\262

it occurs

subrange;

~>

in

mer-

decreases

energy

for

the Prandtl
number is
liquids
at wave numbers where the ther-

where

inertial

of temperature variance:

is equal
diffusive

~>\\; this
\320\272\321\206
\302\273\320\272\321\211

with low
1.

>1,
kij\302\253
\320\272\321\211

Prandtl

In this

to e. However,

to N
subrange

in

the

of

range

a viscous-convective

is called

\302\2531,

is constant and equal

variance,which
in the

nrje

a range

In fluids

subrange

exists

other

affect the temperature spectrum.The

not yet

subrange

kinetic

of temperature
subrange,

thermal

does not yet indenote the Kolmogorov micro-

we

3.4,

(8.6.14).

the viscosity

where

recall

wave numbers where kij > 1, but

is also
subrange. Of course, there
the viscous-diffusive subrange.

of

the

that

the \"mixing-

account, we have to
and those with large

numbers

Prandtl

y<v,

hand,

diffusivity

flux

assume

we

if

with

v into

and

we

inertial-convec-

words,

other

is consistent

subrange,
in

Conversely,

(8.6.11). In

substitute

in (8.6.11),

the

in

we

If

example.

On the

thermal

This

1.

kij\302\253

so that

inertial

variance
be.

should

small

with

a<1,

If

within

important

the

Te given by (8.6.11)
take the effects of

between

distinguish

and by Oboukhov

A951)

approximately.
estimate for Te given

temperature

it

(8.6.14) from

obtain

we
=/V,
\320\242\320\262(\320\272)

of

Corrsin

by

= 0.5

give

into
?(\320\272)=\320\260\320\2652/3\320\272~5/3

tive subrange

inertial

an

is an

there

(8.6.14)

A949). Recent measurements

but

has

spectrum

energy

appreciable part of the

we obtain an inertialis unimportant,
in
which
temperature fluctuarange
this range, the spectrum should be independent
=
one form:
only
Ee (n,N,e), which can have

In

that we have

the

that

= 0Ne-U3K-s/3.

was

This

if

7, so

and

Ee(K)

is so large that

number

Reynolds

and

subrange

of v

scalar contaminants

of passive

numbers,

an iner-

range, the spectral

the

spectral

inertial-convective

because

is called

flux
sub-

of local dissipation

284

dynamics

Spectral

Id\320\272 -2\321\202\320\2722
\320\225\320\262.

dTe
This

can be solved only

equation

the

spectral

so that

(8.6.15)

transfer

Te.
becomes

(8.6.11)

if we

the cascade model

adopt

inertial-diffusive

the

In

subrange,

(8.6.11) of

E(\320\272) \320\260\320\2652/3\320\272\025/3,

(8.6.16)

\320\242\320\262=\320\241\320\260\321\202\320\265\321\202\320\272\321\202\320\225\320\262.

Comparing

changes slowly with

also shows that we
solution

The

(8.6.14), we

this with

wave

of (8.6.15,

can be a

scaling,
fair

CaV2

with

as

in

only

(8.6.14)

is (Corrsin,

=/\320\2231,

and

the

Here,

microscale

temperature

(8.6.17)
is defined

by

\321\211

= G3/eI/4.

r?0
This

scale

was

exist

with

which

(8.6.18)
discovered
(8.6.17)

large wave numbers,

because

subrange

Because

the

be

cannot

it

on

is identical

(8.6.18)

in

//ant

to truncate the

dissipation

spectrum

at

which

shape

valid

far

the

at

behaved

is well

are not

it is based

with

no measurements

the inertial-diffusive

into

= 0.2.
\320\272\321\211

high wave-number

there.

valid

the peak

(8.4.6),

variance occurs at

of temperature

of

point at

but

by Corrsin A951). At present,

can be compared. The spectrum

assumptions

spectrum

te cutoff

if Tq

(8.6.16)

1964)

lj*3].

but

(8.6.14),

approximation

The comparison of
Ca1'2 = /\320\2231.

8.6.16),

to replacing

amounts

(8.6.16)
inertial

number.
take

should

using

Tg. This

of

value

that

find

Hence, we are

by
Te in (8.6.14).
based on the local

in

the

Also,

specwe

if

end, we have to

put

= 0.55.

\320\272\321\211

A viscous-convective
viscous-convective subrange
subrange occurs at
\302\253
in
fluids
with
a large Prandtl
wave numbers such that
1, \320\272\321\2111,
\320\272\320\263}>
number.
In this range, the scales of temperature
fluctuations
are progressively
field (see Sections 3.4 and 7.3), but the thermal
reduced by the strain-rate
is not yet effective. Temperature fluctuations
at wave
numbers
diffusivity

The

of magnitude
fields
(elv)in and size rj.
beyond ktj= 1 experiencestrain-rate
= 1, the extent of
Because
the energy spectrum drops off so sharply
near
ktj
fields
to small
eddies at
the
strain-rate
appears to be infinite
temperature
a should
be
but not
In the
Therefore,
\320\272\321\202?\302\2731.

viscous-convective

only

(e/vI

subrange, we

important,

thus

expect

that

\321\202?.

N, (e/vI'2).
\320\225\320\262
=\320\225\320\262{\320\272,

8.6 Spectra

285

scalar contaminants

of passive

This must have the form

(8.6.19)

Ee(K)=cN(v/e)U2K-1.
This

that

Schwartz

and

estimate

viscous-diffusive

of

diffusion

(\302\2533?I/2

small

estimate,

Sections

3.4

and

which is

the
order of the
spreads hot spots of
smallest scale(r)e) is obtained if t is

Diffusion

yields
(8.6.20)

of

the

only

for

near

spectrum

y/v

\302\2531,

was

earlier

obtained

Tg begins to

is approached,

viscous-diffusive
subrange

not too different

/V, we

from

be estimated
for
scaling
Tg. As the
= 1

\320\272\321\211

almost-inertial

adopting

by

way

valid

can

decreaseslowly.

As

in

This

states

that

of scale
into

(8.6.21)

(8.6.15),

in which

long as

is well

given

by

way agrees

behaved,

(8.6.21), which

of temperature

strain rate (e/vI/2.

it

The location

(8.6.20).
with

is certainly

certainly

Te is

variance

in

Substituting

obtain

(8.6.22)

\320\265\321\205\321\200[-\321\201(\320\274?\320\265J],

r)e is
this

we

now

(8.6.21)

to the amount

and
to the
\320\272.\320\225\320\262,

is

the

(8.6.19) as

may generalize

is proportional

Tg

which
\320\272,

Ee(K)=cN(u/e)U2K'1

obtained

Sec-

viscous-dif-

\320\225\320\262{\320\272)=\321\201\320\242\320\262(\321\204)\320\2702\320\272'1.

eddies

in

7.3.

The shape
familiar

so

become

has

\321\2111\320\2631=(\321\207\320\234\321\202.

This

re-

by

Te =/V,

putting

small.

fluctuations.

by?2 ~7f;the

This

(v[e)in.

\"mixing-

very large wave numbers, molecular difbecomes effective. The viscous-convective

At

strain-rate

determined

rate

replaced by

and

by

be noted

is done

scale of the temperature fluctuations

becomes
significant for time scalesof

period {v/e)i/2 of the

size ^at a

to be

fluctuations

diffusion

that

by (e/v)i/2

(8.6.11)

the

from
This

when the

ends

subrange

in

presumed

subrange

temperature

It should

existence.

its

obtained (but less rigorously)

of the spectral transfer
Te.

because the effects of 7 are

The

measurements

A959);

Batchelor

by

have confirmed

(8.6.11)

strain rate

replacing the

predicted

A963)

also be

can

(8.6.19)

length\"

first

was

spectrum

Gibson

the

estimate

not valid for

is not valid

there.

(8.6.20).

of the exponentialcutoff
Again,

although

\302\2731, because
\320\272\321\202?\320\265

(8.6.22)

it is based on

286

dynamics

Spectral

E. Bo

(viscous)

dissipation

subrange

viscousdiffusive
In

subrange

*~

Spectra of

8.11.
Figure
numbers.

The various subranges in

large arid small Prandtl

Summary

for

in liquids

variance

temperature

the

liquids

The Reynolds number,

are sketched

number,

of course, is assumed

and small

large

of temperature

spectrum

with

with

|\320\237\320\232

in

Prandtl

variance,
8.11.

Figure

be large.

to

Problems

8.1
values

8.2
across

What

of r

is the shape of the correlation

which corresponds to the inertial

In the
given

spectral

energy

viscouseffects

as

u(x)u{x

+r)

in a range

of

subrange?

of Corrsin, the energy

model

transfer

wave number is approximated

is not corrected for

function

by

a mixing-length

= 1 is
tcrj

transfer

expression

approached. Make a

that
similar

Problems

287

for the momentum

model

in the

transfer

layer
show

the resulting
pressure gradient. Integrate
unlike its spectral counterpart, this model

that,

accurate

of the

representation

mean

flow

8.3 Derive expressionsfor the

integral scale of isotropic turbulence
Section

in the

evolution
in

of a turbulent

boundary

equation of motion and

does not give an accu-

inner layer.
of the kinetic energy and of the
initial period of decay (seeSec-

the

by calculating the evolution of an approximateenergy

at high wave numbers and
consists of an inertia)
subrange
~\320\2724 (8.1.16)
that
of the type \320\225(\320\272)
at low wave numbers. Assume
this

Do

3.2).

that

spectrum

spectrum

constant

the

inner layer

in zero

\320\241
in

(8.1.16)

is independent

of

time

(this

number

the \"perma-

is called

the largest eddies\" (Batchelor, 1953)). Show that

of isotropic turbulence decreasesin time during the
3.2.
with the result given
in Section
decay, in contradiction
\"permanence of

the
initial

Reynolds
period

of

8.4 In the final period of decay of isotropic

the Reynolds
turbulence,
number is so small
that
no energy exchange between wave
numbers
takes
that
the
place. Calculate the rate of decay of the kinetic
energy, assuming
at
the
the
final
is
of
of
spectrum
beginning
period
decay given by (8.1.16),
with

\320\241
independent

8.5

of time

(see also Problem 8.3).

a field of isotropic turbufalls

through
of the particle is large, its path is nearly
approximation, experiencesa frequency
straight, so that the
If
to the one-dimensional Eulerian
spectrum.
spectrum
space
corresponding
and
wave
number
the
terminal
is
the
between
relation
velocity
frequency
Vj,
small,

heavy

Because

the

= \320\272
\321\201\320\276

Under

turbulence.

particle rapidly
terminal velocity
in first
particle,

conditions, the equation for the horizontal

particle
+ v = u, where T=
v may be approximated by Tdv/dt
velocity
Vj/g is the
is the horizontal
fluid velocity experienced by
and \320\270
particle time constant
the
it
Calculate
the
horizontal
of the particle and compare
particle.
dispersion
with the Lagrangian
by a particle with
dispersion
experienced
vanishingly
is

small

Vj.

Vj.

certain

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A

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INDEX

diffusion,

239

Accelerationof gravity,

97,

Accelerated

Bounded flow,
Brunt-Vaisala

See

contaminants.

Buffer

Contaminant, active
Adiabatic atmosphere, 97,

136

98, 136

281

Amplification

of magnetic

75,83, 92

of vorticity,

conserconservationof, 41,83,103,256
momentum,

Angular

Anisotropy, 260, 262, 267,

271

133,135

Cascade
in

113
187
154,

matching,

265

layer, 11,

lay-

100, 166,247

Atmospheric surface

layer,

100,168

Atmospheric thermals, 136

98

turbulence,

Atmospheric

66, 210

Autocorrelation,

of derivatives,

215

Axisymmetric

flows, 104
130,144

Axisymmetricjets,

Axisymmetric

plumes, 142

Axisymmetric

wakes,

118,

127

113,115

cylinder,

Closure problem,
Cole,J. D., 155

4, 33,

Bandwith,

215,259

Batchelor,

G.K., 7, 84, 96,

195,230,253,263,

235, 241

285,

287

Bernoulli
Blackadar,

54,

equation, 77
A. K., 102,168,

169
Boundary-layer

13, 16,188

185

236

nondiffusing,

pessive, 33,

spot of,

integral

Curl,

76,82

scale of,

21,72,246
rate,

Deformation work,
64, 257
Differential

60, 76
3, 60,

similarity

law, 55,148
195

molecular, 9
of, 235

microscaleof, 240

spectrum

78

Diffusion,

97

194,235
thickness,

Cross-stream

Diffuser,

Contaminant,
dispersion

23, 94
61

force,

Deformation

fluctuations,
layer,

57,

Cross-product

Decay, time

G., 73

Concentration distribution,

active,

clouds,

Covariance, 207, 232

38

Constant-stress

269,

284,286

Cumulus cloud, 1, 25

D., 163

Comte-Bellot,

192,229,

232, 233,255,

scale, 230,273

81,85,151,156,169,

H.P.,41

Bakewell,

S., 13,23,68,

135

44

241
problem,236

corre-

Lagrangian

Cross-stream advection,

Collision time scale, 24,

Concentration

Backward dispersion prob-

correlation;

Couette flow,

Circulation, 195
F. H., 187,188
Clauser,

Coles,

also Eulerian

Cosmicgas

function,

Chemical reactions, 1, 247

Circular

Correlated variables,
30
30, 207. See

278, 283,

Channel flow, 149,233

201,212,217,221,227

boundary

Atmospheric

12,

102,167

73,96,97,

80

effect,

Characteristic

Atlantic Ocean, 195

12,78,166

parameter,

Corrsin,

Change-of-scale

Asymptotic

Coriolis

correlation

Central moments, 199

5,

invariance,

145

152,234

Correlation tensor, 250

theorem,

216,225,231

Asymptotic

Coreregion,

Correlation

256, 261,275
energy,
temperature
spectrum,

of

211,214

Coriolis force,

281,284
Central limit

independence,

Asymptotic

scale, 99,

Buoyant production, 97,100

93

energy,

length

Cooling water,

plumes,

Buoyant

60, 62, 64
scale, 15

volume,

Convergenceof averages,

102

76

tensor,

Alternating

150, 171, 179,183,

190,237
Convective

48, 50,

3, 7,9,

time

Buoyancy

77,84,106,111,142,

Control

229, 234

120,123,131

Aliasing, 248,

161

layer,

Bulk velocity, 158,228,

Buoyancy,

Advection,

99

frequency,

30,

equation,

Continuity

97,136

136

Acoustic noise, 3
Active

224

approximation,

Boussinesq

50, 52,95,

of, 279

238

turbulent,

Diffusion

230

8,11

equation, 8,

33,

226, 229

Diffusion

limit,

Diffusive

length scale, 15
of turbulence,

Diffusivity

2,8

296

Index

Dimensional

5,

analysis,

delta function,
236
Discriminator circuit,

large to
59, 75,

198,213
232, 242,

226,

Dispersion,

scale, 43
47

length

Dispersion

43,

129,156

191

Gaseous nebulae,
1,
Gating circuit, 197

absence of,

6, 49, 120

3, 19, 25, 64,

of energy,

120,153,256,263,

267,269

range,

Equilibrium

263,

spectrum,

269, 276
183

limit,

Distinguished

Divergence theorem, 60
Double
220, 232
integral,
Downstream integral
scale,
230, 273
coefficient,
Drag
17, 112

Eulerian

time

velocity,

Gram-Charlier

274

transport

flows,

Exchange coefficient, 11,

43,99,

122

Falkner-Skan
77
99

conductivity,

10, 143,

Eddy diffusivity,

195,226,245

Eddy

Far

family, 178
109

wakes,

Eddy viscosity, 5,11, 43,

49,99,115,128,

130,143,193,229
S. F., 5

Edwards,

Ekman

current density,

Electric

93

94

Empirical

friction laws,

budget,

63, 71,74,

101,120,123,131,

153
Energy

integration

First-order
sublayer,

Fluid
Flux

inertial
176

sub-

factor, 200

point,
particle, 42, 233
Richardson
number,98

cascade,

Energy-containing

262, 279

Gulf

256,

Fourier

transform, 201,

205,214,250,258,

280

Heat flux, 34, 97,100,

194,243

Friction

Friction
Friction

integral,

142,244

Hinze J.O.,

58,

coefficient,
Rossby
velocity,

49, 51,54,

58,66,160,215,253,
281

Homogeneous

turbulence,

227,248
26,

anemometer,

132,207
Humphreys, H. W., 143
scale, 8,

length

Imposed

54
time

Imposed

scale, 11

Independent samples,

214

22,

225

53,

100, 150, 170, 185

283

Inertial-diffusive
subrange,

number,

sub-

Inertial-convective
subrange,

170
eddies,

1,15,195

Stream,

Index of refraction,

192,235

261,275

71,72,

turbulence,

230, 242

Hot-wire

time, 211

problem,236

192
Energy

25, 73, 246,287

Finite

Forward dispersion prob-

Electrolytes,

Grid

263,

215, 219
function,
period of decay,

Flatness

167,195

layer,

240

Filter
Final

258

size,

Gravity waves,3, 75,99

in, 241

Filaments of contaminant,
Eddy

expansion,

126

Heat-flux

Dwell circuit, 203

pressure,

45,47,49,123, 132

227, 231
Evolving

transport model,

Gradient

46

spectrum,
225,

num-

number,99

Eulerian integral
scale,
47, 230,275, 278
Eulerian

Richardson

Gradient

correlation,

Eulerian

\320\241.
285
\320\235.,

Gibson,

212

characteristic
function, 227

195

reduction,

Dynamic

mogorov's, 19, 262

Eulerian

19 66,88, 101,263
Dissipation

231,245

Geostrophicwind, 166,170

Kol-

theory,

Ergodicity,

range, 263, 276

rate of energy,

Dissipation

91,

262,276, 281

fluctua-

vorticity,86

Dissipation

disprobability
distribution,
218, 225,

Gaussian

Equilibrium

of temperature
fluctuations,
95, 282

218

function,

183

Dissipation

23,94

characteristic

Gaussian

178,

layer,

Equilibrium

approxi-

Fully developed flow,

21,98

Entropy,

20,

approximation,253

119,132,

Equilibrium,

Displacement thickness,

7,191

Frozen-turbulence

scales,

91, 256

143, 190,

Dispersionrate,

from

small

Entrainment,

245

Drag

45, 262

transfer,

Energy

S. K.,

Friedlander,

91,248

Dirac

of

26,

spectrum,

Energy

8,146

Inertial scaling,

268, 284

Inertial

sub-

283

sublayer,

264,
147,

153,162,176,265

297

Index

Inertial

Kolmogorovmicroscale,20, Longitudinal spectrum,

5, 147,

subrange,

58,67,92,159,223,

248,264
Initial

73, 287
Inner

20

Kolmogorov velocity, 20,

Inoue, E., 276

263, 276

2,7

Instability,

Kraichnan,

159,210,260

of

216

derivatives,

275,278

46, 47,

Lagrangian,

229, 273,275,278

Interface, 13, 119,132,192

Intermediate

154

limit,

integral,

122,129,135,222

Invariance,

5, 6,

Irrotational

flow,

113, 187

116, 129, 178

Isotropic relations,
263, 272, 281

scale,

Lagrangian
variance,

varivelocity
225,228,
230,

Laminar

66,

252, 275
I sot ropy at small
scales,
74,96,253,262,276

boundary

17

12, 14,15,

layer,

flow, 34
160

Laminar

shear

Laminar

sublayer,

Jet engine

Limit

Linearized

144

exhaust,

Joint characteristic
202,

function,

Jointly

Gaussian

variables,

vari-

195

metals,

94

Local isotropy,

Joint

moments, 207

Joint

probability

281

Local

density,

Kaplun,

Karman,
Karman

S., 155

Th. von, 44, 155

constant,

54,

theory

23, 24, 38

of gases,

A. L., 13, 192

23, 38,
number,
A. N., 19,
Kolmogorov,

262,263

44,

law,

wind

profile,

169

45

correlation,

Longitudinal

251

Longitudinal
scale,

integral

230,273

length,

Mixing

length

5, 43
model, 42,

50,57, 115, 121,143,

283,

285

theory, 52,

269

237, 285

36, 39
motion,
Molecular time scale, 10,
Molecular

24,38

24,

transport,

35, 235
of probability

density, 199
Momentum

100,147,

Logarithmic

10, 104,

layer,

Mixing

Moments

pro-

velocity

54,

num-

155

Millikan.C.B.,

Molecular

155, 165, 186, 194

Kistler,

Knudsen

156, 165, 186

Logarithmic
profile,

155,176,230
Kinetic

65, 262,

friction

Logarithmic

211

Reynolds

H. K., 230
Molecular diffusion, 8, 9,

scale, 37,

length

Microscale,

Microscale

Moffatt,

52,69,81,85,113

207

Mercury, 194, 283

80,229,

184,192

Line vortex,
Liquid

232

W. C.,5

Meecham,

Mixing length

boundary-layer

equation,

210

free

226

128,129

cycle,

154,265
path, 23, 35,

Matching,

Mixing

Law of the wake, 153

Law of the wall, 152, 158,

34

153

layer,

number,68

164,169,173,263

Jeans, J.,

52

transfer,

Mean

274
224,

232, 234

253,

Isotropic turbulence,

Matched

231,236,241

waves, 254

simple

Isotropic

Mass

spectrum,
velocity,

Lagrangian

77,
fields, 66

random

Isotropic

displacement
integral

Lagrangian

78

effect,

Magnus

Maneuvering vehicle, 127

46,229,241,273

23,94

94

mircoscale,

236

Lagrangian

gas clouds,

Interstellar

225, 229, 232

Lagrangian

Intermittency, 102, 117,

46,

correlation,

Lagrangian

42,93

Magnetic

7,94

227

function,

time, 215,218

Integration

93

diffusivity,

Magnetic fields, 7, 24,

Magnetic Reynolds number,

characteristic

Lagrangian

23, 33, 38,

number,

97,136
Magnetic

Laboratory average,213
P. A., 155
Lagerstrom,

of, 212,219

existence

Mach

221

200,

Kurtosis,

219,230,241,253,
254,259

Kronecker delta, 27, 81

Eulerian, 47, 230,

Lumley.J. L., 41,97,

207

L. S. G.,
R. H., 5

Kovasznay,

20, 45,

Integral scale,

263

spectrum,

186

Ludwieg,

Kolmogorov

scales,

251,255

237,256,263,276,283

of decay,

period

15, 111,

defect,

124
Momentum

flux,

97, 111,

112, 130,263
Momentum

integral,

111,

124, 130, 157, 183,

196
Momentum

mismatch,

126

298 Index

Momentum

112,

thickness,

Planetary boundary layers,

166

192,196
Monin, A. S.. 100,234

Plumes,

Monin-Oboukhov

Pollutants,

length,

100
42, 45,

point,

Moving

equation, 32

135

232, 247.

6,187
similarity,

Power

Rigid

214

Prandtl,L.,5,49, 55, 57
number,
10, 33, 38,

Navier-Stokesequations,
3,14,19,28,33,63,

Prandtl

96,97,103,280,282,

76,77,81,82

283,284,

Neutral atmosphere, 99,

136,138

Newtonian

fluids,

Nonlinear

systems,

Non-Newtonian

Normalized

4, 27
6, 33
5
fluids,

198,

201,226

of

14, 54,

145

station,

100

of temperature

One-dimensional

spectrum,

248, 280
Outer layer,
Outer

scales,

146
20

Overlap, regionof,

265

of interface,

moment,

Sacond-order flow, 174,

176

6,113,

Self-preservation,

131,136,148,171,243
34, 40,

Self-preserving flows,

179,187

153,

wake,

Self-propelled

158

probe,

Pao, Y.

225

H., 269

Parseval's

205,

relation,

picture,

214,219
Passive contaminants. See
Peclet number,
Permanence

eddies, 287
Perturbation

10,224

of the

234

flow,

Region

of overlap,

153,

Reversal

to isotropy, 260
of flow, 132

Reynolds, O.,27
155

Pipe flow, 103, 156,224,

Plane

Randomness, 1,2

Return

largest

methods,

248

265

passive

Contaminant,

function,

Reynolds

analogy,

Reynolds decomposition,

28,84

104

Reynolds

problems, 155
200

Skewness,

Slowly

evolving

104, 108,
Small-scale

equations,

104,128,134

layers.

Similarity law, 55, 148

Sine wave, 198
scales, 47, 57
Single
Singular-perturbation
of derivatives,

51,102

27

22

192

Shape factor,
Shear

Random

124

Separation, 2, 171,181,190
Shadowgraph

Radioactive tracers, 47,

H.A.,97

Panofsky,

210

inequality,

199

Production spectrum, 271

Quarter-radius

285

Scrambling, 262

Second central

119,122
Pure shear flow,
50, 60, 74

280

W. H.,

Schwartz's

fluctuavorticity
fluctuations,
86, 91

Propagation

Orszag, S. A.,

energy,

159,266

of

214

Schmidt number,
Schwartz,

62,68,120,122,

283

93

H., 177

Schlichting,

fluctua-

of turbulent

Ocean waves, 3,97, 222

Ohmic dissipation, 93

P. G.,

Saffman,

See Contaminant

Production

A. M.,97,100,

Oboukhov,

H., 143

Running time, 73

Scalar contaminants.

218

integrals,

fluctuations95

Oblique waves, 249

height, 146,

Samples, independent,

buoyant 97,

power

62, 64,

density,

83

of vorticity,
76

Rotation tensor,

Rouse,

69,70

170

number,

Rotational, 2, 76,88

152,164

75

interaction,

30,200
Rossby

Roughness
inter-

Probability

131

No-slipcondition,
146, 167

eter, 186

52

wall,

Root-mean-square value,

Rotation

peram-

Pressure-velocity

Pressure work,

boundary-layer

183
thickness,
Normal stress, 33
Normal
stress difference,

Nuclear

286

Pressure-gradient

32

tensor,

Richardson number, 98, 99

density,

spectral

78,85
Reynolds-stress

Potential flow, 179

146,155

gradients,

Reynolds-stress

195, 247

solution,
wall, 52

Porous

14,

scales,

similar-

Reynolds-number

Seealso Contaminant

Polymer

225,228
Multiple

Reynolds momentum equa-

19,65,96

221
flows,

131, 146

structure,

Index

299

Smokeparticles,

232,235

Smokestack,

1,136,247

Smooth wall

(surface),
1

237

correlations,

229

183
of microstructure,

248, 264

283

147,263,282

Summation

147,263,282

transfer of tem95, 281

Spectrum, 214

kinetic

225

Surface layer,

81, 85,100,

of temperature,

281,

286

Spherical shell,
in

203

density,

Taylor's

atmosphere,

7,

deviation,

30,

248

averages

of, 216

218, 220,

232

223,

236
Statistical

independence,

207, 209

Stewart, R.W., 1,22

Stokes

relation,

Strain rate, 27, 60,260

Strain-rate

fluctuations,

29,59, 63, 221,

239,241
Stratford,

Stretching

27, 29, 59

of vorticity.

See Vortex stretching

Transverse

integral

47, 230,

scale,

134

Transverse

279

spectrum,

Tennekes, H., 56,102,

168,169,174,176
287

velocity,

Thermal convection, 97,

101

length

8,

diffusivity,

39,293
Thermal

pollution, 145

Thermal

wakes,

242

Three-dimensional spectrum

of energy,

Tillman.W.,

Time scale

280

186

28,199

Transverse time scale,

148

spectra,

272,

273, 278
layer,

boundary

12,17, 177
Turbulent

See

energy
Energy

Turbulent

budget.

budget.

energy produc-

Production
of turbulent energy
Peclet number,
Turbulent

245
Turbulent

16

251,

255

See
production.

248

Time average,

scale,

Transversespectrum,

Turbulent

135

273

15

Truncated

Thermal plumes,

convective,

correlation,

251

95, 284

Thermal

59,86

model, 42

Transport
Transverse

microscale,

of temperature,

B.sji73

Stress tensor,

33,

Temperature scale,95,

Terminal

velocity,

Stationary

stresses,

69

of vorticity,

253

95,98,138,242

Temperature

integrals of,

viscous

62, 64,

Temperature

200
Stationary variables, 198,

230
by

hypothesis,

95,

shear flow,

uniform

in

65,92,

Temperature equation,

98,136
Standard

91,225

microscale,

223

flows, 241

140, 243

260, 276

probability

Spitzer, L.,Jr.,23
Stable

of temperature,

102,211,221,238,

251,254

Spike

in evolving

47,51,66,68,80,
Taylor

250,

flows, 224

in bounded

5, 20, 45,

G. I.,

Taylor,

45,262

Towsend, A. A., 41, 70,

117,121,135,189
Tracers, 47, 225,235, 237
Transition, 7, 18,55
of contaminants,

248
Spectrum tensor, 250
Speedof sound, 37, 226

205,

Transport

Surface wind, 168

5,

energy,

150,168,

183

215

L., 20,

Topper,

27,

convention,

Surface stress,

279

of derivatives,

274

spectra,

219

146,161,171,186

of contaminant,

transfer,

Top-hat function,

283, 285

Spectral-spatialanalogy,
temperature,

Time

284

283,

67,

72,119

viscous-diffusive,

68,91,258,271

Spectral

viscous,263, 276
viscous-convective,

transfer,

energy

70
of spectral

283

inertial-diffusive,

Spectral

flow, 49,120,

mean

of

inertial, 5,147,
inertial-convective,

Spetial-spectral analogy,

eddies, 49,

large

68, 70,183, 241

Subrange,

Solid-body rotation,

of

of

58,158,263

viscous,

Solenoidal,84
Space-time

147, 153,

inertial,

162,176,264

152, 158

Solar wind,

(cont.)
of decay, 21, 72,246

Time scale

Sublayer,

51,143

Prandtl

number,

300

Index

Turbulent

num-

Reynolds

number,116,134

spots, 8

Turbulent
Two-dimensional

eddies,

Vorticity

equation, 76,

Vorticity

fluctuations,

81, 256

78

Vorticity-transfer theory,

80,81,85

41

Two-dimensional flow,

91,104

162,173,

function,

Wake

188,194
207

M. S.,

Uberoi,

Wall

Uncorrelated variables,
30, 209
trans-

230

transportin,

136

30,199

147,

153,162,173,192

Velocity scale, 9, 30,55,

sub-

283,284

Viscous deformation

work,

62
Viscous-diffusive

subrange,

283, 285

Viscousdissipation.

See

Dissipation
scale,

length

129,146

Viscous scaling

in

spec-

264

Viscous sublayer,

58,

158,263
transport,

70,

86,263

Vortex force,78
Vortex

generator,

58

Vortex stretching, 2,40,

48,59,75,83,91,
256

Vortex

tubes,

102

Vorticity

of large

eddies, 41,

48,69
mean,

Vorticity

78

budget, approxi-

88,91
approximate,

136
\320\222.,

Zero pressure gradient,

boundary

layer

in,

190

Zero

106,148,151

Viscous-convective

Viscous

234

Ya.

Zel'dovitch,

Velocity-defectlaw,

spectrum,

A. M.,

114,

defect,

Viscous

turbulence,

70, 230, 242

Yih.C. S., 143

117,125

subrange,

250

83, 103

Wind-tunnel

Yaglom,

217

of a sum,

vector,

Wave-number

theory,
19, 262
Unstable atmosphere, 98,

Velocity

point, 224,

231,246
Wind-tunnel contraction,

equilibrium

Variance,

See Surface

Wandering

Uniform shear flow,

Universal

layer.

layer

wall

stress,

172

7,