First Sem Ge6163 Physics Lab Manual in Word or Text With Dias

FIRST SEMESTER
[REGULATION 2013]
GE6163 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
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1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the moment of inertia of the metallic disc and the rigidity
modulus of the material of the wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Torsion pendulum, two equal masses, Stop-clock, Screw gauge and Meter
scale
FORMULA
The moment of inertia of the metallic disc
I
2 m d - d1 T 0
T2
2
-T1
2
2
Kg m
2
The Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire
8 Il
2 4
T r
Nm-2
0
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
m
Mass of any one of the cylindrical masses
r
Radius of the suspended wire
meter
l
Length of the suspension wire
meter
Minimum distance between the suspension wire and the
centre of mass of the cylinder
Maximum distance between the suspension wire and the
centre of mass of the cylinder
meter
Time period when no masses are placed
Time period when two identical masses are placed at the
maximum distance
Moment of inertia of the disc
sec
d1
d2
T0
T1
I
Kg
meter
sec
2
kg-m
PROCEDUR
One end of the long uniform metallic wire whose rigidity modulus to be
determined is clamped. On the other lower end, a heavy metallic disc is attached
by
means of a chuck. The length of the suspension wire is fixed to a particular val
ue say,
60 or 70 cm. Now the disc is slightly twisted so that it executes torsional osci
llations.

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Care should be taken that the disc oscillates without wobbling. First few oscill
ations
are omitted. A mark is made on the disc such that time taken for 10 oscillations
(to
and fro motion) are noted using stop-clock. Two trials are taken. The average of
these
two trials gives the time period T0.
Now equal masses are placed on either side of the disc close to the
suspension wire. The distance d1 from the centre of one of mass and the suspensi
on
wire is noted. Now the disc with masses at the minimum distance is made to execu
te
torsional oscillations. Time for 10 oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken.
From this
mean period T1 is calculated.
Now the two masses are placed at the extreme ends of the disc and the
distance d2 from the centre of the one of the masses and the point of suspension
wire
is noted. The disc is now subjected to torsional oscillations. Time for 10 oscil
lations is
noted. Two trials are taken. From this time period T 2 is calculated.
Now the masses of any one of the cylinders is found. The radius of the
wire is measured by means of screw gauge and the length is measured using meter
scale. From this data the moment of inertia and the rigidity modulus of the mate
rial of
the wire are determined.
DIAGRAM
Fig. 1. Torsional Pendulum

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Table : 1.1 To determine the Time period:
-2
Length of the suspension wire = .. x 10 m
Time for 10 oscillations
Position of the equal
masses
Trial-1
sec
Trial-2
sec
Time period (Time for one
oscillation)
sec
Mean
sec
Without masses
With mass at
minimum distance d1=
-2
------ x 10 m
With mass at
maximum distance
-2
d2= ------ x 10 m
Table 1.2 To find the radius (r) of the wire:
LC = 0.01 mm
S.No.
Pitch
Scale
Reading
(PSR)
-3
x 10 m
ZE = ----- div
-3
ZC = (ZE x LC) = ------ x 10 m
Head
Scale
Coincidence
(HSC)
Div
Head
Scale
Reading
(HSR)
-3
x 10 m
Observed
Reading =
(PSR + HSR)
-3
x 10
-3
m
x 10 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean=
CALCULATION
Mass of any one of the cylindrical masses
m
Radius of the suspended wire
r
Minimum distance between the suspension
wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder d1
Maximum distance between the suspension
=
Correct
Reading =
(OR ZC)
x 10
-3
kg.
-3
=
x 10 m
=
x 10
-2
m

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d2
wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder
=
3
in
x 10
-2
m
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Length of the suspended wire
Time period without masses
l
-2
x 10 m
=
T0
=
Time period when two identical masses are
placed at the minimum distance d1 T1 =
sec
Time period when two identical masses are
placed at the maximum distance d2 T2 =
sec
sec
The moment of inertia of the metallic disc is given by
I
2 m d - d1 T0
2
T2 -T12
2
Kg m
2
The Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire is given by
8 Il
T 2 r 4 Nm-2
0
RESULT
1. The moment of inertia of the metallic disc (I)
=
2. The Rigidity modulus of the material of the wire ( )
=
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS
1. What is torsion pendulum?
2. What is a rigid body?
3. Why it is called torsion pendulum?
4. What is the type of oscillation executing in torsion pendulum?
5. On what factors the time of oscillation depends?
6. Is there any rigidity modulus for fluids?
2
kg m
Nm
-2
4
in

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2. YOUNGS MODULUS NON-UNIFORM BENDING
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the youngs modulus of the material of a beam supported on two
knife edges and loaded at the middle point.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A uniform rectangular beam, two equal knife edges, a weight hanger with
slotted weight, vernier microscope, pin, screw gauge and vernier caliper.
FORMULA:
E
mgl
3
3
Nm-2
4b d y
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
y
Mean depression for a load
meter
g
Acceleration due to gravity
m/s
l
Distance between the two knife edges
meter
b
Breadth of the beam (meter scale)
meter
d
Thickness of the beam (meter scale)

meter
M
Load applied
2
kg
PROCEDURE
The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges. A
weight hanger is supported by means of a loop of thread from the point C, exactl
y
midway between the knife edges. A pin is fixed vertically at C by some wax. The
length of the beam (l) between the knife edges is set for 60 cm. A traveling
microscope is focused on the tip of the pin such that the horizontal cross wire
coincides with the tip of the pin. The reading in the vertical traverse scale is
noted for
dead load. In equal steps of m Kg added to the weight hanger, the corresponding
readings for loading are noted. Similarly readings are noted while unloading. Th
e
breadth and the thickness of the beam are measured with a vernier calipers and s
crew
gauge respectively. From the data Youngs modulus of the beam is calculated.

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Fig. 2.
Table 2.1 To find the depression (y)
LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR + (VSC x LC)
S.No.
Traveling Microscope Reading
Load
-3
x 10 kg
1.
W
2.
W+50
3.
W+100
4.
W+150
5.
W+200
6.
W+250
7.
W+300
Loading
MSR
cm
VSC
div
Depression
Unloading
TR
cm
MSR
cm
VSC
div
Mean
TR
cm
(y)
Mean
y for M kg
cm
x10 m
-2

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Table 2.2. To find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper
LC = 0.01cm
VSR = VSC x LC
MSR
x 10 -3 m
VSC
Div
VSR
-3
x 10 m
S.No.
OR =
(MSR +
VSR)
-3
x 10 m
CR=
(OR
-3
ZC)
x 10 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean
=
Table 2.3. To find the thickness of the beam using Screw gauge
LC = 0.01 mm
S.No.
PSR
ZE =
-3
ZC =
HSC
-3
x 10 m
----- div
(ZE x LC) =------ x 10 m
Div
(HSR
x 10 -3 m
OR =
(PSR + HSR)
-3
x 10 m
CR =
(OR ZC)
-3
x 10 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean=
CALCULATION:
-3
Load applied at mid point
m = -------------- x10
g =--------------ms-2.
Breadth of the beam
b = -------------- x10
Thickness of the beam
-2
kg.
m
-3
d = ------------- x10
m

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Length of the beam between the knife edges l = -------------- x 10
7
in
-2
m

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Youngs modulus of the beam E
mgl
3
3
-2
Nm
4bd y
RESULT:
Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam E= ------------- Nm
.
-2
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define youngs modulus.
2. How are longitudinal strain and stress produced in your experiment?
3. Define Hooks law.
4. Will the value of youngs modulus obtained by you change if the
length, thickness or breadth of the bar is altered?
5. What are stress and strain?

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3. COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID BY
POISEUILLES METHOD
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by poiseuilles
flow method.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Graduated burette, Burette stand, Capillary tube, Rubber tube, Pinch clip ,
Wooden stand, Beaker , Liquid, Stop watch, Meter scale, Traveling microscope etc
.
FORMULA
Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid
Symbols
g
g r ht
4
8l v
-2
Nsm
Explanation
Unit
2
m/s
3
Density of the liquid

Kg/m

Radius of the boe of the capillay tube
mete
l
Length of the capillay tube
mete
V
Volume of the liquid collected

mete
h
(h1 + h2)/2 h0
mete
h1
Height fom the table to initial level of wate in the buette
Height fom the table to final level of wate in the buette
mete
mete
Height fom the table to mid potion of capillay tube
Time taken fo the liquid flow
mete
second
h2
h0
t
PROCEDURE
Fix a clean dy buette in the stand which is as shown in figue 9.1. The well
cleaned capillay tube of unifom coss section is attached to the lowe end of
the
buette using ubbe tube. The capillay tube is kept paallel to the wok table
(hoizontal) using wooden stand, in ode to get unifom flow of liquid without
any
3

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gavitational effect. The mass(m1) of the clean and empty beake ( if the densit
y of
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the liquid is not given) can be found using a physical balance and place it on t
he wok
table ight below the fee end of the capillay tube to collect the liquid.
To stop any flow of liquid the pinch clip is fit to the ubbe tube and close it
.
The buette is filled with the given liquid whose coefficient of viscosity is to
be
detemined using a funnel above the zeo mak. The liquid must be fee fom
contamination in the fom of pecipitates o dit etc. The pinch clip should be
open
completely and the liquid is allowed to flow in a steamlined manne (flowing f
eely)
though the capillay tube dop by dop. The capillay tube should not be having
any
bubbles, if any it has to be emoved completely fist.
A shot length of thead is tied at the fee end of the capillay tube and makes
it hanging fom it so that the flowing liquid does not un along the suface of
the tube,
but falls inside the beake in the fom of dops though the tip of the hanging
thead.
Stat the stop watch and note the time when the lowe meniscus of the liquid co
sses
zeo mak, 5, 10, 15 ..40 cc in table 9.1. Using mete scale, the height h1 fom
the suface of the table to the zeo mak of the buette and the height h2 fom
the
suface of the table to 5cc mak of the buette fo the fist obsevation ( when
the
liquid flows fom zeo mak to 5 cc mak).
The h1 and h2 values fo othe obsevations also should be ecoded. The
height h0 fom the suface of the table to the mid potion of the capillay tube
can be
measued. The time taken fo the flow of 5 cc of liquid can be calculated. The
pessue head (h) and also the poduct ht is also calculated. It is obseved tha
t the
height (h) deceases, the time of flow of liquid (t) inceases and the poduct (
ht) is a
constant.
Detemination of the adius of the boe of the capillay tube:
The adius of the boe of the capillay tube is measued by using the taveling
micoscope must be done vey caefully. The peliminay adjustment of the
micoscope and the least should be made. The capillay tube fom the expeimenta
l set
up is detached and mount it ove a stand in such a way that it is paallel to th
e wok
table. The micoscope is adjusted to view the inne diamete of the capillay tu
be as
shown in figue 9.2.
The vetical coss wie of the micoscope is made to coincide with the left
edge v1 of the capillay boe (Fig 9.3) and the eading should be noted in table
9.2
fom the hoizontal scale of the micoscope. Now the vetical coss wie is made
to

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in

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coincide with the ight edge v2 of the capillay tube and the eading should be
noted.
The hoizontal coss wie is adjusted to coincide with bottom h2 of the capilla
y boe
and the eading should be noted. The diamete of the capillay boe is calculate
d by
finding the diffeence between v1 and v2 and h1 and h2. The mean diamete (2) a
nd
the adius () of the boe.
Detemination of coefficient of viscosity of the liquid:
The length of the capillay tube (l) is measued using the mete scale. The
elevant values can be substituted in the fomula and the coefficient of viscosi
ty of the
liquid can be found.
DIAGRAM:
Fig. 3. Coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid

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Table 3.1. Detemination of ht
S.No.
Unit
Buette
eading
cc
0
Time note
while cossing
level
second
2
Range
cc
05
5
5 10
10
10 15
15
15 20
20
20 25
25
25 30
30
30 35
35
35 40
40
40 45
45
45 50
50
h 0 = .x 10
m
Time fo
Height of
flow of 5 cc
initial
eading h1
liquid
second
cm
Height of
initial
Pessue head
h = (h1+h2)/2 h0
ht
cm
cm-sec
eading h2
cm

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Table 3.2. Detemination of the diamete of the capillay boe
TR = MSR + (VSC X LC)
LC = 0.001cm
Hoizontal Coss Wie
MSR
VSC
MSR +
Position
cm
div
(VSCxLC)
Top
Vetical Coss Wie
MSR
VSC
MSR +
Position
cm
div
(VSCxLC)
Left
Bottom
Right
Diffeence (d1) = ----- cm
Diffeence (d 2) = ----- cm
Mean Diamete d
2
Radius
2
d1
d2 = ------- cm
d = ------- cm
CALCULATION:
-6
V = ..x 10 kg
Volume of the liquid collected
Density of the given liquid
3
= kg/m
-2
Acceleation due to gavity g = 9.8 ms
Radius of the capillay tube
Length of the capillay tube
Volume of the liquid

Mean value of
l
= ..x 10
= .x10
v =
-6
2
-2
m
m
3
5 x 10 m
ht =ms
Coefficient of viscosity of the
Given liquid
=
4
g ht
8l v
-2
Nsm
= .
RESULT:
-2
The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid
= ..Nsm .

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Viscosity?
2. Define coefficient of viscosity.
3. What is pessue gadient?
4. Diffeentiate between the steamline flow and tubulent flow.
5. Give examples fo highly viscous liquids.
6. Why the capillay tube should be of unifom coss section?
7. What is fluid esistance
8. What ae the factos up on which the ate of flow of liquid though the capil
lay
tube depends?
9. Velocity of ultasonic waves in a liquid and compessibility of the liquid
by ultasonic intefeomete

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4. SPECTROMETER DISPERSIVE POWER OF
THE PRISM
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To detemine the dispesive powe of the pism using spectomete.
APPARATUS:
Spectomete, Flint glass pism, mecuy vapou lamp, eading lens, spiit
level.
FORMULA:
1. Refactive index of the pism,
A D 2
sin
sin A / 2
2. Dispesive powe of the pism,
2
1
1
12
Whee
(
2 )
12
2
Symbol
Explanation
A
Angle of the pism
Unit
degees
D
Angle of minimum deviation
degees
1
Refactive index of the pism
Fo fist co lou

nil
2
Refactive index of the pism
Fo second co lou
nil
Table 4.1. To find the angle of the pism (A)
L.C = 1
Reflected
image
VERNIER A
MSR
Left
Right
T.R = M.S.R + (VSC
VSC
TR
VERNIER B
MSR
VSC
TR
2A= R1 R2
Va
Vb
A
Va
Vb
L.C)

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PROCEDURE:
The peliminay adjustments of the spectomete ae made as usual... (Namely
eye piece adjustment fo distinct vision of the coss wies Telescope adjustment
fo the
instant object and collimato adjustment fo paallel ays)
(1) Measuement of the angle of the pism (A):
Fig. 4.1. Measuement of the angle of the pism
The given pism is mounted vetically at the cente of the pism table with Its
efacting edge facing the collimato, so that the paallel ays of light fom t
he
collimato fall almost equally on the two faces of the pism as shown In fig 1.1
. The
telescope is otated to catch the eflected image fom one of the faces of the p
ism and
fixed in that position. By adjusting the tangential scew, the image is made to
coincide with the vetical coss wie. The main scale and Venie scale eadings
ae
noted fom both the venie A and venie B.
Similaly eadings ae taken fo the image eflected by othe efacting face of
the pism. The diffeence between the two eadings gives 2A, whee A is the Angl
e of
the pism. Fom this value, the angle of the pism is calculated.

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DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
(ii) To find the angle of minimum deviation D:
Fig. 4.2. Angle of Minimum Deviation
The prism is mounted such that light emerging from the collimator is incident on
one of the refracting face of the prism. Rotate the telescope slowly to catch th
e
refracted image of any one of the colour which emerges from other refracting fac
e of
the prism.
The prism table is rotated in such a direction that the refracted image move
towards the direct ray. The telescope is rotated carefully to the image in the f
ield of
view. At one stage, the image retraces its original path. This is the position o
f
minimum deviation .At this stage fixes the telescope and adjusts the tangential
screw
to coincide the image of each co lour with vertical cross wire. The correspondin
g
readings are tabulated. The prism is removed and the direct ray reading is noted
.

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The difference between the direct ray and refracted ray reading for each color
gives the angle of minimum deviation (D). By subtracting A and D values,
for each and every colour can be calculated. By choosing any two colors and usin
g
dispersive formula, can be calculated.
Table 4.2. Determination of the angle of minimum deviation D
L.C = 1
TR = MSR + (VSC
L.C)
Refracted
Vernier A
Vernier B
ray
readings
Lines of
MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR
spectrum deg
div
Deg deg
div
Deg
R1
R1
Va
Vb
R1 R2 R1 R2
deg
deg
Direct ray
R2
R2
Table 4.3. Determination of
S.No
Refractive index
1
2
(
1
2
2
Mean
D
Va+Va/2
deg

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18
in
RESULT:
(1) Angle of the prism A = --------------------(2) Angle of minimum deviation D = ------------------------(3)
Refractive index of the material of the given prism = ----------(4 )
Mean dispersive power of the given prism = -------------------VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:
1. Define refractive index
2. How does refractive index changes with wavelength of light?
3. What is the condition for obtaining minimum deviation
4. Define dispersive power.
5. Which lines have the greatest deviation from the direct ray? Why?
6. What is the significance of dispersive power?
19
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5. AIR WEDGE
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the thickness of
g
air-wedge arrangement.
APPARATUS:
Travelling microscope, Sodium
glass plates, Condensing lens
FORMULA:
Thickness of the thin wire is
t
Symbol
the thin wire by forming interference fringes usin
vapour lamp, two optically plane rectangular

and Reading lens
given by

2
m
Expanation
Waveength of the sodium vapour amp (=589310
Unit
Meter
10m)
Distance etween the specimen wire and the edge of

contact
Mean width of one fringe
Meter
Meter
PROCEDURE:
The principe used in this experiment is interference (i.e., Superposition of
two ight waves). When a eam of monochromatic ight fas normay on a gass p
ates,
interference takes pace etween ight refected from the ower surface of the t
op gass
pate and the upper surface of the ower gass pate resuting in the production
of
aternative right and dark fringes.
An air-wedge is formed y keeping two panes rectanguar gass pate kept
contact in one end and it is tied y a ruer and. On the other side of the ga
ss pate a
thin wire whose thickness to e determined is introduced. This arrangement is p

aced on
the horizonta ed of the traveing microscope.
Now the ight from the source is aowed to fa on the condenser ens. This en
s renders
ack parae eam of ight. This parae eam of ight is aowed to fa on t
he gass pate
0
which is kept at an ange of 45 to the horizonta pane. Now the ight gets ref
ected. This
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DIAGRAM
Fig. 5. Air wedge arrangement
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refected eam is aowed to fa on the two pane gass pates. Now the interfe
rence takes
pace etween ight refected from top and ottom surface of the gass pates an
d the
fringes consisting of aternate right and dark ands through the traveing mic
roscope.
The microscope is adjusted so that the right and dark fringes near the
edge of contact are made to coincide with the vertica cross wire of the teesco
pe and it is
th
taken as n fringe. The reading from the horizonta scae of the traveing micro
scope is
noted. Now the microscope is sowy moved with the hep of horizonta screw unti
the
vertica cross wire coincides with the (n+5)
th
fringe and the corresponding reading is
noted. Likewise the procedure is repeated up to 50 fringes (n+5, n+10, n+15.).Fro
m the
oserved reading mean width of one fringe () is cacuated.
Now the microscope is moved towards the specimen wire and the reading
(R2) is noted. Simiary the microscope is moved towards the edge of contact and
the
reading (R1) is noted. From the difference (R2~ R1) the ength etween the speci
men
wire and the edge of contact is determined. By knowing the vaues of , and the
thickness of the given materia is determined.
Tae 5.1. To determine the distance etween the edge of contact and the specime
n
wire
Microscope reading
Position
MSR
-2
10 m
VSC
TR
-2
10 m
Ruer and
(edge of
contact)
(R1)
Specimen wire
(R2)
-2
= R2~ R1 .. 10 m

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in

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Tae 5.2. To determine the and width ():
Microscope reading
Order of
the fringe
MSR
-2
Width of 5
fringes
TR
VSC
-2
10 m
-2
10 m
10 m
Mean width
of one
fringe()
-2
10 m
n
n+5
.
.
.
.
n+50
-2
=. 10 m
CALCULATION
Waveength of the sodium vapour amp, = 5893 10
-10
m
-2
Distance etween the specimen wire and the edge of contact, = 10 m
-2
Mean width of one fringe, = . 10 m
Thickness of the thin wire is given y,
RESULT
Thickness of the thin wire = meter.
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:
1. What is interference?
2. What is an air-wedge arrangement?
3. How interference fringes are formed in an air-wedge arrangement?
4. Why straight ine fringes are formed in an air wedge arrangement?
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6. SPECTROMETER - GRATING
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine
the numer of ines per metre of the grating and the waveengths
of the prominent ines of the mercury spectrum.
APPARATUS:
Spectrometer, grating, sodium and Mercury vapour amps etc.
FORMULA:
sin
Nm
Symo
Expanation
Ange of diffraction
N
Numer of ines per metre in the grating
m
Order of the diffraction
Unit
degree
ines/meter
--PROCEDURE
(A) To standardize the grating using sodium ight:
The preiminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The sit is iuminate
d
with sodium ight. The teescope is rought in a ine with the coimator and th
e direct
reading is taken on oth the verniers. The prism tae is firmy camped and the
teescope
0
is turned through 90 and fixed in this position (Fig.1). The grating is mounted
on the
tae so that the ruings on it are parae to the sit. The grating patform i
s rotated ti the
image of the sit refected from the surface of the grating is seen in the tees
cope.
The patform is fixed in the position at which the vertica crosswire coincides
with the
0
fixed edge of the image of the sit. The vernier tae is rotated through exact
y 45 in the
proper direction, so that the surface of the grating ecomes norma to the coi
mator. The
prism tae is a fixed in this position, now the grating is adjusted for norma
incidence.
The teescope is now reeased and rought to the position of the direct image. O
n
either side of it are seen the diffracted images of the first order.
The teescope is turned to the eft to view the first order diffracted image. Th
e vertica

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crosswire is made to coincide with the fixed edge of the image of the sit. Read
ings of
24
in

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oth the verniers are taken (fig-2).The teescope is turned to the right. Readin
g are noted
when the crosswire coincides with the first order image on the right. The differ
ence
0
etween the two readings gives 2 . Hence is determined ( =5893 A , m=1).The
numer of ines per metre N of the grating is cacuated using the reation
N
sin
m
(B) Determination of Waveength of the prominent ine of the Mercury spectrum:

Without disturing the spectrometer repace the sodium vapour amp y Mercury
vapour amp whose waveengths are to e determined. Rotate the teescope and os
erve
the dispersed diffracted spectra ines of Mercury ight of first order and seco
nd order on
either side of centra undispersed direct image are shown in Fig.3. Take reading
on oth
side for the first order diffraction pattern. The ange of diffraction
for the d
ifferent ines
of the first order is measured. The waveength
of each ine is cacuated using
the
reation
sin
m
Nm

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in
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cseitquestions.ogspot
.in
Fig. 6.1. To set the norma incident position
26
in
Fig. 6.2 Diffracted rays from grating
27
in

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Tae. 6.1. Determination of numer of ines per metre of the grating
Waveength of the sodium ine
=5893x10-10 m
LC = 1 ;VSR =VSC x LC
For first order spectrum m = 1
TR = MSR + VSR
Difference between
the readings
Reading of the diffracted image
Left
Right
Ver A
VerB
VerA
Ver B
A1
B1
A2
B2
M
VS
S
R
R
T
R
MS
R
VS
R
T
R
MS
R
VS
R
T
R
MS
R
VS
R
TR
Left
2
Right
2
A1
A2
B1 B2
Mean 2
Angle of
diffraction
N = sin / m lines/m

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in

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Table 6.2. Determination of wavelength of mercury spectral lines
Number of lines per metre of the grating N = -------------LC = 1; VSR =VSC x LC
For first order spectrum m = 1
Colour of
the
spectral
line
(TR = MSR + VSR)
Difference
between the
readings
Reading of the diffracted image
Left
Ver A
A1
Right
VerB
B1
VerA
Ver B
A2
B2
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
Red
Yellow II
Yellow I
Green
Bluish
green
Blue
Violet
Left
2
A1 A2
Right
2
B1 B2
Mean
2
Angle of
diffraction
=
sin /Nm
A

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in

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RESULT:
The number of lines in the given grating is=--------------lines/m
o
The wavelength of violet colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of Blue colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of Orange colour is=------------ A
o
The wavelength of red color is=------------ A
VIVA-QUESTION:
1. What is diffraction grating? How it is constructed? How does it produce
diffraction?
2. What are requisites of a good grating?
3. Mention the different types of a grating which one is better.
4. What is grating element?
5. What is dispersive power of grating?

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7. LEESS DISC THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A BAD
CONDUCTOR
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Lees disc apparatus, bad conductors, stop-clock, thermometers, screw gauge,
vernier calipers, steam boiler
FORMULA
Thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
MSd r 2h
K
r
Symbol
M
2
2r
2h
1
d
1
2
dt
2
-1
Explanation
Mass of the metallic disc
S
(d/dt)2
-1
W m K
Specific heat capacity of the material of the disc
Rate of cooling at 2
Unit
kg
J kg-1 K-1
0
r
Radius of metallic disc
C/s
meter
h
Thickness of metallic disc
meter
d
Thickness of bad conductor
meter
1
Steady temperature of a steam chamber
2
Steady temperature of the metallic disc
C
0C
0
THEORY
The thickness of the bad conductor say card board and thickness of the metallic
disc are determined using a screw gauge. The radius of the metallic disc is foun
d using a
vernier caliper. The mass of a metallic disc is also found using a common balanc
e. The
readings are tabulated.
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cseituestions.blogspot.in
The whole Lees disc apparatus is suspended from a stand as shown in the figure.
The given bad conductor is placed in between the metallic disc and the steam cha
mber.
Two thermometers T1 and T2 are inserted into the respective holes.
Steam from the steam boiler is passed into the steam chamber until the
temperature of the steam chamber and the metallic disc are stead. The Steady tem
perature
(1) of the steam chamber and (2) of the metallic disc recorded by the thermometers
are
noted.
Now the bad conductor is removed and the steam chamber is placed in direct
contact with the metallic disc. The temperature of the disc rapidly rises when t
he
temperature of the disc rises about 10 C above 2 C, the steam chamber is carefully
removed after cutting of the steam supply.
When the temperature of the disc reaches 10 C above the steady temperature of
the disc i.e. (2+ 10) C, stop clock is started. Time for every one degree Celsius f
all of
temperature is noted until the metallic disc attains a temperature (2 - 10) C.

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in

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Fig. 7.1. Lees disc arrangement
GRAPH
Fig. 7.2. Cooling Curve
A graph is drawn taking time along the x-axis and temperature along the y-axis.
The cooling curve is obtained .To obtain the rate of the cooling (d/dt) 2
From this graph, a triangle is drawn by taking 1 C above and 1 C below the steady
temperature 2. Then the slope AB / BC gives the rate of cooling at (d/dt) 2
From these readings and using the given formula thermal conductivity of the
given bad conductor is calculated.

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in

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Table 7.1. To find radius of the metallic disc (r) using Vernier Caliper
Least count = 0.01cm
S.No.
MSR
VSC
VSR =(VSCXLC)
Observed reading =MSR +
cm
div.
cm
VSR
cm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
-2
Mean (r) = .. x 10 m
Table 7.2. To find thickness of the bad conductor (d) using Screw gauge
Least count = 0.01mm
S.No. PSR HSC
mm div.
1.
Zero error = div
Zero correction = mm
Observed Reading = PSR +
Correct reading = OR
(HSCXLC) mm
ZC mm
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (t) = .. x 10
-3
m
Table 7.3. To find thickness of the metallic disc (h) using Screw gauge
Least count = 0.01mm
S.No.
PSR
mm
HSC
div.
Zero error = div

Zero correction = mm
Observed Reading = PSR
+(HSCXLC) mm
Correct reading = OR
ZC mm
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (h) = .. x 10
-3
m

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34
in

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Table 7.4. Determine the rate of cooling of metallic disc (d/dt) 2
S.No.
Temperature ()
C
Time (t)
Second
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
RESULT
-1 -1
Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor = ---------- Wm K
VIVA-QUESTION
1. Define thermal conductivity.
2. Can this method be used for good conductors?
3. Is there any reason to take the specimen in the form of a disc?
4. Does the value of thermal conductivity depend on the dimension of the specime
n?
5. What are conduction, conviction and radiations?

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in

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8. ULTRSONIC INTERFEROMETER
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the velocity of ultrasonic waves in a given liuid and the
compressibility of the liuid
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Ultrasonic interferometer (High freuency generator, measuring cell)
experimental liuid etc.
FORMULA
Velocity of the ultrasonic wave in liuid v
Compressibility of the liuid
Symbol
1
v
2
2df
-1
(m/s )
x
2 -1
(m N )
Explanation
Unit
d
distance moved by the micrometer
meter
f
Freuency of the ultrasonic wave
Hertz
x
Number of maxima readings of anode current
density of the given liuid
m/s
V
Velocity of the given liuid
Kg/m
---1
3
PROCEDURE:
The measuring cell which is an especially double walled cell for maintaining the
temperature of the liuid constant during the experiment is filled up with given
liuid.
The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high freuency gen
erator
through a coaxial cable provided with the instrument. The micrometer screw is in
itially
set as 25 mm. The generator is switched on to excite the uartz crystal at its f
reuency to
generate ultrasonic waves in the liuid. This has to be done only after filling
the liuid in
the measuring cell and not earlier. The generator consists of two knobs namely g
ain and
adj knobs, which for sensitivity regulation for greater deflection and for initi
al adjustment
of micrometer at zero initially. The adj knob is adjusted slightly to adjust the
position of
the needle on the ammeter which is used to notice the number of maximum deflecti
ons.
The gain knob is rotated and set it to show maximum reading in the ammeter. The

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36
in

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micrometer screw is adjusted which is on the top of the measuring cell which can
lower
or raise the reflector in the liuid in the measuring cell through a known dista
nce, to
move downwards.
Fig. 8. Ultrasonic Interferometer
The ammeter readings vary from maximum to minimum and from minimum to
maximum value and in between these maxima to minima there occur extra peaks due
to a
number of reasons, but they do not affect the value of /2. The rotation of the mi
crometer
screw is continued in the same direction as before. The micrometer reading for t
he first
maximum is noted down and then for successive maxima shown by the interferometer
and 20 such readings are recorded. The distance moved by the micrometer screw fo
r x
maxima is found and its mean value is found. The velocity of the ultrasonic wave
s in the
liuid medium using the relation v = 2df/x. The density of the liuid if given i
s noted, if
not given it standard value from the table has to be noted down. Then by substit
uting all
the values in the formula the compressibility of the given liuid can also be fo
und.

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37
in

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Table 8.1. Determination of the distance moved by the micrometer screw
LC = 0.01 mm
TR = PSR +(HSC xLC)
Order of the
maxima
Unit
n
n+3
n+6
n+9
n+12
Pitch Scale
Reading
(PSR)
mm
x = ---------Head Scale
Coincidence
(HSC)
div
Mean
Micrometer
Reading
(TR)
mm
Distance moved by
the micrometer
screw (d)
Mm
d = -------------------mm
RESULT:
The velocity of the ultrasonic waves in liuid v = ..ms
-1
2 -1
The compressibility of the ultrasonic waves in liuid
VIVA QUESTIONS
1.
What are ultrasonic waves?
2.
Define piezo eectric effect.
3.
= ..m N
Define an acoustic grating.

4.
Expain inverse piezo eectric effect.
5.
Are utrasonic waves eectro-magnetic waves? Give proper reasons.

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in

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9. BAND GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the and gap of a semiconductor.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Power suppy, Votmeter, Micro ammeter, Diode, Thermometer, Oi, Beaker.
FORMULA:
The width of the foridden energy gap
Eg = 0.198 x Sope
PROCEDURE
Make the circuit connections is made as shown in the figure. Note that the given
semiconductor (Ge or Si diode) whose and gap is to e determined must e connec
ted to
the circuit through ong wires sodered at its terminas such that it is reverse
iased. Take
oi or water in the eaker and immerse the reverse iased diode with eads in th
e iquid
inside the eaker. Insert the thermometer in the eaker such that its mercury u
is just
at the height of the diode.
Heat the iquid upto 70 C using the heating system. Switch off the heating system
and aow the iquid to coo on its own. Switch on the reguated power suppy an
d y
adjusting its kno set the current 0.5 V through the diode. When the temperature
of the
diode in the iquid is 60 C, note the current I fowing through the diode as shown
in the
microammeter.
As the temperature of the diode fas, the current fowing through it decreases.
Note the current as shown y the micro ammeter for every one degree Cesius fa
of the
temperature of the iquid unti it fas to 50 C.

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39
in

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Graph
Fig.9.1. Variation of current with inverse temp. in a reverse iased pn-diode
3
Draw graph with 10 / T aong x- axis and og I aong y-axis. The graph wi e a
3
straight ine. Determine the sope of the og I versus 10 / T from the graph. Su
stituting
the vaue of the sope and the Botzmanns constant in the formula, calculate the
band
gap (Eg) of the semiconductor.
DIAGRAM

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Fig. 9.2. Experimental set up for band gap determination
40
in

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Table 9 Determination of band gap
0 C = 273 K
S.No.
Temperature in
Celsius
Temperature in
Kelvin
Current in
microampere I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
RESULT:
Band gap of a semiconductor = . eV
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are semiconductors and how can you classify them?
2. Define Fermi level.
3. Define band gap or forbidden energy gap in a semiconductor material.
4. Define extrinsic semiconductor and give examples.
5. Define intrinsic or pure semiconductor and give examples.
6. Can water be used in place of oil for band gap determination?
7. How does the band gap change with temperature in semiconductors?
Log
I
3
10 /
T

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41
in

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10. (a) PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION BY LASER
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the size of the micro particle using laser.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Laser source, Fine micro particles of nearly uniform size (Lycopodium powder),
Glass plate, White screen, Stands, Meter Scale
THEORY:
When laser is passed through a glass plate spread with fine micro particles, the
beam
gets diffracted by the particles and circular rings are obtained on the screen.
By
measuring the radii of the rings and the distance between the glass plate and th
e screen,
the size of the particle can be determined.
FORMULA:
n X
2
2
Size of the microparticle (diameter) = 2d
n
X
2
n
Symbol
Explanation
n
Order of diffraction
Wavelength of the laser source

Xn
Distance of the n order ring from the central spot of
the diffraction pattern
Distance between the glass plate and the screen
l
th
Unit
--meter
meter
meter
PROCEDURE:
Sprinkle a thin uniform layer of lycopodium powder on a glass plate. Mount the
screen and glass plate upright. The light from laser source transmitted through
the layer
of lycopodium in the glass plate is adjusted to form a diffracted image in the c
entre of the
screen. Diffracted circular fringes of laser co lour will e visible on the scree
n.

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42
in

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After adjusting the distance of the glass plate from the screen so that the firs
t ring
radius (x1) and second ring radius (x2) are measured from the central spot. Note
the
distance (l) between screen and plate. Repeat the experiment radius of the first
and
second rings after adjusting the distance between screen and plate. Calculate th
e value of
the diameter of the particle taking
value from the previous experiment.
DIAGRAM :
Glass Plate with fine particles
Screen
LASER
l
Fig.10.1.Particle size determination by Laser
Table 10.1. Determination of size of the micro particle
= 10
Distance
Order of
Distance
2
S.No.
Unit
between the
diffractio
between the
glass plate
and the
screen ( )
-2
10 m
n
(n)
central spot
th
and the n
fringe
-2
10 m
-4
10 M
10
-4
m
X 2n
2
Xn
-10
2
Particle size
2
2d
2
Xn
m
Xn
10
-2
1
2
3
1
2
3
Mean 2d = 10
-10
m
m
10
-10
m
2

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-6
= 10
43
in
m

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CALCULATION:
1. Xn = x1
1
..
10 9
2d
2
X
X2
2
1
1
RESULT:
The average size of the micro particle measured using laser 2d = . m.
VIVA VOCA QUESTIONS:
1. How will you determine the size of the particle using laser?
2. What type of laser you use for the experiment? What is its wavelength?
3. What will you do to get clear diffraction pattern on the screen?
4. What is the difference between the diffraction by powder particle and grating
?
5. Why is the diffraction pattern produced not in the form of concentric rings?
6. How will you measure the radii of rings?
7. What will happen to the order of spectrum, if the distance between the partic
le and
screen is increased?
8. What will happen to the order of spectrum, if particle size is decreased?

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in

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10. (b) LASER PARAMETERS
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the wavelength of the laser of the given laser source of light and
angle of divergence using grating.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Laser source, Laser Grating with stand (2500 lines per inch), Screen, Scale
THEORY:
When laser is incident normally on a plane diffraction grating, diffraction take
s
th
place. The m order maxima of the wavelength , will be formed in a direction
d sin
m
Where d is the distance between two lines in the grating.
FORMULA:
Wavelength of the laser
sin
Nm
Symbol
metre
Explanation
Unit
N
Number of rulings in the grating
lines/meter
m
Order of spectrum
No unit
Angle of diffraction
Degree
r1
Diameter of the beam spot at a distance D1
if
cm
r2
Diameter of the beam spot at a distance D2
cm

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45
in

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DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. To find the number of lines per meter in the grating
Grating
x1
Laser
source
Laser
x
l
Fig. 10.2. Laser Grating
The initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The direct ray is coincide
d
with the vertical crosswire and the telescope is fixed. Now the vernier table is
released
and both the verniers are made to coincide with 0 and 180 and the vernier table is
fixed.
The telescope is released and moved towards the right side through 90 and fixed.
The
grating is mounted on the grating table and rotated to the reflected image and c
oincided
with vertical crosswire. Now the vernier table is rotated 45 towards collimator a
nd
grating will become perpendicular to the light rays. Telescope is moved to left
and right
and the perpendicular order ray is coincided and the readings are noted in both
the scales.
The number of lines per unit length of the grating can be calculated as follows
N
sin
m
Where,
-10
m)
is the wavelength of sodium light (5893 10

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46
in

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Table 10.2. To find the number of lines per unit length in the grating
Least count = 1
Order of diffraction (m) = 1
Vernier A
Ray
M.S.R
V.S.C
degree
div
Vernier B
T.R
M.S.R
V.S.C
degree
Degree
div
T.R
degree
Left side
R1
S1
Right side
R2
S2
2
= R 1- R 2
=
= S1- S2
=
Mean
2. To find the wave length of the laser light
Fig. 10.2 (a). Angle of divergence determination

The laser source is focused on the screen. The grating is made exactly
perpendicular to the light rays. If we use a 1, 00, 00 lines per meter on the gr
ating, nearly
15 orders of diffracted images are formed. The diffracted images can be viewed o
n the
screen. The image has central maxima and several orders in the right and left of
the
central maxima. The distance(x1) of the left side first order dot is measured fr
om the
central maxima and is noted down. Similarly the distance (x2) of the first order
dot on the
right from the central maxima is also measured. All the distances of the dots ar
e
measured and noted down in the tabular column.

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in

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Table 10.2 (a) Determination of wavelength of laser
-2
l10 m
N =
Observation I
Order
of
diffraction
unit
Distance of the
centre of the spot
from the central
maxima
Left
Right
(x1)
(x2)
-2
-2
10 m 10 m
x=
x1
2
x2
tan
x
tan
1
Wavelength
sin
1
Nm
x
-2
10 m
m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean
-10
1 = .. m
= ............10
= ..
m
CALCULATION:
The wavelength of the given source of light is
sin
1
Nm
sin
sin ..........
1
Nm
m
1
To find the angle of divergence ( ):
Angle of divergence gives the degree of directionality of the laser beam. As
shown in fig the laser source and a stand are kept at some distance say d1 and the
diameter of the spot r1 is measured. By varying the Distance to d2, the diameter of
the spot r2 is measured. By substituting these values in the given formula, the an
gle of
divergence can be calculated. The experiment is repeated for various values of d
1 and d2

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and the mean angle of divergence is determined.
48
in

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Table 10.2. (b) To find the angle of divergence
S.No.
r1
r2
d1
d2
m
m
m
m
Angle of divergence
r -r
d 2
d1
degrees
2
1
RESULT:
(i) The wavelength of the laser
= ..
(ii) The angle of divergence = .
PRECAUTIONS:
The experiment should be done in a dark room.
The grating should have a less number of lines.
Direct view of the laser should be avoided.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What does the term LASER stands for?
2. What is the principle of laser?
3. What are the properties of laser?
4. What are the different types of lasers available? Which one is used in this e
xperiment?
5. What is stimulated emission?
6. Explain the basic mechanism of lasing action.
7. Mention a few applications of laser.
8. Distinguish between laser source and convention light sources.
9. What is an optical cavity?
10. What is population inversion? Explain why it is easier to achieve it in a fo
ur
level laser compared to that in a three level laser?
11. What is the wavelength of laser light from (a) Ruby laser, (b) He-Ne laser,
and
(c) CO2 laser?

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in

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12. What are the precautions to be taken while doing experiments with laser?
13. Will laser undergo diffraction through ordinary grating? Explain.
14. What is the difference between the phenomena that occur when light passes th
rough
the prism and the grating?
15. What type of adjustments you will do to get clear diffraction pattern, if th
e
screen used in the experiments is (a) white wall (b) white chart pasted on the w
all,
and (c) graduated scale?
16. What will the impact on the diffraction pattern on the screen, if the number
rulings
per meter on the grating are changed?
17. What are central maximum and maxima?
18. Are the spectra of different orders of the same intensity?
19. What is the difference between laser grating and spectrometer grating?
20. Whether laser beam used in this experiment is a convergent beam (or) diverge
nt
beam? Give reasons.
21. Compare the angle of divergence for an ordinary beam with a laser beam.

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10. (c) NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE
ANGLE OF AN OPTICAL FIBRE
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical fi
bre.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Optical fiber cable, Laser source, Numerical aperture, White screen, with
concentric circles, scale.
THEORY:
Numerical aperture is a basic parameter of an optical fiber. It is a measure of
light
gathering power or degree of openness of the fiber. It is the product of the ref
ractive
index of the incident medium and the sine of the maximum ray angle.
FORMULAE:
(i) Numerical aperture of the optical fiber NA=
w
4l 2 +w 2
Where w diameter of the spot (m)
l - Distance of the screen from fiber end (m)
(i i) Acceptance angle a
2 sin
1
NA
(unit: degree)
PROCEDURE:
The numerical aperture jig consists of an iron or plastic stand with a moving
screen. In this screen, a number of concentric rings of varying diameter are pre
sent. In
front of it, a stand with a circular slit in the centre is provided which is con
nected to the
laser light source through the optical fiber cable. By moving the screen back an
d forth the
laser light from the circular slit is made to fall exactly on the circles with d
ifferent
diameters. The distance l between the circular slit in the jig and screen for vari
ous
circular diameters are noted on a moving scale situated at the bottom of the jig
. Thus by
knowing the values of l and w, the value of the numerical aperture is calculated
. The
maximum divergent angle (the acceptance angle) is also determined.

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in

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DIAGRAM:
Laser source
Optical fiber cable
Numerical aperture jig
Fig: Experimental arrangement of fiber cable with source
Laser
Fiber
1
Fig. 10.3. Determination of Numerical Aperture
Table 10.3. Determination of Numerical Aperture and Acceptance angle
S.No
Diameter of the
circle / spot (w)
Distance
between the
fiber end and
Numerical
aperture
w
NA=
4l 2 +w 2
screen (l)
10
Unit
m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
-3
10
m
-2
Acceptance angle
a 2 sin 1 NA
Degree

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in

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RESULT:
1. The numerical aperture of the given optical fiber NA = No unit
2. The acceptance angle of the given optical fiber a = Degree
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The optical fiber cables should not be bent and twisted to the higher
extent.
2. Avoid direct viewing of laser light
3. The knob in the power meter must be handled properly.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is an optical fiber? Explain briefly its structure.
2. What are the characteristics of optic fiber?
3. What is the need for a jacket in a optical fiber?
4. Why the relative index of cladding must always be higher than that of core?
5. Why light from a laser source and not from a LED is preferred for an
optical fiber?
6. How does an optical fiber work?
7. What is the principle used in optical fiber?
8. What is attenuation?
9. What are the reasons for the loss in optical fiber?
10. What are the different types of optical fibers?
11. Mention a few applications of optical fiber?
12. What are the advantages of optical communications over the other modes
of communications?
13. Define critical angle.
14. Define acceptance angle.
15. On what factors does the critical angle of incidence of core cladding
interface depend?
16. Define numerical aperture.
17. On what factors does the numerical aperture depend?
18. What is the mathematical expression for numerical aperture?

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11. YOUNGS MODULUS BY UNIFORM BENDING
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM:
To determine the youngs modulus of the material of the beam by uniform
bending method.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A uniform rectangular beam, two equal knife edges, two weight hanger with
slotted weight, vernier microscope, pin, screw gauge, vernier caliper.
FORMULA:
E
3Mga
2bd
Symbol
3
2
y
Nm-2
Explanation
Unit
E
M
Youngs modulus of the material of the beam
Load producing the depression
Nm-2
g
ms
l
Length of the beam between the two knife edges
a
distance between the point of application of load and
nearest knife edge
Kg
-2
m
m
b
Breadth of the beam
m
d
Thickness of the beam
m
y
Elevation produced for a load
m
PROCEDURE
The given beam is symmetrically supported on two knife edges. Two
weight hangers are suspended at equal distance from the knife edges. A pin is fi
xed
vertically at C by some wax. The length of the beam (l) between the knife edges
is set for
60 cm. A traveling microscope is focused on the tip of the pin such that the hor
izontal
cross wire coincides with the tip of the pin. The reading in the vertical traver
se scale is
noted for dead load. In equal steps of m Kg added to the weight hangers; the

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corresponding readings for loading are noted. Similarly readings are noted while
54
in

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unloading. The breadth and the thickness of the beam are measured with a vernier
calipers and screw gauge respectively. From the data Youngs modulus of the beam i
s
calculated.
Table 11.1 To find the depression (y)
LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR + (VSC * LC)
Traveling Microscope Reading
Load
S.No.
-3
x 10 kg
1.
W
2.
W+50
3.
W+100
4.
W+150
5.
W+200
6.
W+250
7.
W+300
Increasing load
MSR
cm
VSC
div
Elevation y
Decreasing load
TR
cm
MSR
cm
VSCd
iv
Mean
for M kg
-2
cm
TR
cm
x10 m
Mean (y) =
Table 11.2. To find the breadth of the beam using vernier caliper
LC = 0.01cm
OR = MSR + (VSC x LC)
S.No.
MSR
VSC
VSR =(VSCXLC)
OR =MSR + VSR
cm
div.
cm
x10 m
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean (b) =
-2

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Table 11.3. To find the thickness of the beam using Screw gauge
LC = 0.01 mm
S.No.
ZE =
-3
ZC =
----- div
(ZE x LC) =------ x 10 m
PSR
HSC
-3
x 10 m
Div
OR =
PSR+ (HSC x LC)
-3
x 10 m
CR = OR
-3
ZC
x 10 m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean=
CALCULATION:
Load applied at mid point
-3
m=
-------------- x10 kg.
g =-------------- ms-2.
Acceleration due to gravity Breadth of
the beam Thickness of the beam
Distance between the points of application of load
and nearest knife edge
b = -------------- x10
-2
-3
d = ------------- x10
Length of the beam between the knife edges

m
-2
a= ---------------- x10
l = -------------- x 10
Youngs modulus of the beam E
3Mga
2bd3 y
2
Nm-2
RESULT:
-2
Youngs modulus of the material of the given beam E==----------------- Nm
m
-2
m
m
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in

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is uniform bending?
2. Why should the beam be placed symmetrically on two knife edges?
3. How will you bring the beam to the elastic mode?
4. How should the adding of weights to the weight hangers on the beam be done?
5. Why should the measurement of thickness of the beam be done very accurately?

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in

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12. CAREY-FOSTERS BRIDGE
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the specific resistance of the material of the given wire.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Carey foster bridge, coil of the given wire, Lechlanche cell (Bt), Key, Two equa
l
resistances P & Q, Galvanometer, high resistance, Jockey, Known resistance box (
R).
FORMULA
1. Resistance of the given coil of wire X
R
2. Specific resistance of the given coil of wire
Symbol
r Ohm
2 b
X r2
ohm-metre
Explanation
Unit
rb
Resistance per meter length of the bridge wire
X
Unknown resistance
ohm
meter
R
Balancing lengths
Known value of resistance in the resistance box
r
Radius of the given coil of wire
meter
l
Length of the given coil of wire
meter
la , lb , l1 & l2
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig. 12. CAREY-FOSTERS BRIDGE
ohm/meter
meter

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in

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Table 12.1. Determination of unknown resistance X
Resistance
Balancing length AJ(cm)
introduced in the
With R in the
With R in the
box R
ohm
left gap(l1)
right gap(l2)
S.No.
X
ohm
1
2
b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table12.2. To find the radius of the given coil of wire.
LC = 0.01 mm
ZE =
-3
ZC =
PSR
S.No.
HSC
-3
x 10 m
----div
(ZE x LC) =------ x 10 m
Div
OR =
PSR+ (HSC x LC)
-3
x 10 m
CR = OR
-3
ZC
x 10 m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean(diameter d) =
-3
Radius of the wire = d/2 = --------x 10 m
THEORY
The Carey -Foster Bridge consist of a one meter wire (AB) of uniform resistance
stretched on a wooden board. Carey Foster Bridge is similar to that of a metre bri
dge,
with a difference of having four gaps, in which proper resistances can be insert
ed as
shown in the figure.

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in

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The total circuit is divided into two parts viz., primary and secondary circuit.
In
the primary circuit the lechlanche cell (Bt) and key (K) is connected. In the se
condary
circuit the galvanometer (G), high resistance (HR) and Jockey (J) is connected i
n series.
PROCEDURE
To find the unknown resistance(X) and specific resistance ( ).
The primary and the secondary circuits are connected as shown in the figure. The
equal resistances P and Q are included in the two inner gaps (1 & 2). Resistance
box R is
included in the left gap 3 and unknown resistance X is included in the right gap
4.Known
value of resistances R are included (say 0.2, 0.3 ohms etc.,) and the balancing
length (AJ
= l1) is measured in each case and tabulated.
The position of R and X is interchanged. The experiment is repeated for the same
values of R (say 0.2, 0.3 ohms etc.,) and the balancing length (AJ = l2) is meas
ured and
tabulated.
In order to determine the resistance (r b) per metre length of the bridge wire,
a
thick copper strip of zero resistance is placed in the left gap (3) and standard
resistance of
0.1 ohms is placed at right gap (4) and balancing length (AJ = la) is noted and
tabulated.
Now by placing the copper strip at the right gap (4) and 0.1 ohms at the left ga
p (3), the
balancing length (AJ= lb) is noted and tabulated.
Substituting the values of la and lb in the given formula, the value of rb is
calculated. By substituting this value in the given formula, the unknown resista
nce (X) of
the given coil of wire is calculated.
Specific resistance
The radius of the given coil of wire(r) is found using screw gauge and the lengt
h
of the wire (l) is measured. By substituting the value for X, r and l in the giv
en formula ,
the specific resistance of the given coil of wire can be determined.
CALCULATION
Radius of the given coil of wire r =----------------Length of the given coil of
wire l= ---------------Specific resistance of the given coil of wire
X
r2
metre
metre
ohm-metre

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60
in
RESULT
The unknown resistance of the given coil of wire(X) =-------ohms
Specific resistance of the given coil of wire
= ------------ ohm-metre
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Carey-Foster Bridge?
2. What is meant by specific resistance?
3. What is meant by balancing length?
4. What is meant by Wheatstone network?
5. What is the use of interchanging the values of R and X in the circuit?
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in

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13. B-H CURVE USING CRO
Expt. No.
Date:
AIM
To determine the hysteresis loss in the transformer core using B-H curve unit.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
B-H curve unit, Cathode ray Oscilloscope (CRO), Patch cords
FORMULA
N1
R2
N
R
Hysteresis loss
v
V
joule
H
-1
-3
cycle m
Symbol
Explanation
Area of the loop
Unit
N1
Number of turns in the primary coil
--N2
Number of turns in the secondary coil
--V
Volume of the core
m
Sv
Vertical sensitivity of CRO
Vm-1
SH
Horizontal sensitivity of CRO
Vm-1
Resistances in the circuit
Capacitance of the capacitor in the circuit
ohm
Farad
R1 & R2
C
3
PROCEDURE
The experimental arrangement is as shown in the figure.
One of the specimens used in the unit is made using transformer stampings. There
are two winding on the specimen (primary and secondary). The primary is fed to l
ow A.C
voltage (50 Hz). This produces a magnetic field H in the specimen. The voltage a
cross R 1
(resistance connected in series with primary) is proportional to the magnetic fi
eld.
It is given to the input in the CRO. The A.C magnetic field induces a voltage in
the
secondary coil. The voltage induced is proportional to dB/dt.

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in

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This voltage is applied to passive integration circuit. The output of the integr
ator is
proportional to B and fed to the vertical input of the C.R.O
As a result of the application of voltage proportional to H the horizontal axis
and a
voltage proportional to B is the vertical axis, the loop is formed as shown in f
igure. A
measurement of the area of the loop leads to the evaluation of the energy loss i
n the
specimen.
SPECIMEN
Fig. 13.1. Top view of the B-H Curve unit
The top view of the unit is shown in the figure. There are 12 terminals on the p
anel,
six patch cords are supplied with the kit.
The value of R1 can be selected by connecting terminal D to A,B or C(A-D=50
ohm); B-D=150 ohm; C-D=50 ohm)

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in

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A is connected to D. The primary terminals of the specimen is connected to p,p
secondary to s,s terminals. The CRO is calibrated as per the instructions given
in the
Instruction manual of the CRO. CRO is adjusted to work on the external mode (the
time
base is switched off). The horizontal and vertical position controls are adjuste
d such that
the spot is at the centre of the CRO screen.
The terminal marked GND is connected to the ground of the CRO. The H is
connected to the Horizontal input of the CRO. The terminals V are connected to t
he
vertical input of the CRO. The power supply of the unit is switched on. The hyst
eresis loop
is formed. The horizontal and vertical gains are adjusted such that the loop occ
upies
maximum area on the screen of the CRO. Once this adjustment is made, the gain co
ntrols
should not be disturbed. The loop is traced on a translucent graph paper. The ar
ea of the
loop is estimated.
The connections from CRO are removed without disturbing the horizontal and
vertical gain controls. The vertical sensitivity of the CRO is determined by app
lying a
known A.C. voltage say 1 volt (peak to peak).
-2
If the spot deflects by x cms for 1 volt, the vertical sensitivity is 1/(x 10 ) (v
olt/m).
Let it be SV. The horizontal sensitivity of CRO is determined by applying a know
n A.C
voltage say 1 volt (peak to peak). Let the horizontal sensitivity be S H (volt/m
).
The hysteresis loss is calculated by using the given formula.
Calculation of the volume of the transformer core
lo outer length of the core
bo outer breadth of the core
li inner length of the core bi
inner breadth of the core t
Thickness of the core
V
o bo
i bi
t
Calculation of area of the loop from (transluscent graph sheet)
2
There are 100 small squares in 1cm area of the graph
2
1 cm = area of 100 small square
2
2
2
Area of 1 small square (1mm ) = 1/100 cm =0.01 cm

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2
Area of the loop= number of small square
64
in
0.01 cm
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in
Fig. 13.2. Hysteresis loop
Observatio
ns
Number of
turns in the
primary N1=
Number of
turns in the
secondary
N 2=
Resistance
R1=
Resistance
R2=
Capacitance
of the
capacitor
Vertical
sensitivity
of CRO
Horizontal
sensitivity
of CRO
C=
SV=
SH=
CALCULATION
A
r
e
a
o
f
t
h
e
2
m
C
v
V
H
l
o
o
p
=
(
f
r
o
m
t
h
e
g
r
a
p
h
)
N
Hysteresis loss
1
N2
R
2
Area of the loop
R1
RESULT
-1 -3
Energy loss=.. joules cycle m
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in

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VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Explain the significance of the hysteresis loop.
2. What is meant by cycle of magnetization?
3. What is meant by retentivity and coercivity?
4. What is the use of finding the area of the loop?
5. Give any two ferro-magnetic materials used in finding the energy losses?

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66
in

First Sem Ge6163 Physics Lab Manual in Word or Text With Dias

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FIRST SEMESTER

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Thickness of the beam (meter scale)

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Density of the liquid

Volume of the liquid collected

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Volume of the liquid

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Fo fist co lou

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the thin wire by forming interference fringes usin

vapour lamp, two optically plane rectangular

Distance etween the specimen wire and the edge of

thin wire whose thickness to e determined is introduced. This arrangement is p

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(B) Determination of Waveength of the prominent ine of the Mercury spectrum:

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